UNIT III-TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF
INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS
• Aerobic and anaerobic biological treatments – High Rate reactors,
Sequencing batch reactors, Membrane bioreactor
• Advanced oxidation processes
• Equalization - Neutralization - Precipitation - Heavy metal Removal
• Evaporation (Stripping) processes - adsorption processes (Ion
exchange, Activated carbon, membrane filter)
• Electrolysis–Immobilized cell and enzyme based treatment processes
Aerobic and anaerobic biological treatments –
High Rate reactors, Sequencing batch reactors,
Membrane bioreactor
An overview of aerobic and anaerobic fermentation
Two kinds of wastes
- solid
- liquid
The organic content of solid and liquid wastes can be reduced by controlled bacterial activity.
If the bacterial activity is anaerobic,
The organic content reduction is achieved through sludge digestion
If the bacterial activity is aerobic,
The organic content reduction is achieved through sludge stabilization.
Differences Between Aerobic Stabilization and
Anaerobic Digestion of Wastes
Feature Anaerobic Aerobic
Digestion Stabilization
Process rate Slower Faster
Sensitivity to Higher Lower
toxicants
Start-up time Slower Faster
Methane production under anaerobic conditions has been occurring naturally for millions of years in such diverse
habitats as
- benthic deposits,
- hot springs,
- deep ocean trenches, and
- the intestinal tract of cattle,
pigs,
termites, and
humans.
Methane production also occurs in rice paddies.
Anaerobic digesters having suspended bacterial growth are commonly used at municipal wastewater
treatment plants to degrade (digest) sludges.
These digesters produce several layers as a result of sludge degradation.
These layers are from top to bottom: biogas, scum, supernatant, active biomass or sludge, and
stabilized solids.
Most industrial wastewater treatment plants are using anaerobic digesters having fixed-film bacterial
growth, to degrade soluble organic wastes.
Fixed film anaerobic digesters employ the use of plastic or rocks as the film on which the bacteria
grow as a biofilm.
Wastewater passing over the medium is absorbed and adsorbed by the biofilm and degraded.
Anaerobic digesters
Represent catabolic (destructive) processes that occur in the absence of free molecular
oxygen (O2).
The aims of anaerobic digesters are to biologically destroy a significant portion of the
volatile solids in sludge.
The main products of anaerobic digesters are
- biogas and
- digested/treated sludge solids.
Biogas mostly consists of
- methane (CH4) and
- carbon dioxide (CO2).
Attractive Features of Anaerobic Digesters
▪ Able to degrade recalcitrant natural compounds, e.g., lignin
▪ Able to degrade xenobiotic compounds, e.g., chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons
▪ Control of some filamentous organisms through recycling of sludge and supernatant
▪ Improved dewaterability of sludge
▪ Production of methane
▪ Use of biosolids as a soil additive or conditioner
▪ Suitable for high-strength industrial wastewater
▪ Reduction in malodors
▪ Reduction in numbers of pathogens
▪ Reduction in sludge handling and disposal costs
▪ Reduction in volatile content of sludge
Complex Substrates,
Carbohydrates, Lipids,
Proteins
Simple Substrates,
Sugars, Fatty Acids, Amino
Acids
Acids and
Alcohols
CO2 + H2O Acetate
Formate Methanol,
Methylamine
Methane
Complex
Substrates
Hydrolysis,
performed by hydrolytic bacteria
(facultative anaerobes and anaerobes)
Simple
substrates
Acid production, including
acetogenesis
(facultative anaerobes and anaerobes)
Acetate, Formate, CO2, CO, H2,
Methanol,
Methyl Amine, Propionate, Butyrate
Methane production (methanogenesis)
CH4 + CO2
The critical biochemical reactions within these stages are as follows
Hydrolysis
Complex carbohydrates ----- > Simple sugars
Complex lipids ----- > Fatty acids
Complex proteins ----- > Amino acids
Acid Production
Simple sugars + fatty acids + amino acids ----- > organic acids, including acetate + alcohols
Acetogenesis (acetate production)
Organic acids + alcohols ----- > acetate
Methane production: acetoclastic methanogenesis
Acetate CH4 + CO2
Methane production: hydogenotrophic methanogenesis
H2 + CO2 CH4
Methane production: methylotrophic methanogenesis
Methanol CH4 + H2O
The relative abundance of bacteria within an anaerobic digester is greater than 1016 cells/ml.
