TypesofSources

Active Elements are the network elements that deliver power to other elements present in an
electric circuit. So, active elements are also called as sources of voltage or current type. We can classify
these sources into the following two categories −

 Independent Sources (ideal sources)

 Dependent Sources (practical sources)
IndependentSources
As the name suggests, independent sources produce fixed values of voltage or current and
these are not dependent on any other parameter. Independent sources can be further divided into the
following two categories −

 Independent Voltage Sources

 Independent Current Sources
Independent Voltage Sources
An independent voltage source produces a constant voltage across its two terminals. This
voltage is independent of the amount of current that is flowing through the two terminals of voltage source.
Independent ideal voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.

The V-I characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source is a constant line, which is always equal to
the source voltage (VS) irrespective of the current value (I). So, the internal resistance of an independent
ideal voltage source is zero Ohms.
Hence, the independent ideal voltage sources do not exist practically, because there will be some internal
resistance.
Independent practical voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.

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There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent practical voltage source from the V-I
characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source. This is due to the voltage drop across the internal
resistance (RS) of an independent practical voltage source.

Independent Current Sources

An independent current source produces a constant current. This current is independent of
the voltage across its two terminals. Independent ideal current source and its V-I characteristics are shown
in the following figure.

The V-I characteristics of an independent ideal current source is a constant line, which is always equal to
the source current (IS) irrespective of the voltage value (V). So, the internal resistance of an independent
ideal current source is infinite ohms.
Hence, the independent ideal current sources do not exist practically, because there will be some internal
resistance.
Independent practical current source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.

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There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent practical current source from the V-I
characteristics of an independent ideal current source. This is due to the amount of current flows through
the internal shunt resistance (RS) of an independent practical current source.

DependentSources
As the name suggests, dependent sources produce the amount of voltage or current that is
dependent on some other voltage or current. Dependent sources are also called as controlled sources.
Dependent sources can be further divided into the following two categories −

 Dependent Voltage Sources

 Dependent Current Sources
Dependent Voltage Sources
A dependent voltage source produces a voltage across its two terminals. The amount of this
voltage is dependent on some other voltage or current. Hence, dependent voltage sources can be further
classified into the following two categories −

 Voltage Dependent Voltage Source (VDVS)

 Current Dependent Voltage Source (CDVS)
Dependent voltage sources are represented with the signs ‘+’ and ‘-’ inside a diamond shape. The
magnitude of the voltage source can be represented outside the diamond shape.
Dependent Current Sources
A dependent current source produces a current. The amount of this current is dependent on
some other voltage or current. Hence, dependent current sources can be further classified into the following
two categories −

 Voltage Dependent Current Source (VDCS)

 Current Dependent Current Source (CDCS)

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Dependent current sources are represented with an arrow inside a diamond shape. The magnitude of the
current source can be represented outside the diamond shape. We can observe these dependent or
controlled sources in equivalent models of transistors.
SourceTransformationTechnique
We know that there are two practical sources, namely, voltage source and current source. We
can transform (convert) one source into the other based on the requirement, while solving network
problems.
The technique of transforming one source into the other is called as source transformation technique.
Following are the two possible source transformations −

 Practical voltage source into a practical current source

 Practical current source into a practical voltage source
Practical voltage source into a practical current source
The transformation of practical voltage source into a practical current source is shown in the
following figure

Practical voltage source consists of a voltage source (VS) in series with a resistor (RS). This can be
converted into a practical current source as shown in the figure. It consists of a current source (IS) in
parallel with a resistor (RS).
The value of IS will be equal to the ratio of VS and RS. Mathematically, it can be represented as
𝑉𝑆
I S=
𝑅𝑆

Practical current source into a practical voltage source

The transformation of practical current source into a practical voltage source is shown in the
following figure.

