Fluid Mechanics — Combined Problems (Unit II & IV)

Problem 1: Venturi Meter & Reynolds Number (Detailed Solution)

Given:
• Inlet diameter, D■ = 200 mm = 0.200 m
• Throat diameter, D■ = 100 mm = 0.100 m
• Pressure difference ∆P = 50 kPa = 50,000 Pa
• Coefficient of discharge, C_d = 0.98
• Density of water, ρ = 1000 kg/m³
• Dynamic viscosity, µ = 1 × 10■³ N·s/m²
Objective: 1) Find discharge Q through the pipe. 2) Determine flow regime using Reynolds number.

Step 1 — Area of inlet and throat

Area, a = πD²/4
a■ = π(0.200)²/4 = π(0.0400)/4 = π × 0.01 = 0.0314159 m²
a■ = π(0.100)²/4 = π(0.0100)/4 = π × 0.0025 = 0.00785398 m²
Step 2 — Area ratio
a■/a■ = 0.00785398 / 0.0314159 = 0.25
Step 3 — Discharge formula for Venturi meter
For a Venturi meter: Q = C_d · a■ · sqrt[ 2∆P / (ρ (1 - (a■/a■)²) ) ]
Substitute values:
Q = 0.98 × 0.00785398 × sqrt( 2 × 50000 / (1000 × (1 - 0.25²)) )
Compute denominator term: 1 - (0.25)² = 1 - 0.0625 = 0.9375
Inside sqrt: (2 × 50000) / (1000 × 0.9375) = 100000 / 937.5 = 106.6666667
sqrt(...) = 10.329... m/s
Q = 0.98 × 0.00785398 × 10.329 = 0.07944 m³/s (rounded to 5 significant digits)
Result: Q = 0.07944 m³/s
Step 4 — Velocity at inlet
V■ = Q / a■ = 0.07944 / 0.0314159 = 2.528 m/s
Step 5 — Reynolds number based on inlet diameter
Re = ρ V■ D■ / µ = 1000 × 2.528 × 0.200 / (1×10■³) = 505,600
Rounded: Re ≈ 5.056 × 10■
Conclusion: Re >> 4000, so the flow is turbulent.
Problem 2: Dimensional Analysis (Buckingham π) — Detailed Solution
Given: Drag force F on a sphere depends on diameter D, velocity V, density ρ, dynamic viscosity µ.
Variables: F (MLT■²), D (L), V (LT■¹), ρ (ML■3), µ (M L■1 T■1).
Number of variables = 5, fundamental dimensions = 3 (M, L, T). Number of π terms = 5 - 3 = 2.
Choose repeating variables: D, V, ρ (they cover M, L, T collectively).
Form π■ including F:
Assume π■ = F · D^a · V^b · ρ^c, make it dimensionless.
Dimensions: [F] = M L T■2. Multiply by D^a (L^a), V^b (L^b T■b), ρ^c (M^c L■3c).
Total dimensions = M^(1+c) · L^(1 + a + b - 3c) · T^(-2 - b). For dimensionless: exponents = 0.
So: 1 + c = 0 → c = -1 ; -2 - b = 0 → b = -2 ; 1 + a + b - 3c = 0 → 1 + a -2 -3(-1) = 0 → a -1 +3 =0 → a +2 =0 → a = -2
Thus π■ = F · D^(-2) · V^(-2) · ρ^(-1) = F / (ρ V² D²).
Form π■ including µ:
Assume π■ = µ · D^a · V^b · ρ^c. Dimensions of µ = M L■1 T■1.
Total dims: M^(1+c) · L^(-1 + a + b -3c) · T^(-1 - b). Set exponents = 0.
1 + c = 0 → c = -1 ; -1 - b = 0 → b = -1 ; -1 + a + b - 3c =0 → -1 + a -1 -3(-1) = 0 → a -2 +3 =0 → a +1 =0 → a = -1
Thus π■ = µ · D^(-1) · V^(-1) · ρ^(-1) = µ / (ρ V D).
Interpretation: π■ = F/(ρ V² D²) is essentially a drag coefficient C_D; π■ is 1/Re (since Re = ρ V D / µ).
Therefore the dimensionless relation can be written as: C_D = f(Re).
Problem 3: Flow Over a Flat Plate & Model Similarity — Detailed Solution
Given: Air at 20°C flows over flat plate of length L = 1.0 m with free stream velocity V = 5.0 m/s.
Density ρ = 1.2 kg/m³, dynamic viscosity µ = 1.8×10■■ N·s/m² (given).
Step 1 — Reynolds number at trailing edge
Re = ρ V L / µ = (1.2 × 5.0 × 1.0) / (1.8×10■■) = 6.0 / 1.8×10■■ = 333,333.3
Re ≈ 3.33 × 10■.
Step 2 — Boundary layer type
For flow over flat plate, transition from laminar to turbulent occurs around Re_x ≈ 3×10■ to 5×10■ depending on
conditions. Here Re = 3.33×10■ → near the transition but commonly treated as laminar for basic problems.