This population consists of
- saccharolytic bacteria (~108 cells/ml),
- proteolytic bacteria (~106 cells/ml),
- lipolytic bacteria (~105 cells/ml), and
- methane-forming bacteria (~108 cells/ml).
3 important bacterial groups in anaerobic digesters with respect to the substrates utilized by each
group.
These groups include
- the acetate-forming (acetogenic) bacteria,
- the sulfate-reducing bacteria,
- the methane-forming bacteria.
High-rate anaerobic reactors
Anaerobic contact process
Anaerobic filter (AF)
Upflow anaerobic sludge
blanket (UASB)
Fluidized bed reactor
Hybrid reactor: UASB/AF
Anaerobic sequencing batch
reactor (ASBR)
Able to retain very high concentration of active biomass in the reactor. Thus extremely high
Solid retention time (SRT) could be maintained irrespective of Hydraulic retention time (HRT).
Load 5-20 kg COD/m3-d
COD removal efficiency : 80-90%
Anaerobic contact process (ACP)
Anaerobic contact process is essentially an anaerobic activated sludge process. It consists of
a completely mixed reactor followed by a settling tank. The settled biomass is recycled
back to the reactor. Hence ACP is able to maintain high concentration of biomass in the
reactor and thus high SRT irrespective of HRT. Degasifier allows the removal of biogas
bubbles (CO2, CH4) attached to sludge which may otherwise float to the surface.
Biogas Biogas
Settling tank
Influent Effluent
Degassifier
Completely mixed
reactor
Recycled sludge
Waste sludge
Cont..
Anaerobic contact process (ACP)
ACP was initially developed for the treatment of dilute wastewater such as
meat packing plant which had tendency to form a settleable flocs. ACP is suitable
for the treatment of wastewater containing suspended solids which render the
microorganisms to attach and form settleable flocs.
The biomass concentration in the reactor ranges from 4-6 g/L with maximum
concentration as high as 25-30 g/L depending on settleability of sludge. The
loading rate ranges from 0.5 – 10 kg COD/m3-day. The required SRT could be
maintained by controlling the recycle rate similar to activated sludge process.
Anaerobic filter
• Developed by Young and McCarty in the late 1960s to treat dilute soluble organic wastes
• The filter was filled with rocks similar to the trickling filter
• Wastewater distributed across the bottom and the flow was in the upward direction through a bed
of rocks
• Whole filter submerged completely
• Anaerobic microorganisms accumulate within voids of media (rocks or other plastic media)
• The media retain or hold the active biomass within the filter
• The non-attached biomass within the interstices forms bigger flocs of granular shape due to
rising gas bubble/liquid
• Non-attached biomass contributes significantly to waste treatment
• Attached biomass - not a major portion of total biomass
• 64% attached and 36% non-attached
Upflow Anaerobic Filter
Heater Biogas
Effluent
Perforated
Al plate Sampling
port
Water bath
Peristaltic pump
Media
Constant temperature Sludge wastage
Feeding recirculation line
tank at 4oC
Peristaltic pump
Cont..
Anaerobic Filter Packing
Originally, rocks were employed as packing medium in anaerobic filter. But due to very low
void volume (40-50%), serious clogging problems were witnessed. Now, many synthetic packing
media are made up of plastics; ceramic tiles of different configuration have been used in anaerobic
filters. The void volume in these media ranges from 85-95 %. Moreover, these media provide
high specific surface area, typically 100 m2/m3, or above, which enhances biofilm growth.
Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB)
UASB was developed in 1970s by Lettinga in the Netherlands.
UASB is essentially a suspended growth system in which proper hydraulic and organic
loading rate is maintained in order to facilitate the dense biomass aggregation known
as granulation. The size of granules is about 1-3 mm diameter. Since granules are
bigger in size and heavier, they will settle down and be retained within the reactor. The
concentration of biomass in the reactor may become as high as 50 g/L. Thus a very
high SRT can be achieved even at a very low HRT of 4 hours.
The granules consist of hydrolytic bacteria, acidogen/acetogens and methanogens.
Carbohydrate degrading granules show layered structure with a surface layer of
hydrolytic/fermentative acidogens. A mid-layer comprising of syntrophic colonies and
an interior with acetogenic methanogens.