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Practical current source consists of a current source (IS) in parallel with a resistor (R S). This can be
converted into a practical voltage source as shown in the figure. It consists of a voltage source (V S) in series
with a resistor (RS).
The value of VS will be equal to the product of IS and RS. Mathematically, it can be represented as
VS=IS*RS

INTRODUCTON
Based on the electrical conductivity all the materials in nature are classified as insulators, semiconductors,
and conductors.
Insulator: An insulator is a material that offers a very low level (or negligible) of conductivity when
voltage is applied. Eg: Paper, Mica, glass, quartz. Typical resistivity level of an insulator is of the order of
1010 to 1012 Ω-cm. The energy band structure of an insulator is shown in the fig.1.1. Band structure of a
material defines the band of energy levels that an electron can occupy. Valance band is the range of electron
energy where the electron remain bended too the atom and do not contribute to the electric current.
Conduction bend is the range of electron energies higher than valance band where electrons are free to
accelerate under the influence of external voltage source resulting in the flow of charge.
The energy band between the valance band and conduction band is called as forbidden band gap. It is
the energy required by an electron to move from balance band to conduction band i.e. the energy required
for a valance electron to become a free electron.
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
For an insulator, as shown in the fig.1.1 there is a large forbidden band gap of greater than 5Ev. Because of
this large gap there a very few electrons in the CB and hence the conductivity of insulator is poor. Even an
increase in temperature or applied electric field is insufficient to transfer electrons from VB to CB.

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C C
CB

o
Forbidden band Eo =≈6eV
gap Eo ≈6eV

VB
VB
VB

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

Fig: 1.1 Energy band diagrams insulator, semiconductor and conductor
Conductors: A conductor is a material which supports a generous flow of charge when a voltage is applied
across its terminals. i.e. it has very high conductivity. Eg: Copper, Aluminum, Silver, Gold. The resistivity
of a conductor is in the order of 10 -4 and 10-6 Ω-cm. The Valance and conduction bands overlap (fig1.1) and
there is no energy gap for the electrons to move from valance band to conduction band. This implies that
there are free electrons in CB even at absolute zero temperature (0K). Therefore at room temperature when
electric field is applied large current flows through the conductor.
Semiconductor: A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity somewhere between the insulator
and conductor. The resistivity level is in the range of 10 and 10 4 Ω-cm. Two of the most commonly used are
Silicon (Si=14 atomic no.) and germanium (Ge=32 atomic no.). Both have 4 valance electrons. The
forbidden band gap is in the order of 1eV. For eg., the band gap energy for Si, Ge and GaAs is 1.21, 0.785
and 1.42 eV, respectively at absolute zero temperature (0K). At 0K and at low temperatures, the valance
band electrons do not have sufficient energy to move from V to CB. Thus semiconductors act a insulators at
0K. as the temperature increases, a large number of valance electrons acquire sufficient energy to leave the
VB, cross the forbidden bandgap and reach CB. These are now free electrons as they can move freely under
the influence of electric field. At room temperature there are sufficient electrons in the CB and hence the
semiconductor is capable of conducting some current at room temperature.
Inversely related to the conductivity of a material is its resistance to the flow of charge or current.
Typical resistivity values for various materials’ are given as follows.

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Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

10-6 Ω-cm (Cu) 50Ω-cm (Ge) 1012 Ω-cm
(mica)
50x103 Ω-cm (Si)
Typical resistivity values
SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES

A pure form of semiconductors is called as intrinsic semiconductor. Conduction in intrinsic sc is

either due to thermal excitation or crystal defects. Si and Ge are the two most important semiconductors
used. Other examples include Gallium arsenide GaAs, Indium Antimonide (InSb) etc.
Let us consider the structure of Si.A Si atomic no. is 14 and it has 4 valance electrons. These 4
electrons are shared by four neighboring atoms in the crystal structure by means of covalent bond. Fig. 1.2a
shows the crystal structure of Si at absolute zero temperature (0K). Hence a pure SC acts has poor
conductivity (due to lack of free electrons) at low or absolute zero temperature.

Covalent bond

Valence electron

Fig. 1.2a crystal structure of Si at 0K

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At room temperature some of the covalent bonds break up to thermal energy as shown in fig 1.2b.
The valance electrons that jump into conduction band are called as free electrons that are available for
conduction.

