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From Google Earth From GOCE satellite (2009-2013)

Ellipsoid (Spheroid) Geoid

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SHAPE
The real earth's surface is concave and
convex, rough, and has no simple mathematical
equation to represent

71% of the surface is water

The remaining 29% of the surface is land

Choose the mean sea level to represent the

shape of the earth called the geoid surface.
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The geoid is an imaginary, calm, mean sea

surface that passes through islands and continents to
form a closed curved surface.

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Characteristics of Geoid
Is an equipotential surface
Normal line coincides with plumb line
Geoid has a complex shape due to the unevenness of
the Earth's gravity field.

Uses of Geoid
Determine the orthometric (absolute) height of
points on the ground surface
The absolute height of a point is the distance from
that point to the Geoid in the direction of the plumb line.

Vietnam considers the mean sea level

elevation at Do Son, Hon Dau, Hai Phong as 0m.
Geoid does not have simple mathematical
equations so it cannot be used to accurately
determine the horizontal position.

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To determine the horizontal position, one

must use an additional surface close to the geoid
and have a simple equation
In general, the geoid surface has a shape
similar to an ellipsoid surface (also called a
spheroid).
Choose the ellipsoid surface as the
representative surface of the earth when
representing the horizontal position of objects on
the ground
Ellipsoid equation
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Newton and Huygens theorized the

Earth is an oblate spheroid (flattened at
the poles),
while Giovanni and Cassini proposed it is
a prolate spheroid (elongated at the
poles). Their differing views led to a
famous debate. The French Academy
organized 2 teams for measuring 2
meridian arcs in Lapland and Ecuador.
Purpose of the Mission .
• The goal of this elaborate geodetic survey was to accurately measure a fraction of
the Earth's meridian, providing the basis for determining the exact shape of the
Earth. Newton's theory ultimately won after French expeditions confirmed the
oblate shape.
• The results of this measurement would be used to define the length of the new
unit of length, the meter. 1m = 1/106 of the distance from the North Pole to the
Equator.

ELLIPSOID PARAMETERS
𝑎−𝑏
• The first flat 𝑓=
𝑎
𝑎−𝑏
• The second flat 𝑓′ =
𝑏
𝑎−𝑏
• The third flat 𝑓′′ =
𝑎+𝑏
=𝑛
𝑎 −𝑏
• The first eccentricity 𝑒 =
𝑎
𝑎 −𝑏
• The second eccentricity 𝑒′ = 𝑏
• The third eccentricity 𝑒′′ =
𝑎 −𝑏
𝑎 +𝑏

𝑒 = 2𝑓 − 𝑓 𝑒′ 𝑒
𝑏 =𝑎 1−𝑒 =𝑎 1−𝑓 𝑒 = 𝑒′ =
1 + 𝑒′ 1−𝑒
𝑓 = 1− 1−𝑒

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Characterized by 2 parameters of the ellipsoid

If the earth is considered a sphere, the
average radius R ~ 6371km
4 conditions for establishing a global ellipsoid:
The mass of the ellipsoid is equal to the mass
of the real earth.
The rotational velocity of the ellipsoid is
equal to the earth.
The center of mass of the ellipsoid coincides
with the center of mass of the earth.
The sum of squares of the deviations between
the ellipsoid and the geoid is minimum
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Types of ellipsoids used in Vietnam

Names Year Major Axis (m) Flat Notes

Clarke 1880 6378249 1/293,466 Before 1955

Everest 1830 6377276 1/300,8 South VN 1955-

1975
Krasovski 1940 6378245 1/298,3 North VN 1955-
1975
VN 1975-2000
WGS 84 1984 6378137 1/298,257 VN2000-present

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MERIDIAN, PARALLEL
Meridian: intersection of the plane containing
the axis of rotation with the ellipsoid surface
Prime meridian:
meridian passing
through Greenwich
Observatory
(England).
The meridians
converge at the
north and south
poles of the ellipsoid 15

MERIDIAN, PARALLEL
Parallel: intersection of a plane perpendicular
to the axis of rotation with the ellipsoid
Prime latitude (equator):
intersection of plane
perpendicular to the axis
of rotation at the center
with the ellipsoid surface
The parallels are circles,
centered on the axis of
rotation of the ellipsoid.
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LONGITUDE, LATITUDE
Longitude (): of a point is the angle between
the plane containing the prime meridian
(Greenwich) and the plane containing the meridian
through that point
Values of longitude:
0 East – 180 East
0 West – 180 West

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LONGITUDE, LATITUDE
Latitude (): of a point is the angle made by
the normal through that point with the equatorial
plane

Values of Latitude:
00 North – 900 North
00 South – 900 South

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GAUSS - KRUGER PROJECTION

Let the earth be
inscribed inside a
horizontal cylinder.
The two surfaces will
touch each other
along a meridian,
called the tangent
meridian.
After expanding the cylinder, the projection of the equator is
a horizontal line, the projection of the tangent meridian is a
vertical line, perpendicular to the equatorial projection.
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Divide the earth into 60 zones (6). Number

them from 1-60, starting from the 180 meridian.