UASB Reactor
Effluent
biogas
Influent
Anaerobic baffled reactor
In anaerobic baffled reactor, the wastewater passes over and under the
baffles. The biomass accumulates in between the baffles which may in
fact form granules with time. The baffles present the horizontal movement
of biomass in the reactor. Hence a high concentration of biomass can be
maintained within the reactor.
Biogas
Sludge
Complete Mix:
The influent and the recycle sludge are introduced at several points in
the center of the aeration basin from a header or central channel.
Effluent from the aeration basin is collected from both sides of the
basin since there is two effluent channels.
Aeration can be accomplished by diffused air or mechanical aeration
the solids in the basin effluent is separated by using clarifier
the sludge is recycled back to the head of the system
Excess sludge is sent to the sludge handling facility of the treatment
plant.
.
Aerobic Process : Activated Sludge Systems
Different types of activated sludge systems are used in treating waste water.
Some sludge systems include
- conventional,
- complete mix,
- contact stabilization,
- extended aeration,
- step aeration.
Conventional:
This type includes an
- aeration basin,
- clarifier,
- sludge recycle system.
Process: The recycle sludge (RS) and influent enter the aeration basin at the
inlet. Aeration to the basin can be provided by diffused air or mechanical
aerations.
The solids in the mixed liquor get separated out in the clarifier and are
recycled back to the aeration basin.
Contact Stabilization:
The influent is first mixed with the activated sludge for approximately
30 min for the organics to be absorbed in a contact basin.
Effluent from the contact basin is fed to a clarifier, where the activated
sludge is settled out and returned to another aeration/stabilization
basin.
Inside the aeration/stabilization basin
the activated sludge is aerated for 3-6 hours before it is mixed with
the influent in the contact basin.
The absorbed organics are converted to carbon dioxide, water, and
new cells, by means of biochemical oxidation.
Excess sludge, generated from the process, can be drawn out
(wasted) from the bottom of the clarifier or from the stabilization basin
outlet.
Extended Aeration:
In this process, aeration time is about 24 hours.
The activated sludge system operates in an endogenous respiration phase
in which there is inadequate organic material in the system to support all the
microorganisms present, due to a low BOD loading.
Under this type of operating condition, extended aeration process can
produce low sludge and a highly treated effluent.
Step Aeration:
Influent to the aeration basin is split up into four or more equal streams and
are then fed into four parallel channels separated by baffles.
Each channel is equivalent to a separate step and these steps are
connected together in series
The first step is commonly used to re-aerate the activated sludge
the influent containing organic material are added to the aerated activated
sludge
the organic material in the influent can be absorbed and broken down within
a short contact time.
Organic Removal
Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)
SBRs are used in batch modes.
They consist of one or more reactors used for
- equalization,
- aeration and
- clarification in sequence
Operation cycle of a SBR system consists of five steps,
A) fill
B) react
C) settle
D) draw
E) idle.
A. Fill: the waste water is pumped into reactor tank, controlled either by volume or time.
B. React: in this step, the aeration equipment is energized to supply air to the batch, where the
oxidation of the organics occurs.
C. Settle: solids are separated from the liquid and the clarified liquid is then discharged from the
system.
D. Draw: clarified water is discharged from the reactor.
E. Idle: this step is used where two or more reactors are connected in an SBR system. One
reactor remains idle while others (one or more) are filled.
Advantages of SBR systems over conventional flow system
1) One SBR tank can serve as an equalization tank, reactor tank and clarifier.
2) SBR can tolerate high peak flows, since it serves as an equalization tank. Effluent quality is
not compromised.
3) Operating level in SBR tank is adjustable. Hence, during low flow conditions, a smaller
batch can be collected and treated as desired.
4) Solids in tank do not get washed out by hydraulic rises as solids can be held in the tank as
long as necessary.
Membrane Technology
Reverse osmosis uses semipermeable membranes
(i) Allows only solvent
(ii) Not allows dissolved organic and inorganic materials
A pressure gradient is applied to cause separation of the solvent and solute.
Any components that may damage or restrict the function of the membrane
must be removed before the process is performed.
Capital investment and operating costs depend on the waste stream
composition.
Disadvantages
-The equipment is expensive, and
- fouling of the membranes has been a common problem.
MABR - Membrane aerated biofilm reactor
Equalization - Neutralization - Precipitation - Heavy metal Removal
Evaporation (Stripping) processes - adsorption processes (Ion exchange,
Activated carbon, membrane filter)
Activated Carbon
Activated carbon is a recommended and established material used in separating
organic and certain inorganic compounds from aqueous waste streams.
