Chapter Two: Semiconductor Diodes and their

Applications

Adama Science and Technology University (ASTU)

College of Electrical Engineering and Computing

Electronics and Communication Engineering Department

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Outlines

1 Semiconductor Diodes and their Characteristics

Diode Approximation

2 Analysis of Diode Circuits

3 Types of Diodes

4 Application of Diode Circuits

Rectification
Voltage Regulator
Power Supply Systems
Wave Shaping Circuits
Voltage Multiplier Circuits

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Semiconductor Diodes and their Characteristics

A pn junction that has two terminals: An anode and a cathode.

In Fig.a, the voltage vD across the diode is referenced as positive

from anode to cathode. Similarly, the diode current iD is referenced
as positive from anode to cathode
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Cont. . . .
The v-i characteristic is an exponential function given by:
 qv 
D

id = ISS e ηKT − 1 (1)

ISS :
Saturation current of the diode
Electron charge = 1.602 × 10−19 C


q :
Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K


K :
VT :
Thermal voltage (= 26mV at room temperature)
KT T
VT = = = 26mV at room temprature of
q 11, 600
300K
η : Material scale factor; is close to 1 for Ge and in silicon
varies over the range 1 < η < 1 at rated current for the
diode
: Emission coefficient (a function of VD )
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Cont. . . .

In the characteristics curve, if the voltage vD across the diode is

positive, relatively large amounts of current flow for small voltages
condition is forward bias.
For moderately negative values of vD , the current iD is very small.
This is called the reverse bias.
If a sufficiently large reverse-bias voltage is applied to the diode, its
operation enters the reverse-breakdown region of the characteristic,
and currents of large magnitude flow.
Provided that the power dissipated in the diode does not raise its
temperature too high, reverse-breakdown operation is not destructive
(helpful) to the device.

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Diode Approximation

The Ideal Diode

It conducts in the forward direction (zero resistance = conductor) and
not in the reverse direction (infinite resistance = insulator).

Analogous with an ordinary switch which has zero resistance when it is

closed and infinite resistance when it is open

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Cont. . . .

Second Approximation
It approximates the diode as if there is no current until the barrier
potential, 0.7V .
At this point, the diode turns on and after this point, there will only be
0.7V what ever the current is

Analogous with a switch which is open when we apply low or negative

voltages but which closes when we apply a voltage equal to or greater
than Vd
it is impossible to get a voltage larger than this across the diode, thus
it is also called Cut-In or Knee voltage

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Cont. . . .
Third Approximation
The diode is approximated as a switch in series with barrier potential of
0.7V and bulk resistance (rB ).
During conduction the total voltage across the diode is:

VD = 0.7V + ID rB (2)

After silicon diode turns on, the voltage increases linearly with an
increase in current.
The greater the current, the larger the diode voltage because of the
voltage drop across the bulk resistance.
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Cont. . . .

Diode Resistance and Capacitor

Diode Resistance
When a diode is forward biased to a particular operating point called
quiescent point (Q), then the effective dc resistance of the diode RQ :

VDQ
RQ = (3)
IDQ

The value of RQ will vary depending upon where the Q-point is located
on the diode characteristic curve, since the relation between IDC and
VDC essentially linear
If the applied bias varies with time, such as when a sinusoidal bias
voltage is superimposed upon the operating point, then a dynamic
resistance (rδ ) of the device may be defined
rδ of a diode is found by taking the derivative of diode current, ID with
respect to diode voltage VD

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Cont. . . .

VD
1 dID ISS V
= = e T
rδ dVD ηVT
When the diode is fully turned on such that the operation is well out
VD
on the V-I characteristic curve ID = e VT
1 dID IDQ
= ≈
rδ dVD ηVT

At room temperature, for silicon ()

The effective dc (static) resistance is
VDQ
RQ =
IDQ

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Cont. . . .

The dynamic resistance in response to a small ac superposed upon the

operating point is:
ηVT 0.026 26mV
rδ = = Ω=
IDQ IDQ IDQ
From dynamic resistance of a diode, for large value of IDQ , rδ becomes
very small. In such cases,
VDQ
RQ =
IDQ

Diode capacitances
There are two types of capacitive effects in a PN - junction:
Space charge capacitance and Diffusion capacitance

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Cont. . . .