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Project each zone onto the cylinder in turn,

while translating the earth from west to east. After
expanding the cylinder, we get the following image

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Characteristics of projection
Is a horizontal, equiangular cylindrical projection
On each projection zone, the axial and equatorial
meridians are straight lines and perpendicular to each
other.
A straight line segment on the central meridian is not
deformed by distance; the farther from the central
meridian, the greater the distance distortion.
The line segment on the central meridian does not
change in distance; the farther from the central meridian,
the greater the distance distortion. Scale factor k = s/S
At mid-meridian: k=1
At border meridian: k=1.0014 (max) 22

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Each projection zone forms a plane perpendicular

coordinate system. The horizontal axis is the projection of
the equator, the vertical axis is parallel and 500 km from
the projection of the central meridian.

no yes

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The coordinates of a point are recorded as in

the following example:
M (x = 1220km; y = 18565km). In which the first 2
numbers of y are the projection zone number and
not the magnitude value of the coordinates.
Vietnam's HN-72 coordinate system used the
Gauss-Kruger projection.

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The HN-72 reference system has the

following parameters:
-Horizontal coordinates:
+ Ellipsoid: Krasovsky (Russian)
+ Map projection: Gauss-Kruger
-Elevation: Hon Dau – Hai Phong
HN-72 reference system used in Vietnam from
1972 to 2000
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UTM (UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR)

PROJECTION
• Horizontal cylinder cuts
gently through the
earth along two secant
lines 360km apart and
symmetrical about the
central meridian of the
projection zone.
• Latitude limit of
projection zone: 80S
to 84N
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Divide the earth into 60 zones (6). Number them

from 1-60, starting from the 180 meridian.

• Project each zone onto the

horizontal cylinder. After
expanding the cylinder, we
get the following image
• The projection of the
equator is a horizontal line,
the projection of the
tangent meridian is a
vertical line, perpendicular
to the equatorial
projection.
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Characteristics of projection
Is a horizontal, equiangular cylindrical
projection
On each projection zone, the central meridian
and the equator are straight lines and
perpendicular to each other.
Scale factor at central meridian: k=0.9996. At
2 secant lines: k= 1
The UTM projection has more evenly
distributed distance distortion than the Gauss-
Kruger projection. 29

Exactly similar
to the Gauss-Kruger
coordinate system

Vietnam's
current VN-2000
coordinate system
uses improved UTM
projection.
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The VN-2000 reference system has the

following parameters:
-Horizontal coordinate system:
+ Ellipsoid: WGS84 (USA)
+ Map projection: improved UTM
-Elevation: Hon Dau – Hai Phong

VN-2000 used in Vietnam from 5-2000 onwards

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Example: Point A in the UTM coordinate

system zone 6 has the following coordinate values:
A(1210km; 46 562km).
1. What is the longitude value of the western zone
boundary meridian of the zone containing A?
a. 2760 E b. 2700 E c. 960 E d. 900 E
2. Distance from point A to the central meridian?
a. 562km b. 62km c. 1062km d. 438km

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3. The longitude of point A lies in which of the

following ranges?
a. 900E ≤ A ≤ 930E b. 930E ≤ A ≤ 960E
c. 960E ≤ A ≤ 990E d. 990E ≤ A ≤ 1020E

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• TRUE AZIMUTH The true azimuth of a line

is the angle between
astronomical north (by
observe Polaris star) and
the direction of the line in
a clockwise rotation.
Symbol: At
Note: True azimuth is very
stable over space and
time, but difficult to
measure because it is only
observed at night and is
weather dependent. 34

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WHERE IS POLARIS STAR?

The magnetic azimuth of a

line is the angle measured
clockwise from magnetic
north to the direction of
the line. Symbol Am
Note: the magnetic
N azimuth is easy to measure
but less accurate because
magnetic north changes
over space and time.

