Aim Of Project

To investigate the relation between the ratio of

(i) Output and Input voltage, and
(ii) Number of turns of secondary coil and primary
coil of a self-designed transformer.

Introduction
The transformer is a device used for converting a low
alternating voltage to a high alternating voltage or a high
alternating voltage into a low alternating voltage. It is a
static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive
coupling between its winding circuits. Transformers range
in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer
hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing
hundreds of tons used in power plant substations or to
interconnect portions of the power grid. All operate on the
same basic principles, although the range of designs is
wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need
for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers
are still found in many electronic devices. Transformers
are essential for high-voltage electric power transmission,
which makes long-distance transmission economically
practical.
In a transformer, the electrical energy transfer from one
circuit to another circuit takes place without the use of
moving parts. A transformer which increases the voltages
is called a step-up transformer. A transformer which
decreases the A.C. voltages is called a step-down
transformer.
Transformer is, therefore, an essential piece of apparatus
both for high and low current circuits.

Theory
A transformer consists of two coils, a primary coil (P) with
Np turns and a secondary coil (S) with Ns turns, wound
on a common laminated soft iron core. The coils are
electrically insulated from each other but are magnetically
coupled through the core.
When an alternating voltage source (Vp) is connected to
the primary coil, an alternating current (Ip) flows through
it. This current produces a time-varying magnetic flux (Φ)
in the iron core. Since the core links both windings, this
changing magnetic flux passes through the secondary coil
as well. In a good transformer, whole of magnetic flux
linked with primary coil is also linked with secondary coil,
and then the induced EMF induced in each turn of the
secondary is equal to that induced in each turn of the
primary. Thus, if 𝐸𝑝 and 𝐸𝑠 be the instantaneous values of
the EMF induced in the primary and secondary coil and
Np and Ns are the number of turns of the primary and
secondary coil respectively of the transformer and d𝜑/dt
= rate of change of flux in each turn of the coil at this
instant we have,

where:
N = Number of turns in the coil
Φ = Magnetic flux through the coil
The negative sign represents Lenz's law

Primary coil (Np turns):

𝑑Φ
𝜀𝑝 = −𝑁𝑝
𝑑𝑡
Secondary coil (Ns turns):
𝑑Φ
𝜀𝑠 = −𝑁𝑠
𝑑𝑡
Since both coils share the same flux Φ, dividing the two
equations yields the turns ratio relationship:
𝜀𝑠 𝑁𝑠
=
𝜀𝑝 𝑁𝑝
As 𝐸𝑝 is the instantaneous value of back EMF induced
in primary coil 𝑃1, so the instantaneous current in the
primary coil is due to the difference in the
instantaneous value of the applied and back EMF
further if 𝑅𝑝 is the resistance of 𝑃1 coil, the current 𝐼𝑝
in the primary coil is given by:

𝐼𝑝 = (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑝)⁄𝑅𝑝

𝐸 − 𝐸𝑝 = 𝐼𝑝 × 𝑅𝑝
When the resistance of the primary is small, 𝑅𝑝 and
𝐼𝑝 can be neglected so therefore,

𝐸 − 𝐸𝑝 = 0

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑝
Thus, back EMF = input EMF
Hence equation (3) can be written as
𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑠 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑁𝑠
= = = =k
𝐸𝑝 𝐸 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑁𝑝
Where k is the constant, called transformation ratio.
 Types of Transformers

A step-up transformer is an electrical device that increases

the voltage from the primary winding to the secondary
winding, based on the number of turns in each coil.
Transformer voltage ratio:
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
=
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝
For a step-up transformer,
𝑁𝑠 > 𝑁𝑝 ⇒ 𝑉𝑠 > 𝑉𝑝 ,
i.e., output voltage is higher than input voltage
 𝐼𝑠 𝑁𝑝
=
𝐼𝑝 𝑁𝑠
Since 𝑁𝑠 > 𝑁𝑝 ,
𝐼𝑠 < 𝐼𝑝 ,
meaning the output current is less than the input current.

Step Down Transformer

A step-down transformer is designed to decrease the

voltage from the primary coil (input) to the secondary coil
(output) while increasing the current proportionally,
based on the turns ratio of the coils.

Transformer voltage ratio:

 𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
=
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝
For a step-down transformer,
𝑁𝑠 < 𝑁𝑝 ⇒ 𝑉𝑠 < 𝑉𝑝 ,
i.e., output voltage is less than input voltage.

Transformer current ratio:

𝐼𝑠 𝑁𝑝
=
𝐼𝑝 𝑁𝑠
Since 𝑁𝑠 < 𝑁𝑝 ,
𝐼𝑠 > 𝐼𝑝 ,
meaning the output current is greater than the input
current.
 Efficiency
Transformer efficiency (𝜂) is the ratio of output power to
input power:
𝑃out 𝑃out
𝜂= × 100% = × 100%
𝑃in 𝑃out + losses
Thus, in an ideal transformer, where there are no power
losses, η=1.
Modern transformers achieve efficiencies of 95-99% in large
power applications. Where input power includes output
power plus losses due to copper resistance, core effects, and
other minor factors. Maximizing efficiency involves reducing
these losses through material and design improvements.