Space charge capacitance

A capacitance due to bound donor and acceptor ions in the depletion
region
dQ ϵA
CT = = (4)
dV d
Its effect is reduced in reverse biased diode. This is because the space
charge capacitance is indirectly proportional to the width of the
depletion region and the depletion region gets wider for the reverse bias.
Diffusion capacitance
A capacitance due to the accumulation of minority charge carriers at
the edges of the depletion region.
Because the accumulation of minority carriers at each side of the
depletion region is very large for forward biased and it is almost zero for
reverse biased, diffusion capacitance is magnified in forward biased.

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Cont. . . .

dQ
CD = ; Q = iτ
dV
diτ di
= =τ = τg
dV dV
IS + I
= τg = τ( ) (5)
ηVT
Expression in the forward bias case, the current IF is large and hence
the diffusion capacitance becomes very large.
In the reverse bias condition, since the current IR is very small, the
diffusion capacitance is very small
The diffusion capacitance is always greater than the space charge
capacitance (CD > CT ).

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Cont. . . .

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) (Avalanche and Zener Breakdown)

Peak Inverse Voltage is the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can
sustain without being driven it to the irreversible breakdown region
Known as the reverse- bias voltage is increased,
The internal electric field in the diode increases, which accelerates
minority carriers to collide with the crystal lattice structure.
The collision generates additional hole- electron pair in an avalanche
manner which results a rapidly increase reverse in the diode, which is
the cause to heat up and finally destroys the diode.
To keep the diode for safe operation, the reverse voltage must not be
exceeded.
Manufacturers always list peak inverse voltage (PIV) ratings for
semiconductor diodes

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Cont. . . .

With ordinary diodes however, the term avalanche break down implies
irreversible damage to the diode
Avalanche and zener diodes in which the breakdown phenomenon is
reversible
In avalanche diodes, avalanche effect is self limiting that is, as the
diode heats up, lattice vibration increases, which reduces the mean-free
path distance for the field-accelerated charges
Zener breakdown occurs in specially doped diodes, which are
characterized by a sudden rise in current at a particular value of reverse
voltage

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Analysis of Diode Circuits

Diodes as a Circuit Element

The circuit element used to replace the diode depends on the voltage
and current levels of the circuit

ηVT
Where: rf =
I + ISS

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Cont. . . .

Load Line Analysis

Applying Kirchhof’s voltage law, a load line equation becomes;

VSS = iD R + vD (6)

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Cont. . . .

VSS and R are known

We can obtain the solution by plotting equation 6 on the same set of
axes used for the diode characteristic
The operating point is the intersection of the load line and the diode
characteristic.
The operating point represents the simultaneous solution of equation 6
and the diode characteristic.

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Cont. . . .
Piecewise Linear Model
A model that approximates the graph V-I characteristic in to somewhat
linear

By passing the load line equation through each piece, we can determine
the variables
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Types of Diodes

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Cont. . . .
Zener Diode
Permits current to flow in the forward and reverse direction if the
voltage is larger than the rated breakdown voltage or ”Zener voltage”
Contains a heavily doped p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from
the valence band of the p-type to the conduction band of the n-type
material
A reverse biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and
let the current flow to keep the voltage across the Zener diode at the
Zener voltage
Another The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately in
the doping process
Mechanism that produces a similar effect is the avalanche effect as in
the avalanche diode
In silicon diodes up to about 5.6 volts, the zener effect is the
predominant effect and shows a marked negative temperature
coefficient.
Above 5.6 volts, the avalanche effect becomes predominant and
exhibits a positive temperature coefficient.
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Cont. . . .

With the application of sufficient reverse voltage, a p-n junction will

experience a rapid avalanche breakdown and conduct current in the
reverse direction

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Cont. . . .

Valence electrons, which break free under the influence of the applied
electric field, can be accelerated enough that they can knock loose
other electrons and the subsequent collisions quickly become an
avalanche, very small changes in voltage can cause very large changes
in current.
The breakdown process depends upon the applied electric field, so by
changing the thickness of the layer to which the voltage is applied,
zener diodes can be formed which break down at voltages from about 4
volts to several hundred volts.