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COMPASS

A compass is an instrument
that shows cardinal directions
(North, South, East, and West)
and is used for navigation and
orientation.
The most common type, a
magnetic compass, contains a
magnetized needle or compass
card that pivots to align with
Earth's magnetic field, pointing
to magnetic North.

The value of the angle between true north

and magnetic north at a point. Symbol: 

At = Am + 


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Magnetic deviation includes:

+ Eastern magnetic deviation >0
+ Western magnetic deviation <0

N N
M M
Eastern magnetic Western magnetic
deviation deviation
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Meridian convergence () is the

value of the angle between the true
meridian and the central meridian or
the line parallel to the central
meridian;
-The closer to the central meridian,
the smaller the value of . The further
from the central meridian, the larger
the value of 
-At the central meridian,  = 0

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Grid North
The BEARING of a line
is the angle formed by the
direction of Grid North
(parallel to the North
central meridian) and the
direction of the line in the
clockwise direction. Symbol

Bearing is not measured
directly but calculated from
true azimuth or magnetic
azimuth 41

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN At and 

Grid North
Magnetic North
True North

At = Am + 
At =  +  Am
At


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The bearing of two

opposite directions on
NM the same line segment
differs by 180:
MN
NM = MN  1800
Bearing value
range 00 - 3600

When calculating, the result obtained for the

bearing may not be within the range of 0 – 360. It
must be converted to this range. 43

CALCULATE BEARING FROM HORIZONTAL ANGLE

2 23
12

𝛼 =𝛼 + 𝛽 − 180
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CALCULATE BEARING FROM HORIZONTAL ANGLE

12 23

2

𝛼 =𝛼 − 𝛽 + 180
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CALCULATE HORIZONTAL ANGLE FROM BEARINGS

2 23 12 23

12
2

2 = 23 - 12 + 180 2 = 12 - 23 + 180

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DIRECT PROBLEM

• Given x1, y1, S12,

12
• Ask x2, y2
12
x12 = [Link]12
y12 = [Link]12
x2 = x1 + x12
y2 = y1 + y12
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INVERSE PROBLEM

• Given x1, y1, x2, y2

• Ask S12, 12
12 x12 = x2 – x1
y12 = y2 – y1

𝑆 = Δ𝑥 + Δ𝑦

𝑦12
𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔
𝑥 48

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𝑦12 Since the bearing has a value of

𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔 0-180, it is necessary to
𝑥
consider the signs of x and y.
For using a calculator, you can do some following
steps:

Assume  = arctg | |

• Case 1: x>0 and y>0 12 = 
• Case 2: x>0 and y<0 12 = 180 - 
• Case 3: x<0 and y<0 12 = 180 + 
• Case 4: x<0 and y>0 12 = 360 - 
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By CARTESIAN COORDINATES

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The area of polygon 1234 is calculated based

on the formula for calculating the area of a
trapezoid as follows:
𝑥
𝐷𝑇 = (𝑦 −𝑦 )
2

⇔𝑃
𝑥 𝑥
= × 𝑦 −𝑦 + × 𝑦 −𝑦 +
2 2
𝑥 𝑥
× 𝑦 −𝑦 + × 𝑦 −𝑦
2 2
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4
3
2
1

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The area of polygon 1234 is calculated based

on the formula for calculating the area of a triangle
as follows:

𝑆 .𝑆
𝐷𝑇 = . 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛽 −𝛽)
2

⇔𝑃
𝑆 ×𝑆 𝑆 ×𝑆
= × sin 𝛽 − 𝛽 + × sin 𝛽 − 𝛽 +
2 2
𝑆 ×𝑆 𝑆 ×𝑆
× sin 𝛽 − 𝛽 + × sin 𝛽 − 𝛽
2 2
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Question 1: Given diagram and data as shown

a) Calculate the
coordinates of
points 1, 2, 3 and 4
b) Calculate the
bearing of edges 12
and 34

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Question 2: Given diagram and data as shown

a) Calculate the
coordinates of
points 1, 2, 3 and 4
b) Calculate the length
of the sides of
polygon 1234
c) Calculate interior
angle of polygon
1234
d) Calculate area of
polygon 1234
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Guide to solve question 1:

a) Calculate coordinates of points 1->4

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b) Calculate bearings of 12, 34:

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ANSWERS FOR QUESTION 1

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Guide to resolve question 2:

a) Calculate coordinates of points 1->4

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b) Calculate lengths of edges of the polygon 1234

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c) Calculate interior angles of the polygon

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d) Calculate area of the polygon

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ANSWERS FOR QUESTION 2:

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