 Energy Losses in a Transformer

Transformers experience energy losses during operation
which reduce their efficiency. The losses can be divided into
two main categories:
1. Copper Losses (Winding Losses)
 Caused by the resistance of the primary and
secondary coils.
 When current flows through these coils, heat is
generated due to the electrical resistance.
 They are also called I²R losses and vary with load
current.
 Formula:𝑃Cu = 𝐼𝑝2 𝑅𝑝 + 𝐼𝑠2 𝑅𝑠 where 𝐼𝑝 , 𝐼𝑠 are the
currents in primary and secondary coils, and 𝑅𝑝 , 𝑅𝑠
are their respective resistances.
2. Core Losses (Iron Losses)
o Occur in the transformer core due to alternating
magnetic flux.
o Main components:
 o Hysteresis Loss: Energy lost in reversing the
magnetization of the core material every AC
cycle. Proportional to frequency and magnetic
flux density.
o Eddy Current Loss: Induced circulating currents
in the core cause resistive heating. Reduced by
laminating the core.
 These losses are approximately constant at a given
voltage and frequency, regardless of load.
3. Other Losses
 Stray Losses: Caused by leakage flux inducing
currents in nearby metallic parts like the transformer
tank.
 Dielectric Losses: Minor losses in insulation
materials.
Mechanical Losses: Vibration and noise energy
dissipation
Apparatus required
 Iron rod
 Copper wire
 A.C. Voltmeter
 A.C. Ammeter

Circuit diagram
Procedure Followed
I. Take thick iron rod and cover it with thick paper
and wind a large number of turns of thin Cu wire
on thick paper (say 60). This constitutes primary
coil of the transformer.
II. Cover the primary coil with a sheet of paper and
wound relatively smaller number of turns (20) of
thick copper wire on it. This constitutes the
secondary coil in a step-down transformer.
III. Connect 𝑃1, 𝑃2 to A.C. main and measure the input
voltage and current using A.C. voltmeter and
ammeter respectively.
IV. Similarly, measure the output voltage and current
through 𝑆1 and 𝑆2.
V. Now connect 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 to A.C. mains and again
measure voltage and current through primary and
secondary coil of step-up transformer.
VI. Repeat all the steps for other self-made transformer
by changing the number of turns in primary and
secondary coil.

Observations
1. When the number of turns in the secondary coil
(Ns) was less than the primary coil (Np), the output
 voltage (Vs) was less than the input voltage (Vp),
indicating step-down operation.
2. When Ns = Np, the output voltage (Vs) was equal
to the input voltage (Vp).
3. When Ns > Np, the output voltage (Vs) was greater
than the input voltage (Vp), indicating step-up
operation.
4. The ratio Vs/Vp closely matched the ratio Ns/Np
for all trials, verifying the theoretical relationship.
5. Minor deviations were observed due to flux
leakage, coil resistance, and instrument errors.
6. The transformer consistently behaved as step-down
when Ns < Np and step-up when Ns > Np

Uses of a Transformer
Transformers are widely used to transfer electrical energy
efficiently between circuits at different voltage levels.

 Power Transmission: Step-up transformers increase

voltage for long-distance transmission to reduce
energy loss, while step-down transformers reduce
voltage to safe levels for homes and industries.
 Electronic Devices: They provide suitable AC
voltage for devices such as chargers, TVs, and other
household electronics.
  Isolation: Isolation transformers protect sensitive
equipment and users by preventing direct electrical
connection with the main supply.
 Industrial Applications: Transformers supply the
required voltage for machines like welding units,
electric furnaces, and motors.
 Audio and Signal Systems: Used to match
impedance in audio and communication circuits for
efficient power transfer.

Source Of Error
1. Flux Leakage: Some magnetic flux from the primary
coil may not link with the secondary coil.
2. Coil Resistance: The resistance of the wires can cause
small voltage drops.
3. Connection Issues: Loose or poor connections may
give incorrect readings.
4. Instrument Error: Parallax or uncalibrated voltmeters
can cause slight inaccuracies.
5. Core Losses: Hysteresis and eddy currents in the iron
core reduce the output voltage slightly.
Conclusion
1. The experiment verified the working principle of a
transformer based on mutual induction.
2. The output to input voltage ratio (Vs/Vp) is directly
proportional to the secondary to primary turns ratio
(Ns/Np).
3. The ratio of output voltage (Vs) to input voltage (Vp)
is directly proportional to the ratio of the number of
turns in the secondary (Ns) and primary (Np) coils:
Vs/Vp = Ns/Np.
4. Ns > Np → step-up transformer; Ns < Np → step-
down transformer.
5. Minor deviations were due to flux leakage, coil
resistance, and instrument errors.

Precaution
 Use a low-voltage AC supply to avoid electric shock.
 Ensure tight and neat winding of coils.
 Avoid loose connections.
Bibliography
1. NCERT Physics Textbook for Class 12, Part II,
Chapter: Electromagnetic Induction.
2. H.C. Verma, Concepts of Physics, Vol. II, Chapters on
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Currents.
3. NCERT Lab Manual
4. [Link]
Lesson-4/Transformers
5. [Link]
er-electricity