Free electron

Valance electron
Hole

Fig. 1.2b crystal structure of Si at

room temperature0K

The absence of electrons in covalent bond is represented by a small circle usually referred to as hole which
is of positive charge. Even a hole serves as carrier of electricity in a manner similar to that of free electron.
The mechanism by which a hole contributes to conductivity is explained as follows:
When a bond is in complete so that a hole exists, it is relatively easy for a valance electron in the
neighboring atom to leave its covalent bond to fill this hole. An electron moving from a bond to fill a hole
moves in a direction opposite to that of the electron. This hole, in its new position may now be filled by an
electron from another covalent bond and the hole will correspondingly move one more step in the direction
opposite to the motion of electron. Here we have a mechanism for conduction of electricity which does not
involve free electrons. This phenomenon is illustrated in fig1.3

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Electron movement
Hole movement
Fig. 1.3a

Fig. 1.3b

Fig.1.3c

Fig 1.3a show that there is a hole at ion [Link] that an electron from ion 5 moves into the hole at ion 6
so that the configuration of 1.3b results. If we compare both fig1.3a &fig 1.3b, it appears as if the hole has
moved towards the left from ion6 to ion 5. Further if we compare fig 1.3b and fig 1.3c, the hole moves from

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ion5 to ion 4. This discussion indicates the motion of hole is in a direction opposite to that of motion of
electron. Hence we consider holes as physical entities whose movement constitutes flow of current.
In a pure semiconductor, the number of holes is equal to the number of free electrons.
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:
Intrinsic semiconductor has very limited applications as they conduct very small amounts of current
at room temperature. The current conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor can be increased
significantly by adding a small amounts impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor. By adding impurities it
becomes impure or extrinsic semiconductor. This process of adding impurities is called as doping. The
amount of impurity added is 1 part in 106 atoms.
N type semiconductor: If the added impurity is a pentavalent atom then the resultant semiconductor is
called N-type semiconductor. Examples of pentavalent impurities are Phosphorus, Arsenic, Bismuth,
Antimony etc.
A pentavalent impurity has five valance electrons. Fig 1.3a shows the crystal structure of N-type
semiconductor material where four out of five valance electrons of the impurity atom(antimony) forms
covalent bond with the four intrinsic semiconductor atoms. The fifth electron is loosely bound to the
impurity atom. This loosely bound electron can be easily

Fifth valance electron

of SB Ec C

Ed

Donor energy V
Ev

Fig. 1.3b Energy band diagram of N

Fig. 1.3a crystal structure of N type

excited from the valance band to the conduction band by the application of electric field or increasing the
thermal energy. The energy required to detach the fifth electron form the impurity atom is very small of the
order of 0.01ev for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.
The effect of doping creates a discrete energy level called donor energy level in the forbidden band gap
with energy level Ed slightly less than the conduction band (fig 1.3b). The difference between the energy

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levels of the conducting band and the donor energy level is the energy required to free the fifth valance
electron (0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si). At room temperature almost all the fifth electrons from the
donor impurity atom are raised to conduction band and hence the number of electrons in the conduction
band increases significantly. Thus every antimony atom contributes to one conduction electron without
creating a hole.
In the N-type sc the no. of electrons increases and the no. of holes decreases compared to those available
in an intrinsic sc. The reason for decrease in the no. of holes is that the larger no. of electrons present
increases the recombination of electrons with holes. Thus current in N type sc is dominated by electrons
which are referred to as majority carriers. Holes are the minority carriers in N type sc
P type semiconductor: If the added impurity is a trivalent atom then the resultant semiconductor is called
P-type semiconductor. Examples of trivalent impurities are Boron, Gallium , indium etc.
The crystal structure of p type sc is shown in the fig1.3c. The three valance electrons of the impurity
(boon) forms three covalent bonds with the neighboring atoms and a vacancy exists in the fourth bond
giving rise to the holes. The hole is ready to accept an electron from the neighboring atoms. Each trivalent
atom contributes to one hole generation and thus introduces a large no. of holes in the valance band. At the
same time the no. electrons are decreased compared to those available in intrinsic sc because of increased
recombination due to creation of additional holes.