Adsorption is based on physical chemical interaction between the
organic pollutant and the carbon surface. Activated carbon from rice bran
In this process, a filter bed of activated carbon
is placed in a vessel and used to treat certain components.
Different raw materials, including
rice bran, coal (carbonized vegetable
Matter or charcoal), wood, coconut
shells, peat (partially carbonized
vegetable matter), and coke
(petroleum oils carbon waste),
Nanopores Micropores
are used to produce activated carbon.
Active sites
Carbons for waste water adsorption generally have a large adsorptive surface
area, about 2.5 to 7.5 million ft/lb.
Pore sizes range within 50 Å, and 1000 Å.
Activated carbon is available in
granular powder
Granular carbons are used Powdered carbon is used
in the treatment of for batch adsorption
continuous and applications and in
semi-continuous waste conjunction with
water streams. biological treatment.
Favorable results are achieved when the pollutant is
- slightly soluble in water,
- has a high molecular weight,
- high polarity,
- low ionization capability,
- when the concentration of any suspended solids is less than 50 ppm.
Once the carbon has become saturated, regeneration of the carbon is required.
Regeneration methods are
- Thermal reactivation in a furnace at high temperatures (1200ºF to
1700ºF)
- Steam stripping
- Ozone mediated on-site oxidation
Air Stripping
For pharmaceutical waste water streams containing volatile organic
compounds (VOC’s), air stripping can be used to reduce containment
discharge.
Air stripping can be used for treating waste water containing
- less than 100 ppm VOC
- insoluble organics, such as methylene chloride and toluene.
Treatment efficiency using air stripping is dependent on Henry’s law, which is
as follows:
PA = HA XA
where,
PA = Vapor pressure of compound A (atm)
HA = Henry’s law constant of compound A (atm)
XA = Liquid phase mole fraction of compound A
Henry’s constant is a function of temperature and a weak function of
composition and pressure
Maximum pollutant removal by air stripping can be predicted by the following eq:
CAi - CAo
% Removal =
CAi X 100
where:
CAi = initial concentration
CAo = final concentration
The packed tower is compact and efficient for air stripping
Air strippers are 15 to 60 feet in height, and have diameters ranging from 1 to 10 feet.
Water flow rates are in the range of 40 to 250 lb/cfm air
air/water volumetric ratios are in the range of 10 to 300.
Steam Stripping
Steam stripping is used to remove dilute concentrations of NH3, H2S, and other volatile
components from pharmaceutical waste stream.
Remove 99% of organics which is having boiling points of less than 150°C.
The steam stripping process is carried out in a distillation column (either packed or tray tower
type).
In which, steam enters at the bottom of the column while waste water supplied from the top of the
distillation column.
Steam strippers are generally designed by the use of computer simulation programs.
Heavy Metals Removal
chromium, copper, nickel – waste from industrial waste water stream
Heavy metal streams must be treated prior to any biological treatment
Since heavy metals are toxic to microorganisms (even at very low concentrations), their presence
reduces biological treatment efficiency
Chemical Precipitation
Waste water containing metal components can be reduced by hydroxide (OH)
precipitation.
lime (calcium hyrdroxide), aluminium hydroxide or liquid sodium hydroxide can be used
as reactants for OH precipitation to form insoluble metal hydroxide.
Solids are settled, filtered, and removed as sludge.
Generally, lime is cheaper than other reagents.
Chrome containing waste water requires pretreatment, since hexavalent
chromium will not react with hydroxide.
Hexavalent (Cr6+) chrome must be reduced to the trivalent (Cr3+) form by
reaction with
- ferrous sulfate,
- sodium meta-bisulfite or
- sulfur dioxide.
The reduction must be carried out at a pH below 3.0
Later, the pH should be raised to pH 4.5 to 8.0 to achieve complete reduction
then the hydroxide precipitation can be carried out.
Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the reaction of either oxidation or reduction at the surface of
conductive electrodes immersed in an electrolyte, under the influence of an
applied potential.
used for reclaiming heavy metals from concentrated aqueous solutions
A frequent application - recovery for recycle or reuse of metals, like copper,
from waste streams.
Pilot applications - oxidation of cyanide waste and separation of oil water
mixtures.