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Cont. . . .

Shottky Diodes
Consisting of a junction called metal semiconductor junction and
formed by bringing metal (Aluminium) into moderately doped n-type
semiconductor
Aluminium acts as a p-type material (anode), the n-type material is the
cathode
Unlike a normal semiconductor diode Shottky Diodes can be turned off
very quickly

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Cont. . . .

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

When pn-junction is forward biased, free electrons cross the junction
and recombines with holes at p-side in the conduction band and drop
to the valence band by recombination, they emit energy in the form of
heat or light depending on the material used.
silicon and germanium diodes release energy in the form of heat,
Gallium arsenide (GaAs) and gallium phosphate (GaP) release light
energy
The colour of emitted light is controlled by the doping level

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Cont. . . .

Reading assignment
Tunnel diode
Step-recovery diode
Varactor diode

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Application of Diode Circuits

Semiconductor diodes find many applications in electronics circuit

designing
As rectifier in power supplies
In radio frequency receivers
In voltage regulating devices
In clipping, limiting and clamping circuits
In radio frequency receivers
As polarity sensitive dc conductive devices
As voltage tuned capacitors and find many applications in radio
frequency design
As indicator lights and in displays
As optical detectors

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Rectification
The process by which time varying voltages are converted to pulsating
d.c voltages.
DC power supplies are typically produced by rectifying the sinusoidal
voltage available from the a.c power mains.
The initial rectification process produced sinusoidal voltage pulses, i.e.
still the rectified voltage is a time varying signal.
To obtain a d.c voltage, the rectified voltage (pulsating d.c voltage)
must be processed by a filter.
When a very stable and pure d.c voltage is required the rectified and
filtered voltage may be further processed using a voltage regulator.
There are many configurations of diodes that produce rectification:
Half wave rectifier: which uses only one diode
Full wave rectifier: that uses two diodes and a centre - tapped
transformer
Bridge rectifier: that uses four diodes
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a. Half wave rectifier
The diode conducts only on every other half cycle (during the half
cycle)

Principles of Operation
During the first half cycle of the waveform shown on the left (Input ac
voltage), point A is positive with respect to point B
The diode is forward biased and current flows around the circuit formed
by the diode, the transformer winding and the load
The voltage across the load is as shown
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Cont. . . .

During the second half cycle, point A and the anode are negative while
point B and the cathode are positive.
The diode is reverse biased and no current flows
The voltage across the load is as shown
The rectified voltage is d.c (it is either positive or negative in value
depending on the direction of the diode connection).
It is not a steady d.c, but pulsating d.c.
It needs to be smoothed before it becomes useful
Peak Inverse Voltage: The maximum voltage (Vm ) across non
conducting diode
for a half wave rectifier
PIV = Vm (7)

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Cont. . . .
Let Vi be the voltage to the primary of the transformer
Vi = Vm sinωt, Vm ≫ Vr
Where: Vr is the cut-in voltage (barrier potential) of the diode.
Ripple Factor (r ):
A purity of the output dc voltage
The ratio of the effective (rms) value of ac components voltage (or
current) to the dc or the average value components in the output.
s 2
Vrms
r= −1 (8)
VDC
The average (Vav ) or the dc output (VDC ) content of the voltage
across the load
Vm
Vav = VDC = (9)
π
and
VDC Im
Iav = IDC = = (10)
RL π
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Cont. . . .
Effective (rms) voltage at the load resistance

Vm
Vrms = (11)
2
and
Im
Irms = (12)
2
The ripple factor in the half wave rectifier circuit is

r = 1.21 (13)

Efficiency (η)
The ability of a rectifier circuit to convert the a.c input power into
useful d.c power in the load.
It is defined as the ratio of the dc output power (PDC ) to the ac input
power (Pac )
η = 40.6% (14)
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Cont. . . .
Form Factor
rms values of output voltage
F = = 1.57 (15)
average values of output voltage
The ripple factor of a rectifier circuit may also be calculated from the
form factor as p
r = F2 − 1 (16)
Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)
Used to determine the rating of a transformer secondary
dc power delivered the load
TUF = (17)
ac rating of the transformer secondary
In half wave rectifier the rated rms voltage of the transformer
Vm
secondary is:
2
Vm
the rms current flowing through the winding is only:
2
TUF = 0.287 (18)
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b. Full Wave Rectifier Circuit
It uses two diodes (D1, D2) and a Centre-tapped transformer (T1).
When the centre tap is grounded, the voltages at the opposite ends of
the secondary windings are 180 degrees out of phase with each other