Hole

Fig. 1.3c crystal structure of P type

Thus in P type sc , holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers. Since each trivalent
impurity atoms are capable accepting an electron, these are called as acceptor atoms. The following fig 1.3d
shows the pictorial representation of P type sc

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Hole (majority carrier)

Electron (minority
Acceptor atoms

Fig. 1.3d crystal structure of P type

 The conductivity of N type sc is greater than that of P type sc as the mobility of electron is
greater than that of hole.
 For the same level of doping in N type sc and P type sc, the conductivity of an Ntype sc is
around twice that of a P type sc
THEORY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE:
A p–n junction is formed by joining P-type and N-type semiconductors together in very close contact. The
term junction refers to the boundary interface where the two regions of the semiconductor meet. Diode is a
two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. The crystal
conducts conventional current in a direction from the p-type side (called the anode) to the n-type side
(called the cathode), but not in the opposite direction.
Symbol of PN junction diode

Biasing
“Biasing” is providing minimum external voltage and current to activate the device to study its
characteristics.
There are two operating regions and two "biasing" conditions for the standard Junction Diode and they are:

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 Zero Bias:

When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a natural Potential
Barrier is developed across a depletion layer.

When the positive terminal of a battery is connected to P-type semiconductor and negative terminal to N-
type is known as forward bias of PN junction.
 The applied forward potential establishes an electric field opposite to the potential barrier Therefore
the potential barrier is reduced at the junction. As the potential barrier is very small (0.3V for Ge and
0.7V for Si),a small forward voltage is sufficient to completely eliminate the barrier potential, thus the
junction resistance becomes zero.
 In other words, the applied positive potential repels the holes in the ‘P’ region so that the holes moves
towards the junction and applied negative potential repels the electrons in the ‘N’ region towards the
junction results in depletion region starts decreasing. When the applied potential is more than the internal
barrier potential then the depletion region completely disappears, thus the junction resistance becomes
zero.

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 Once the potential barrier is eliminated by a forward voltage, j unction establishes the low resistance
path for the entire circuit, thus a current flows in the circuit, it is called as forward current.

For reverse bias, the negative terminal is connected to P-type semiconductor and positive terminal to N type
semiconductor.
 When reverse bias voltage is applied to the junction, all the majority carriers of ‘P’ region are
attracted towards the negative terminal of the battery and the majority carriers of the N region
attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery, hence the depletion region increases.
 The applied reverse voltage establishes an electric field which acts in the same direction of the
potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field at the junction is strengthened and the barrier width is
increased. This increased potential barrier prevents the flow of charge carriers across the
junction, results in a high resistance path.
 This process cannot continue indefinitely because after certain extent the junction break down
occurs. As a result a small amount of current flows through it due to minority carriers. This
current is known as “reverse saturation current”.
V-I characteristics of PN junction diode
Forward Bias:
 The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer becoming
very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction thereby allowing high
currents to flow.
 The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is represented on the static I-V
characteristics curve above as the "knee" point.

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Reverse Bias:
 In Reverse biasing voltage a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current
flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage.
 However, a very small leakage current does flow through the junction which can be measured
in microamperes, (μA).
 One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high
enough value, it will cause the PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around the
junction.
 This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current,
and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.
V-I CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE:

𝑉
Diode terminal characteristics equation for diode junction current:

𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼(𝑒 − 1)
ŋ𝑉�
�

Where VT = kT/q;
VD_ diode terminal voltage, Volts
Io _ temperature-dependent saturation current, µA
T _ absolute temperature of p-n junction, K
k _ Boltzmann’s constant 1.38x 10 -23J/K)
q _ electron charge 1.6x10-19 C
 = empirical constant, 1 for Ge and 2 for Si

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BIPOLAR JUNCTION
TRANSISTOR INTRODUCTION
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three terminal device in which operation depends on the interaction
of both majority and minority carriers and hence the name bipolar. The BJT is analogus to vacuum triode
and is comparatively smaller in size. It is used as amplifier and oscillator circuits, and as a switch in digital
circuits. It has wide applications in computers, satellites and other modern communication systems.

CONSTRUCTION OF BJT AND ITS SYMBOLS

The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three connecting
terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it from the other two. These three terminals are
known and labeled as the Emitter (E ), the Base ( B ) and the Collector ( C ) respectively. There are two
basic types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and NPN, which basically describes the physical
arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor materials from which they are made.

Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials that can act as
either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The transistor's ability to
change between these two states enables it to have two basic functions: "switching" (digital electronics) or
"amplification" (analogue electronics). Then bipolar transistors have the ability to operate within three
different regions:

1. Active Region - the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β.Ib

2. Saturation - the transistor is "fully-ON" operating as a switch and Ic = I(saturation)

3. Cut-off - the transistor is "fully-OFF" operating as a switch and Ic = 0

Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing through them in
proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal acting like a current-controlled
switch. The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is exactly the same the only
difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply for each type.