The most common waste water treatment application of electrolysis is the
partial removal of heavy metals from spent pickling solutions.
When the spent pickling solution containing 2 to 7% copper, the system design
is similar to that of a conventional electroplating bath.
Ion Exchange
useful for heavy metal removal, particularly for nickel, zinc, copper, or chrome.
metals can be recovered from the solution and recycled to the process or sold.
useful for treatment of streams containing complexing agents.
Ion exchange is a two-step process
1) the ion exchanger, a solid material,
which
collects specific ions after coming into contact with the aqueous waste stream.
2) The exchanger is then exposed to another aqueous solution of a different
composition, that picks up the ions originally removed by the exchanger
Generally this process is carried out by sending the two aqueous streams through the
fixed beds of exchangers
Types of resin
- natural
- synthetic resins
are used widely because of their durability.
To make ion exchange as economical for advanced waste water treatment, it
would be desirable to use
- regenerants
- restorants
that would remove both the inorganic anions and the organic material from the
spent resin.
Chemicals used for the removal of organic material from resins are
- NaOH
- HCl
- methanol.
Advanced oxidation processes
AOP
Chemical oxidation technologies have been used for
many years to degrade a wide range of pollutants in
wastewater and drinking water. Advanced chemical
oxidation typically involves the use of chemical oxidants
(e.g. ozone or hydrogen peroxide) to generate hydroxyl
radicals (i.e. •OH), one of the strongest oxidants known.
Hydroxyl radicals are reactive and non-selective, capable
of rapidly degrading a number of organic compounds.
A free radical is a molecule that has an unpaired
electron (represented by a dot next to the chemical
structure, e. g., • )
A radical needs to pair its unpaired electron with
another electron and will react with another
molecule in order to obtain this missing electron. If
a radical achieves this by "stealing" an electron
from another molecule that other molecule itself
becomes a radical (Reaction 1), and a
self-propagating chain reaction is begun (Reaction
2).
Triplet Oxygen:
Ordinary oxygen, O2, is actually a pair of free
radicals because each O has an unpaired electron.
However, the electron spins of these electrons are
parallel which make the O2 molecule in the triplet
state.
In the triplet state the molecule is not very reactive.
This molecule can be symbolized as:
Superoxide:
Triplet oxygen can also be transformed into a
reactive state if it is accepts a single electron. The
result of monovalent reduction of triplet oxygen is
called superoxide, abbreviated . Superoxide is
a radical.
This reaction can be written as:
Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOP)
• Ozone/Peroxide:
•UV/Ozone:
Considered less economical than O3/H2O2 or H2O2/UV
•UV/Peroxide:
The UV oxidation process is generally done with
low pressure lamps operating at 65 watts of
electricity for ozone systems and lamps operating
at 15kW to 60kW for hydrogen peroxide systems.
Limitations of UV/oxidation (O3 or H2O2) include:
• The aqueous stream being treated must provide for good transmission of UV light (high
turbidity causes interference).
• Free radical scavengers can inhibit contaminant destruction efficiency. Excessive dosages of
chemical oxidizers may act as a scavenger.
• The aqueous stream to be treated by UV/oxidation should be relatively free of heavy metal ions
(less than 10 mg/L) and insoluble oil or grease to minimize the potential for fouling of the quartz
sleeves.
• Costs may be higher than competing technologies because of energy requirements.
• Pretreatment of the aqueous stream may be required to minimize ongoing cleaning and
maintenance of UV reactor and quartz sleeves.
• Handling and storage of oxidizers require special safety precautions
•Fenton’s Reagent:
There are a complex series of chain reactions proceeding
simultaneously which can regenerate Fe+2
The combination of the above reactions results in a redox cycle where ferrous iron
(Fe+2) is converted to ferric iron (Fe+3) and ferric iron is reduced back to ferrous
iron. The rate of Fe+2-H2O2 oxidation is significantly greater than Fe+3-H2O2
reduction. Therefore, the generation rate of hydroxyl radical in solution is often
rate limited by the regeneration of ferrous ion.
