POWER LINE INTERFERENCE
The power line interference of 50160 Hz is the source of interference and it corrupt the recordings of
electrocardiogram (ECG) which are extremely important for the diagnosis of patients. The
interference is caused by,
• • Electromagnetic interference power line.
• • Electromagnetic field (EMF) by the machinery which is placed nearby, the signal
component holds harmonics with different amplitude and frequency. The harmonics frequency is
integral multiple of fundamental frequency such as 50Hz.
• • Stray effect of the alternative current fields due to loops in the cables.
• • Improper grounding of ECG machine or the patient.
• • Electrical equipment’s such as air conditioner, elevators and X-ray units draw heavy power
line current, which induce 50Hz signals in the input circuits of the ECG machine.
The noise from electric power system is a major source of noise during the recording or monitoring
of ECG. Different noises have different frequencies. The noise with low frequency is being problem
with ECG signal as well as some time high frequency noises also interference ECG like mobile phone.
If the physical or mathematical variable changes rapidly then it can be high frequency and if it
changes slowly then it would be low frequency. If the variable does not change at all then it is said
that it has zero frequency. Most of the electronic devices such as ECG, transmitter, receiver,
computer etc get power from power line. The 50Hz alternative current (AC) is reduced in voltage,
rectified and then filter to obtain low voltage direct current (DC). This is used to give power to those
electronic devices.
RIGHT LEG DRIVEN ECG AMPLIFIER
A driven right leg circuit or DRL circuit is an electronic circuit that is often added to biological signal
amplifiers to reduce common-mode interference, biological signal amplifiers such as ECG, EEG or
EMG circuits measure very small electrical signals emitted by the body, often as small as several
micro-volts.
Unfortunately, the patient’s body can also act as an antenna which picks up electromagnetic
interference, especially 50/60 Hz noise from electrical power lines. This interference can obscure the
biological signals, making them very hard to measure. Right leg driver circuitry is used to eliminate
interference noise by actively cancelling the interference. Other methods of noise control include:
Faraday cage
Twisting wires
High gain instrumentation amplifier
Filtering preamplifier can also be obtained using an optical isolator. The high common-mode
rejection of the amplifier is obtained by proper shielding. The effective capacitance from the input
leaded to the earth is made negligible. The preamplifier circuitry should be preferably be shielded in
a separate case.
To minimize the common-mode signal between the body of the patient and the floating ground, a
right leg driven circuit is used. The common-mode signals after amplification in a preamplifier are
inverted and fed back to the right leg electrode, reducing the common mode voltage on the input
with respect to the floating ground. Winter and webster examined optimal design parameters for a
driven-right-leg circuit Isolation of the patient
The presence of stray capacitance at the input of the preamplifier causes common-mode currents to
flow in LA and RA, resulting in a voltage drop at the electrode resistors. An imbalance of the stray
capacitance or the electrode resistors causes a difference signal. This difference signal can be almost
eliminated, in that the common-mode currents of stray capacitances are not allowed to flow through
the electrode resistors but are neutralized by current delivered to stray capacitances from the
common-mode rejection amplifier.
In other words, the potentials at A, B and C are equalised through an in-phase component of the
common-mode voltage, which the amplifier delivers via C1 and C2 are kept equal, independent of
the imbalance in the electrode resistors and stray capacitance. The modern ECG machines with their
completely shielded patient cable and lead wires and their high common-mode rejection, are
sufficiently resistant to mains interference.
5.9 Autoanalyzer
An autoanalyzer, also known as an automated analyzer, is a laboratory instrument used for the
automatic analysis of chemical or biological samples. These devices are widely used in various fields,
including medical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, food and beverage testing, and
pharmaceutical research.
The autoanalyzer sequentially measures blood chemistry and displays this on a graphical readout. As
shown in Figure 5.9.1, this is accomplished by mixing, reagent reaction, and colorimetric
measurement in a continuous stream. The system includes the following elements:
1. Sampler—aspirates samples, _ stan-dards, and wash solutions to the autoanaly-zer system.
2. Proportioning pump and manifold
introduces (mixes) samples with reagents to effect the proper chemical color reaction to be read by
the colorimeter. It also pumps fluids at precise flow rates to other modules, as proper color
development depends on re-action time and temperature.
3. Dialyzer—separates interfacing sub-stances from the sample material by permit-ting selective
passage of sample components through a semipermeable membrane.
4. Heating bath—heats fluids continuously to exact temperature (typically 37°C incubation
equivalent to body temperature). Temperature is critical to color develop-ment.
5. Colorimeter—monitors the changes in optical density of the fluid stream flowing through a
tubular flow cell. Color intensities (optical densities) proportional to substance concentrations, are
converted to equivalent electrical voltages.
6. Recorder—converts optical density electrical signal from the colorimeter into a graphic display on
a moving chart. The heart of the autoanalyzer system is the proportioning pump. This consists of a
peristaltic (occluding or roller) pump. Air segmentation in the mixing tube separates the
sample/reagent mixture from the cleaning fluid and other samples. As these air-separated fluids
traverse the coil of the mixing tube, effective mixing action is achieved. The Technicon SMA 12/60,
shown in Figure 16-20, is a sequential multiple analyzer that performs 12 different tests on 60
samples per hour. It is a continuous flow process that produces a chemical profile read on a graphic
chart. Tests accomplished include most of those shown in Table 16-1.
✓ A later computerized version is developed.
✓ This is the Technicon SMAC. Up to 40 different tests can be performed on an individual serum
sample.
One problem with automatic analyzers is certain identification of samples. Patient data can be
intermixed with other patients if care is not taken. Sterilization is also needed for samples, glassware,
and equipment parts that are contaminated with disease. Diseases
✓ such as hepatitis or other communicable infections can be spread to equipment operators.