Conclusion: boundary layer is likely laminar (or in transition). For classroom problems we state: Laminar.
Step 3 — Model similarity (dynamic similarity, preserve Re)
Model scale = 1/5. L_m = L_p / 5. For Re similarity: Re_m = Re_p → (ρ V_m L_m)/µ = (ρ V_p L_p)/µ → V_m L_m =
V_p L_p
So V_m = V_p × (L_p / L_m) = V_p × scale factor = 5 × V_p. If prototype V_p = 5 m/s, then model velocity V_m = 5
× 5 = 25 m/s.
(Note: We used V_p as prototype velocity; sometimes user asks for model velocity to match prototype — here
solved accordingly.)
Problem 4: Pitot Tube Reading & Mach Number — Detailed Solution
Given: Difference in mercury column, h = 10 mm = 0.010 m.
ρ_air = 1.15 kg/m³, ρ_Hg = 13,600 kg/m³, g = 9.81 m/s², speed of sound a = 340 m/s.
Step 1 — Pressure difference from manometer
∆P = (ρ_Hg - ρ_air) g h. We subtract air density because manometer measures difference relative to air column.
∆P = (13600 - 1.15) × 9.81 × 0.010 = 13598.85 × 9.81 × 0.010 ≈ 1333.0 Pa.
Step 2 — Velocity from Bernoulli (stagnation - static)
Using dynamic pressure relation from pitot: ∆P = 1/2 ρ_air V² (for incompressible subsonic flows). So V =
sqrt(2∆P/ρ_air).
V = sqrt(2 × 1333.0 / 1.15) = sqrt(2317.3913) = 48.13 m/s.
Rounded: V ≈ 48.1 m/s.
Step 3 — Mach number
M = V / a = 48.13 / 340 = 0.1415 ≈ 0.142.
Conclusion: M < 1 → flow is subsonic. Compressibility effects are negligible at this Mach number for basic analysis.
Problem 5: Ship Model — Froude Number Similarity (Detailed Solution)
Given: Model scale = 1:20, model velocity V_m = 2.0 m/s. Want prototype (ship) velocity V_p assuming Froude
similarity.
Froude number: Fr = V / sqrt(g L). For similarity Fr_m = Fr_p → V_m / sqrt(g L_m) = V_p / sqrt(g L_p).
Because L_p / L_m = scale = 20, we can write V_p = V_m × sqrt(L_p / L_m) = V_m × sqrt(20).
V_p = 2.0 × sqrt(20) = 2.0 × 4.472135955 = 8.94427191 m/s.
Rounded: V_p ≈ 8.94 m/s (≈ 17.4 knots if converted; 1 knot ≈ 0.51444 m/s. Conversion optional).
Problem 6: Sharp-Edged Orifice — Discharge & Reynolds Number (Detailed
Solution)
Given: Orifice diameter d = 40 mm = 0.040 m, head h = 1.5 m, coefficient of discharge C_d = 0.62, ρ = 1000 kg/m³,
µ = 1×10■³ N·s/m².
Step 1 — Theoretical jet velocity (from Bernoulli):
V_theoretical = sqrt(2 g h) = sqrt(2 × 9.81 × 1.5) = sqrt(29.43) = 5.424 m/s.
Step 2 — Area of orifice:
a = π d² / 4 = π × (0.040)² / 4 = π × 0.0016 / 4 = π × 0.0004 = 0.00125664 m².
Step 3 — Actual discharge using C_d:
Q = C_d × a × V_theoretical = 0.62 × 0.00125664 × 5.424 = 0.004223 m³/s.
Result: Q ≈ 0.004223 m³/s.
Step 4 — Velocity at vena contracta (approx):
Often V_actual ≈ Q / a = 0.004223 / 0.00125664 = 3.36 m/s (this also equals C_c × V_theoretical if contraction
coefficient used; here using observed discharge).
Step 5 — Reynolds number based on jet diameter
Re = ρ V d / µ = 1000 × 3.36 × 0.040 / (1×10■³) = 134,400 ≈ 1.344 × 10■.
Conclusion: Re >> 4000 → turbulent jet flow.

Summary of Results
Problem Key Quantities (Detailed)
1 Q = 0.07944 m³/s; V■ = 2.528 m/s; Re = 5.056×10■ (Turbulent)
2 π■ = F/(ρV²D²) (drag coef); π■ = µ/(ρVD) = 1/Re → C_D = f(Re)
3 Re = 3.33×10■ (laminar/near transition); Model V = 25 m/s for Re similarity
4 ∆P = 1333 Pa; V = 48.13 m/s; M = 0.142 (Subsonic)
5 V_prototype = 8.944 m/s (Froude similarity)
6 Q = 0.004223 m³/s; V_actual ≈ 3.36 m/s; Re = 1.344×10■ (Turbulent)