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Bipolar Transistor Construction

The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor are given above with the
arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of "conventional current flow" between the base
terminal and its emitter terminal. The direction of the arrow always points from the positive P-type region to
the negative N-type region for both transistor types, exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol.
TRANSISTOR CURRENT COMPONENTS:

The above fig 2 shows the various current components, which flow across the forward biased emitter
junction and reverse- biased collector junction. The emitter current I E consists of hole current IPE (holes
crossing from emitter into base) and electron current I nE (electrons crossing from base into emitter).The ratio
of hole to electron currents, I pE / InE , crossing the emitter junction is proportional to the ratio of the
conductivity of the p material to that of the n material. In a transistor, the doping of that of the emitter is
made much larger than the doping of the base. This feature ensures (in p-n-p transistor) that the emitter

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current consists an almost entirely of holes. Such a situation is desired since the current which results from
electrons crossing the emitter junction from base to emitter does not contribute carriers, which can reach the
collector.
Not all the holes crossing the emitter junction JE reach the the collector junction JC
Because some of them combine with the electrons in n-type base. If I pC is hole current at junction JC there
must be a bulk recombination current (IPE- IpC ) leaving the base.
Actually, electrons enter the base region through the base lead to supply those charges, which have been lost
by recombination with the holes injected in to the base across J E. If the emitter were open circuited so that
IE=0 then IpC would be zero. Under these circumstances, the base and collector current I C would equal the
reverse saturation current ICO. If IE≠0 then
IC= ICO- IpC
For a p-n-p transistor, ICO consists of holes moving across J C from left to right (base to collector) and electrons
crossing JC in opposite direction. Assumed referenced direction for I CO i.e. from right to left, then for a p-n-
p transistor, ICO is negative. For an n-p-n transistor, ICO is positive. The basic operation will be described
using the pnp transistor. The operation of the pnp transistor is exactly the same if the roles played by the
electron and hole are interchanged.
One p-n junction of a transistor is reverse-biased, whereas the other is forward-biased.

Forward-biased junction of a PNP transistor

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Reverse-biased junction of a PNP transistor

Both biasing potentials have been applied to a pnp transistor and resulting majority and minority carrier
flows indicated.
Majority carriers (+) will diffuse across the forward-biased p-n junction into the n-type material.
A very small number of carriers (+) will through n-type material to the base terminal. Resulting IB is
typically in order of microamperes.
The large number of majority carriers will diffuse across the reverse-biased junction into the p-type
material connected to the collector terminal
Applying KCL to the transistor:
IE = IC + IB
The comprises of two components – the majority and minority carriers
IC = IC majority + ICO minority
ICO – IC current with emitter terminal open and is called leakage current
Various parameters which relate the current components is given below

Emitter efficiency:

currentofinjectedcarriersatJ E
  totalemittercurrent
I PE I
  I pE
I pE  nE
InE
Transport Factor:

injectedcarriercurrentreachingJC
* injectedcarrierncurrentatJE
I
 *  I pC
nE

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Large signal current gain:

The ratio of the negative of collector current increment to the emitter current change from zero (cut-off)to IE
the large signal current gain of a common base transistor.

 ( I C  ICO )
 IE
Since IC and IE have opposite signs, then α, as defined, is always positive. Typically numerical values of α
lies in the range of 0.90 to 0.995
I I I
  I pC  I pC * I pE
E nE E    *

The transistor alpha is the product of the transport factor and the emitter efficiency. This statement
assumes that the collector multiplication ratio
 * is unity.  * is the ratio of total current crossing JC to
hole arriving at the junction.
Bipolar Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible ways to connect it
within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and output. Each method of
connection responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as the static characteristics of the
transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.

1. Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

2. Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.

3. Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

COMMON-BASE CONFIGURATION
Common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the: base is common to both input and output of t
configuration. base is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential. Majority carriers can cross the
reverse-biased junction because the injected majority carriers will appear as minority carriers in the n-type
material. All current directions will refer to conventional (hole) flow and the arrows in all electronic
symbols have a direction defined by this convention.
Note that the applied biasing (voltage sources) are such as to establish current in the direction indicated for
each branch.