When the voltage at point A is positive with respect to ground, the

voltage at point B is negative with respect to ground
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Cont. . . .
Principles of Operation
During the first half cycle, the anode of D1 is positive with respect to
ground and the anode of D2 is negative.
The current flows from the ground up through the load resistor (RL ),
through diode D1 to point A
In the transformer, current flows from point A, through the upper
winding, and back to ground (centre tap).
When D1 conducts, it acts like a closed switch so that the positive half
cycle is felt across the load (RL ).
During the second half cycle, the anode of D2 is positive with respect
to ground and the anode of D1 is negative
Only D2 can conduct.
Current flows from ground (centre tap), up through the load resistor
(RL ), through diode D2 to point B of T1 .
In the transformer, current flows from point B up through the lower
windings and back to ground (centre tap)
The current flows across the load resistor (RL ) in the same direction for
both halves of the input cycle
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Cont. . . .
The average voltage or the dc voltage available across the load
resistance is
2Vm
Vav = Vdc = (19)
π
and
2Im
Iav = Idc = (20)
π
The effective (rms) value of the voltage at the load resistance is
Vm
Vrms = √ (21)
2
and
Im
Irms = √ (22)
2
The ripple factor of the Full Wave Rectifier circuit
r = 0.482 (23)
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Cont. . . .

Efficiency
η = 0.812 (24)

The maximum efficiency of a Full Wave Rectifier is 81.2% and it is

much higher than the efficiency of a Half Wave Rectifier circuit.
Form Factor

F = 1.11 (25)
Peak inverse voltage
The PIV of a Full Wave Rectifier across the non-conducting diode is
2Vm because the entire secondary voltage appears across this diode.
Transformer Utilization Factor
It is determined by considering the primary and the secondary windings
separately and it gives a value of 0.693

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c. Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier

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Cont. . . .
Principles of Operation
The voltages at points A and B on the transformer are changing in
opposite directions.
When A is increasing in a positive direction, B is increasing negatively.
It is like the opposite ends of a seesaw
During the first half cycle, A is positive and B is negative. D1 has
positive on its anode, D2 has negative on its cathode. Both are forward
biased
Current flows around the circuit formed by these diodes, the load and
the transformer winding
The current flowing up through the load produces a pulse of voltage
across the load.
During the second half cycle, A is negative and B is positive.
D4 has positive on its anode, D3 has negative on its cathode. Both are
forward biased
Current flows around the circuit flowing in the same direction through
the load and producing another pulse of voltage
Since the full cycle is used, this circuit is called a Full Wave rectifier
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Cont. . . .

The following parameters are the same as the full wave rectifier;
Idc , Vdc , Irms , Vrms , Ripple factor, Efficiency, Form factor, peak facto
(TUF ). Its Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV ) is Vm , due to the two
conducting diodes are in series
Bridge rectifier has a number of advantages:
Low ripple
High efficiency
TUF is higher than centre tapped FWR
less bulky and expensive
PIV is only Vm
since TUF is high it can be used for high power applications
Bridge rectifier has a disadvantage:
Uses four diodes, which reduces voltage by two diode drops for every
half cycle.

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Filtering Circuits
To get a smooth DC (pure dc), we need to filter out the pulsation
Filtering is removing the ac components of the output voltage to the
load
Half wave capacitor input filter (C filter)
One method of smoothing the rectified output voltage is by placing a
large capacitance across the output terminals of the rectifier

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Cont. . . .

When the ac source reaches a positive peak, the capacitor is charged to

the peak voltage
When the source voltage drops below the voltage stored on the
capacitor, the diode is reverse biased and no current flows through it.
The capacitor continues to supply the current to the load, slowly
discharging until the next positive peak of the ac input. A
The current flows through the diode in pulses that recharge the
capacitor.
Because of the charge and discharge cycle, the load voltage contains a
small ac component called ripple

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Cont. . . .