✓ Figure shows an autoclave unit used to sterilize small and large items. It operates at saturated
steam pressures and temperatures of 120°C for 20 min to one hour. Maintenance on autoanalyzers
include frequent calibration adjustment. Most prob-lems are mechanical (tubes, moving pump parts)
and electrical (switches, motors).
✓ Electronic failures are few. Sophisticated autoanalyzer system maintenance and repair requires
that the BMET have gone through manufacturer’s schools. Operation and ser-vice manuals must
always be consulted. A patient’s life may hinge on accurate measurement results obtained by clinical
instrumentation
Maintenance:
Maintenance on autoanalyzers include frequent calibration adjustment. Most prob-lems are
mechanical (tubes, moving pump parts) and electrical (switches, motors). Electronic failures are few.
Sophisticated autoanalyzer system maintenance and repair requires that the BMET have gone
through manufacturer’s schools. Operation and ser-vice manuals must always be consulted. A
patient’s life may hinge on accurate measurement results obtained by clinical instrumentation.
Benefits:
• • Efficiency: Reduces turnaround time for test results.
• • Consistency: Minimizes variability in results due to human factors.
• • Cost-Effectiveness: Decreases labor costs and reagent use through optimized processes.
• • Safety: Reduces the handling of hazardous substances by laboratory personnel.
Applications:
• • Medical Diagnostics: Routine blood tests, metabolic panels, hormone levels, etc.
• • Pharmaceuticals: Drug development and quality control.
• • Environmental Monitoring: Detection of pollutants and toxins.
• • Food and Beverage Industry: Ensuring safety and quality of products.
•
5.4 Blood Gas Analyzers
• Blood gas analysers are designed to measure pH, pCO2 and pO2 from a single
sample of whole blood. The size of the sample may vary from 25 μl to a few hundred
microlitres. The estimations take about 1 minute. With built-in calculators, the
instruments can also compute total CO2, HCO3 and Base Excess. A typical block
diagram of a blood gas analyser machine is shown in Fig. 15.9
• In this machine, separate sensors are used for pH, pCO2 and pO2. The outputs
from multiple sensors and calculators are driven through a multiplexer to an analog-to-
digital converter (ADC). The data is processed in the microcontroller, which is
• connected to a PC or other instruments through RS-232, USB, or Ethernet. A digital-to-
analog converter (DAC) is often used to calibrate the sensor amplifiers to maximize the
sensitivity of the electrodes.
• Modern blood gas analysers increasingly employ a touch screen in combination
with a graphical user interface (GUI) to make the programming process more intuitive.
• The instrument contains three separate high input impedance amplifiers designed to
operate in the specific range of each measuring electrode. A separate module houses and
thermostatically controls the three electrodes. It also provides thermostatic control for the
humidification of the calibrating gases. A vacuum system provides aspiration and flushing service
for all three electrodes. Calibrating gases are selected by a special push button control and
passed through the sample chamber when required.
• Two gases of accurately known O2 and CO2 percentages are required for
calibrating the analyser in the pO2 and pCO2 modes.
• The gases required are: O2 value of 12% Cal and 0% Slope and CO2 value of 5% Cal and
10% Slope. These gases are used with precision regulators for flow and pressure control. Two
standard buffers of known pH are required for calibration of the analyser in the pH mode. The
buffers that are used are 6.838 (Cal) and 7.382 (Slope). It is generally recommended that the
sample chamber should control 7.382 buffer when in the standby mode. Microcontroller
•
Input signal to the (HCO3) calculator (Fig. 15.10) comes from the outputs of the pH and pCO2
amplifiers. The outputs are suitably adjusted by multiplying each signal by a constant and are given
to an adder. The next stage is an antilog-generator similar to the one used in a pCO2 amplifier. The
output of this circuit goes to an A–D converter for display. Resistance R is used to adjust zero at the
output.
Total CO2 is calculated (Fig. 15.11) by summing the output signals of the (HCO3) calculator and the
output of the pCO2 amplifier. Facilities for adjusting the slope and zero at the output are available.
The base excess calculator (Fig. 15.12) consists of three stages. In the first stage, the output of the pH
amplifier is inverted in an operational amplifier whose gain is controlled with a potentiometer
(Haemoglobin value) placed on the front panel. The output of the HCO– 3 calculator is inverted in
the second stage. The third stage is a summing amplifier A3 whose output is given to an A–D
converter.
The three electrodes (pH, pO2 and pCO2) are housed in a thermostatically controlled chamber. It also
provides thermostatic control for the humidification of the calibrating gases. The thermal block and
the humidifier block heat control circuits are of the same type (Fig. 15.13).
The temperature is set with a potentiometer for exactly 37°C. The heater circuit is controlled by a
thermistor in the block, which acts as a sensor. As the heat increases, the resistance of the thermistor
decreases. At 37°C, the thermistor is calibrated to have a resistance of 25 K ohm. Supposing the
temperature of the block decreases, the resistance of the thermistor will increase. The increase in
resistance will cause the voltage at inverting input of op-amp to become more negative. This results
in the output voltage becoming more positive, increasing the base current of transistors T1 and T2.
The increase in base current increases the collector current,
which goes directly to the heater resistor on the block. As the heater resistor heats up the block, the
thermistor will decrease until it returns to 25 k ohm.
Many of the blood gas analysers have a provision for checking the membrane of pO2 and pCO2
electrodes. In the check position, a potential is applied across the membrane. Any leak in the
membrane of sufficient magnitude will result in a considerable lowering of the resistance may be
from 100 MW to 500 kW. The change in resistance can be used to have a change of potential to
switch on a transistor, which would cause a lamp to light on the front panel of the instrument. This
would indicate that a new membrane is needed.