The procedure requires:
• adjusting the wastewater to pH 3-5;
• adding the iron catalyst (as a solution of FeSO4);
• adding slowly the H2O2. If the pH is too high, the iron precipitates as Fe(OH)3
and catalytically decomposes the H2O2 to oxygen
•Photocatalysis:
TiO2 and UV produce hydroxyl radical
The process involves illumination of an aqueous suspension of a
semiconductor. The light energy photogenerates electron hole pairs
which can migrate to the interface where they react with adsorbed
redox species. The process can be represented as:
Wavelength of irradiation is about 400 nm. Anatase TiO2 is generally
used. The process is subject to fouling and is limited to dilute solutions.
Another problem is that the TiO2 must be separated from the process
water (to be reused). Applications are still in the developmental stage.
The following is an example of how the hydroxyl radical reacts with an
organic (UV + peroxide oxidation of dichloromethane)
Advantages of AOP
• Effective in removing resistant organic compounds
• Capable of complete mineralization of organic compounds to CO2.
• Not susceptible to the presence of toxic chemicals
• Generally produce innocuous end products
• Can be used to pretreat toxic compounds so that they can be
bio-treated
Applications
O3/H2O2 has gained the widest acceptance because of effectiveness and low cost.
H2O2/UV has the advantage of simplicity (only chemical is H2O2, cheap and soluble). Suited to
small, minimum maintenance or intermittent operation systems. Some problems if materials in
water absorb UV.
O3/UV considered less favorable because of high pH requirement (chemical costs) but okay for
low flows.
Least used are the TiO2 systems although they have some advantages such as photocatalysts
made be used, natural light may be used as a UV source, additional radical initiators are not
required.
One of the operating issues that must be taken into account is the quantity of hydroxyl radical
produced versus oxidant consumed. The following table list these theoretical amounts.
Particulate matters
a small discrete mass of solid or liquid matters that remains
dispersed in gas or liquid emissions (generally considered to be an
environmental pollutant)
Particulates emissions are strongly influenced by
- the chemical composition of the raw material and the auxiliary fuel,
- the operating parameters,
- the air pollution control system.
Most of the pollutants of concern, other than VOC and inorganics, are
considered as particulates.
PARTICULATE CONTROL
Most commonly used particulate control technologies are:
- Fabric filters (baghouses)
- Cyclones/mechanical collectors
- Electrostatic precipitators
Fabric Filters (Baghouses)
The basic components of a baghouses are:
- Filter medium in form of fabric bags
- Tube sheet to support the bags
- Gas-tight enclosures
- Mechanism to dislodge accumulated dust from the bags
Two types of fabric filters
- Felted (made by combining fibers with a binder using heat and
pressure)
- Woven fabric
A fabric is selected based on its
- mechanical,
- chemical, and
- thermal characteristics.
There are two design and operational parameters that determine
fabric filter performance
i.e., - air-to-cloth ratio and
- pressure drop.
The air-to-cloth ratio is the
volumetric flow rate of the gas stream
surface area of the fabric
The higher the ratio, the smaller the baghouse and higher the
pressure drop.
Advantages:
- Performance
- Uniform collection efficiency independent of particle resistivity
- Collection efficiencies exceeding 99 wt%
Disadvantages:
- Clogging of the filter medium, due to condensation in the gas stream
- Cementation of the filter cake in humid, low-temperature gases
(especially in the presence of lime from a scrubber)
- Excursions of high particulate concentrations during bag breaks
AIR (EMISSIONS OF CONCERN)
A major concern associated with chemical processing is the emission
of air pollutants.
The greatest mass of air contaminants consists following pollutants:
- Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
- Inorganics
- Particulate matters
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
Emission is coming from the processes of
- incomplete combination of organic constituents
- conversion of certain constituents present in the
raw material,
auxiliary fuel,
combustion air.
Inorganics
Inorganic pollutants, such as HCl, HF, NOx, SOx, are also formed as a
result of incomplete combustion.
- Hydrogen chloride (HCl)
from the combustion of chlorinated hydrocarbons
- Hydrogen Fluoride (HF)
from the combustion of Fluorinated compounds
- Sulfur oxides, mostly as sulfur dioxide
formed from sulfur or sulfur compounds present in the products and
fuel mixture
- Nitrogen oxides
from the nitrogen in the combustion air and from organic nitrogen present in
the product.
SELECTING A CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
There are a number of control options for air toxics, particulates,
SOx and NOx.
It is up to the chemical engineer to choose the most cost-effective
control equipment for the application
Selection of control equipment begins with
- collecting relevant data on the emissions and
- key process parameters.
- The properties of the exhaust-gas stream and
- the pollutants need to be characterized