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To describe the behavior of common-base amplifiers requires two set of characteristics:

1. Input or driving point characteristics.
2. Output or collector characteristics
The output characteristics have 3 basic regions:
 Active region –defined by the biasing arrangements
 Cutoff region – region where the collector current is 0A
 Saturation region- region of the characteristics to the left of VCB = 0V

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The curves (output characteristics) clearly indicate that a first approximation to the relationship between IE
and IC in the active region is given by
IC ≈IE Once a transistor is in the ‘on’ state, the base-emitter voltage will be assumed to beVBE = 0.7V

In the dc mode the level of IC and IE due to the majority carriers are related by a quantity called alpha = αdc
IC = IE + ICBO
It can then be summarize to IC = IE (ignore ICBO due to small value)
For ac situations where the point of operation moves on the characteristics curve, an ac alpha defined by α ac
Alpha a common base current gain factor that shows the efficiency by calculating the current percent from
current flow from emitter to collector. The value of  is typical from 0.9 ~ 0.998.
Biasing: Proper biasing CB configuration in active region by approximation IC  IE (IB  0 uA)

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TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER

Common-Emitter Configuration
It is called common-emitter configuration since : emitter is common or reference to both input and
output [Link] is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential.
Almost amplifier design is using connection of CE due to the high gain for current and voltage.
Two set of characteristics are necessary to describe the behavior for CE ;input (base terminal) and output
(collector terminal) parameters.
Proper Biasing common-emitter configuration in active region

IB is microamperes compared to miliamperes of IC.

IB will flow when VBE > 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V for germanium
Before this value IB is very small and no IB.
Base-emitter junction is forward bias Increasing VCE will reduce IB for different values.

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Output characteristics for acommon-emitter npn transistor

For small VCE (VCE < VCESAT, IC increase linearly with increasing of VCE
VCE > VCESAT IC not totally depends on VCE  constant IC
IB(uA) is very small compare to IC (mA). Small increase in IB cause big increase in IC
IB=0 A  ICEO occur.
Noticing the value when IC=0A. There is still some value of current flows.

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Beta () or amplification factor

The ratio of dc collector current (IC) to the dc base current (IB) is dc beta (dc ) which is dc current gain
where IC and IB are determined at a particular operating point, Q-point (quiescent point). It’s define by
the following equation:
30 < dc < 300  2N3904
On data sheet, dc=hfe with h is derived from ac hybrid equivalent cct. FE are derived from forward-
current amplification and common-emitter configuration respectively.

For ac conditions, an ac beta has been defined as the changes of collector current (I C) compared to the
changes of base current (IB) where IC and IB are determined at operating point. On data sheet, ac=hfe It
can defined by the following equation:

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From output characteristics of common emitter configuration, find ac and dc with an
Operating point at IB=25 A and VCE =7.5V

Relationship analysis between α and β

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COMMON – COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION

Also called emitter-follower (EF). It is called common-emitter configuration since both the signal source
and the load share the collector terminal as a common connection point. The output voltage is obtained
at emitter terminal. The input characteristic of common-collector configuration is similar with common-
emitter. Configuration. Common-collector circuit configuration is provided with the load resistor
connected from emitter to ground. It is used primarily for impedance-matching purpose since it has high
input impedance and low output impedance.

For the common-collector configuration, the output characteristics are a plot of I E vs VCE for a range of
values of IB.

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Limits of operation
Many BJT transistor used as an amplifier. Thus it is important to notice the limits of operations. At least
3 maximum values are mentioned in data sheet.
There are:
a)
Maximum power dissipation at collector: PCmax or PD
b)
Maximum collector-emitter voltage: VCEmax sometimes named as VBR(CEO) or VCEO.
c)
Maximum collector current: ICmax
There are few rules that need to be followed for BJT transistor used as an amplifier. The rules are:
transistors need to be operating in active region!
IC < ICmax
PC <
PCmax

Note: VCE is at maximum and IC is at minimum (ICMAX=ICEO) in the cutoff region. IC is at maximum and
VCE is at minimum (VCE max = Vcesat = VCEO) in the saturation region. The transistor operates in the
active region between saturation and cutoff.

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