The capacitor discharges for nearly the entire cycle, and the charge
removed from the capacitor during one discharge cycle is;

Q = IL T

The charge removed from the capacitor is

Q = Vr C

The filter capacitance needed in a half wave rectifier

IL T IL
C= = (26)
Vr Vr f

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Cont. . . .
Ripple Factor
The effective (rms) value of the ripple components of almost triangular
wave is dependent only on the peak to peak value of the ripple
components.
Vrp−p
Vrms = √
2 3
hence
Vrms 1
r= = √ (27)
Vdc 2 3fCRL
Output d.c Voltage or Current
The average or the d.c voltage value of the output voltage is almost
midway between the peak values (Vm) and the minimum value given
by points positive Vrp and negative Vrp respectively
Vm
Vdc = (28)
1
1+
2fCRL
and
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Cont. . . .

Vm
Idc = (29)
1
RL +
2fC
Full wave with capacitor filter
During the positive half cycle, the capacitor charges up to the peak
value of the transformer secondary voltage, Vm and will try to
maintain this value as the full wave input drops to zero.
Capacitor will discharge through RL slowly until the transformer
secondary voltage again increases to a value greater than the capacitor
voltage.
The diode conducts for a period, which depends on the capacitor
voltage.
The diode will conduct when the transformer secondary voltage
becomes more than the diode voltage. This is called the cut-in voltage.
The diode stops conducting when the transformer voltage becomes less
than the diode voltage. This is called cut- out voltage.
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Cont. . . .
From the cut-in point to the cut-out point, whatever charge the
capacitor acquires is equal to the charge the capacitor has lost during
the period of non conduction, i.e., from cut-out point to the next
cut-in point.

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Cont. . . .
The charge the capacitor has acquired = Vr xC .
The charge it has lost = Idc + T2
If the value of the capacitor is fairly large, or the value of the load
resistance is very large, then it can be assumed that the time T2 is
equal to half the periodic time of the waveform
Idc
Vr = (30)
2fC
Vdc
Where Idc =
RL
The ripple waveform will be triangular and its rms value is given by
Vr Vd c
Vrms = √ = √
2 3 4 3fCRL
and
1
r= √ (31)
4 3fCRL
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Cont. . . .

The ripple factor may be decreased by increasing C or RL (both) with

a resulting increase in the d.c output voltage.
The d.c output voltage can be determined by:
Vm
Vdc = (32)
1
1+
4fCRL
and
Vm
Idc = (33)
1
RL +
4fC

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Voltage Regulator

Zener Diode Voltage Regulators

Circuits which perform constant output voltage while operating from a
variable supply voltage

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Cont. . . .

Zener diodes are widely used to regulate the voltage across a circuit
When Zener diode connected in parallel with a variable voltage source
so that it is reverse biased, a Zener diode conducts when the voltage
reaches the diode’s reverse breakdown voltage and it keeps the
voltage at that value.
The resistor R provides the voltage drop between input and output,
and must satisfy two conditions:
R must be small enough that the current through D keeps D in reverse
breakdown.
R must be large enough that the current through D does not destroy
the device
A zener diode used in this way is known as a shunt voltage regulator,
and voltage regulator being a class of circuit that produces a stable
voltage across any load.

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Cont. . . .

The circuit has to maintain constant voltage across a load resistor RL.
The circuit holds the voltage across the load RL almost equal to the
voltage across zener Vz even after the input Vin and load resistor RL
undergo changes.
If the unregulated dc voltage Vin rises, the current through R(Rs )
increases.
This extra current is directed to the zener diode instead of flowing
through the load.
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Cont. . . .
The zener diode voltage is virtually unaffected by the increase in this
current and load voltage which is same as the diode voltage Vz
remains constant.
If the load requires more current when RL is decreased, the zener
diode can supply the extra current without affecting the load voltage.
Let Is be the current through the resister Rs
Vin − Vz
Is = Iz + IL = (34)
Rs
The power dissipated in the zener diode is,
Pz = Iz Vz (35)
In the voltage regulation case, the selection of Rs is very important
Vin − Vz Vin − Vz
Rs = = (36)
Is Iz + IL
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Cont. . . .
Vz
For Line Regulation, RL is constant and causes I = is also
RL
constant while Vin varies between its Vin(min) to its Vin(max) .
For Load Regulation, Vin is constant and RL varies between RLmin
and RLmax and load current is given by:

Vz Vz
ILmin = and ILmax = (37)
RLmax RLmin

When Vin = Vinmin and IL is constant then

Vinmin − Vz
Imin = = IZmin + IL (38)
Rs
Vinmax − Vz
Similarly, When Vin = Vinmax , Imax = = IZmax + IL
Rs

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Cont. . . .

The selected Rs must be small enough to permit minimum zener

current to ensure that the zener diode is in its breakdown region.
Rs must be small enough to ensure that minimum current IZmin flows
under worst condition, when Vin falls to its smallest possible value
Vinmin and IL is its largest possible value ILmax (Load Regulation).
At the same time Rs must be selected large enough to ensure that the
current through the zener diode should not exceed the maximum
zener current IZmax so that power dissipation in the zener diode will
not exceed Pz , when Vin rises to the value of and load current IL to
its minimum ILmin

Vinmin − Vz Vinmax − Vz
Rs ≤ and Rs ≥ (39)
IZmin + ILmax IZmax + ILmin

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Power Supply Systems

An electronic circuit which converts an a.c input of 50/60Hz line

power to a d.c output voltage.
Most electronic equipment requires d.c voltages for its operation,
provided by batteries or by internal power supplies that convert
alternating current as available at the home electric outlet, into
regulated d.c voltages.

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Cont. . . .

Transformer
levels the amplitude to the desired amount, steps up and steps down as
well as it isolates the whole electronic elements from the line voltage.

The line voltage from the outlet is given by

2 2 2
Vrms = Vdc + Vac
(40)

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Cont. . . .

Rectifier
The rectification result is not pure d.c., It has got some a.c
components and some d.c components

2 2 2
Vrms = Vdc + Vac
q
2 2 − V2
Vac = Vrms dc (41)

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Cont. . . .

Filter
Reduces the ripple (a.c) components of the rectified output and thus
smoothes, the output d.c voltage

Vr
Vdc = Vm − (42)
2
Voltage Regulator
Reduces the ripple component of the output of the filter and stabilizes
the output voltage against the variation of source and load.
It provides relatively a constant output d.c voltage to the load despite a
change in input voltage (Vin ) and load current (IL ).

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Wave Shaping Circuits

These circuits transform one waveform into another.

Are employed in function generators used to generate electrical test
signals.
An oscillator generates a sinusoidal waveform, for instance, by use of
integrators it can be converted to a square waveform, moreover, the
square waveform is passed through a carefully designed wave shaping
circuit to produce a triangular waveform
Numerous examples of wave-shaping circuits can be found in
transmitters & receivers for TV or radar and in other electronic
systems

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Clipper Circuits
A portion of an input signal waveform is clipped off

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Clamper Circuits

Used to add a d.c component to an a.c input waveform that the

positive (or negative) peaks are forced to take a specified value
The peaks of the waveform are ”clamped” to a specified voltage value
Examples: Vin (t) = 5sin(ωt)

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Cont. . . .

The capacitor is a large value, so it discharges only very slowly, and

the voltage across the capacitor to be constant, it has very small
impedance for the a.c input signal.
The output voltage of the circuit is given by

V0 (t) = Vin (t) − Vc (43)

We can change the voltage to which the circuit clamps by changing

the battery voltage.
Reversing the direction of the diode causes the negative peak to be
clamped instead of the positive peak.
It is often more convenient to use zener diodes rather than batteries.

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Cont. . . .

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Voltage Multiplier Circuits
Maintain a relatively low transformer peak voltage while stepping up
the peak output voltage to two, three, four, or more times the peak
rectified voltages
These power supplies are used for high voltage, low current devices
like cathode - ray tubes (CRT) of the picture tubes in TV receivers,
oscilloscopes and computer displays or monitors
Voltage Doubler

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Cont. . . .

Voltage Tripler

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Thank You!!!
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