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Note 1
Semiconductor Diodes and their Characteristics
A pn junction diode has two terminals: anode and cathode.
The voltage across the diode (vD) is positive from anode to cathode, and the current (iD)
flows in the same direction.
The v-i characteristic is an exponential function given by:
```
iD = ISS * (e^(qvD/(ηKT)) - 1)
```
ISS: Saturation current
q: Electron charge (1.602 × 10^-19 C)
K: Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 × 10^-23 J/K)
VT: Thermal voltage (≈ 26mV at room temperature)
Forward bias: Positive vD allows large current flow; Reverse bias: Negative vD leads to very
small current.
Reverse-breakdown occurs at a high reverse voltage, allowing significant current flow
without damage if temperature remains controlled.
Note 2
Diode Approximation
Ideal Diode: Conducts in the forward direction (zero resistance) and blocks in reverse
(infinite resistance).
Second Approximation: No current until barrier potential (0.7V); called Cut-In or Knee
voltage.
Third Approximation: Diode acts as a switch with barrier potential (0.7V) and bulk
resistance (rB). The total voltage during conduction is:
```
VD = 0.7V + ID * rB
```
The voltage increases linearly with current due to the bulk resistance.
Note 3
Diode Resistance and Capacitor
DC Resistance (RQ) at a quiescent point is defined as:
```
RQ = VDQ / IDQ
```
Dynamic Resistance (rδ) is derived from the diode current with respect to voltage:
```
rδ = dID / dVD
```
Two types of capacitance in a PN junction:
Space Charge Capacitance (CT): Reduced in reverse bias, inversely proportional to the
width of the depletion region.
Diffusion Capacitance (CD): Magnified in forward bias, associated with the accumulation
of minority carriers.
Note 4
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) and Breakdown
PIV: Maximum reverse voltage a diode can withstand before breakdown occurs.
Avalanche Breakdown: Irreversible damage in ordinary diodes; in avalanche diodes, the
effect is self-limiting.
Zener Breakdown: Controlled breakdown in Zener diodes; allows current flow at a specified
reverse voltage without damage.
Note 5
Analysis of Diode Circuits
Diodes as Circuit Elements: Replacement depends on voltage and current levels.
Load Line Analysis: Derived from Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
```
VSS = iDR + vD
```
Piecewise Linear Model: Approximation of V-I characteristics into linear segments for
analysis.
Note 6
Types of Diodes
Zener Diode: Allows current in both directions; exhibits controlled breakdown at Zener
voltage. Predominantly utilizes the Zener effect up to 5.6V, then shifts to avalanche effect.
Schottky Diodes: Formed by metal-semiconductor junction; can be turned off quickly.
LED (Light Emitting Diode): Emits light when current flows; color of light depends on
material used (e.g., GaAs emits light, Si emits heat).
Note 7
Application of Diode Circuits
Diodes are utilized in:
Rectification in power supplies.
Voltage regulation devices.
Clipping, limiting, and clamping circuits.
Indicator lights and optical detectors.
Applications in radio frequency design as polarity-sensitive DC conductors and voltage-
tuned capacitors.
Note 8
Rectification
Rectification: Converts alternating current (AC) to pulsating direct current (DC).
Types include:
Half Wave Rectifier: Uses one diode; conducts during one half of the cycle.
Full Wave Rectifier: Uses two diodes with a center-tapped transformer; conducts during
both halves.
Bridge Rectifier: Uses four diodes; efficient with lower ripple and higher TUF.
PIV Calculation: For half-wave, PIV = Vm. Ripple factor and efficiency are key performance
indicators.
Note 9
Full Wave Rectifier Circuit
Full Wave Rectifier: Utilizes two diodes; both halves of the AC cycle charge the load.
Average DC voltage across the load:
```
Vav = VDC = 2Vm / π
```
Ripple factor for full-wave rectification is lower than half-wave, enhancing efficiency (up to
81.2%).
Note 10
Filtering Circuits
Filtering is essential to remove AC components from the rectified output, smoothing the
DC output.
A capacitor input filter is commonly used to smooth the rectified voltage by placing a large
capacitance across the output terminals of the rectifier.
Note 11
Capacitor Charging and Discharging
When the AC source reaches a positive peak, the capacitor is charged to this peak voltage.
If the source voltage drops below the capacitor's stored voltage, the diode becomes
reverse biased, preventing current flow.
The capacitor continues to supply current to the load, discharging until the next AC peak.
The current flows through the diode in pulses, which recharge the capacitor.
This charge and discharge cycle results in a small AC component called ripple in the load
voltage.
Note 12
Charge Removal and Filter Capacitance
The charge removed from the capacitor during one discharge cycle can be expressed as:
Q = ILT
Q = VrC
The required filter capacitance for a half-wave rectifier is given by:
C = ILT / Vr
Rearranging gives Vr = IL / Vrf.
Note 13
Ripple Factor and DC Voltage Output
The Ripple Factor is derived from the effective (rms) value of the ripple components,
calculated as:
Vrms = Vrp−p / (2√3)
Therefore, the ripple factor r is:
r = Vrms / Vdc = 1 / (2√3fCRL)
The average or DC voltage output is approximately midway between the peak values:
Vdc = Vm / (1 + (1 / (2fCRL)))
Note 14
Full Wave Rectification with Capacitor Filter
During the positive half cycle, the capacitor charges to the peak value of the transformer
secondary voltage (Vm) and maintains this until the voltage drops to zero.
The capacitor discharges through the load resistor (RL) until the transformer secondary
voltage exceeds the capacitor voltage.
The diode conducts when the transformer secondary voltage is greater than the diode's
cut-in voltage and stops at the cut-out voltage.
From cut-in to cut-out, the charge acquired equals the charge lost during non-conduction
periods.
Note 15
Capacitor Charge Dynamics
The charge acquired by the capacitor can be expressed as VrxC; the charge lost is given by
Idc + T2.
For large capacitor or load resistance, T2 can be assumed as half the periodic time of the
waveform.
The ripple waveform is triangular with its rms value calculated as:
Vrms = Vr / (2√3) = Vdc / (4√3fCRL)
The ripple factor can be simplified to:
r = 1 / (4√3fCRL).
Note 16
Voltage Regulation Using Zener Diodes
Zener Diode Voltage Regulators maintain constant output voltage from variable supply
voltages.
Zener diodes in parallel with a variable voltage source conduct when the voltage reaches
the reverse breakdown voltage, stabilizing the output voltage.
The resistor (R) must satisfy two conditions:
Must be small enough to keep the Zener in reverse breakdown.
Must be large enough to prevent damaging the diode.
Note 17
Load and Line Regulation
In voltage regulation, the circuit maintains a constant voltage across a load resistor (RL),
even with input voltage changes.
If the unregulated DC voltage (Vin) increases, the current through R increases, directing
extra current to the Zener diode.
The current through the resistor can be expressed as:
Is = Iz + IL = (Vin - Vz) / Rs
Power dissipated in the Zener is given by:
Pz = IzVz.
Note 18
Power Supply Systems
Power supplies convert AC input (50/60Hz) to regulated DC output voltage needed for
electronic equipment.
A transformer adjusts amplitude and isolates electronic components from line voltage.
The relationship between RMS voltage is given by:
V²_rms = V²_dc + V²_ac
Note 19
Rectification and Filtering
The rectification process results in a mix of AC and DC components, where:
V²_ac = √(V²_rms - V²_dc)
A filter is used to reduce ripple AC components in the rectified output, smoothing the DC
voltage:
Vdc = Vm - Vr / 2.
Note 20
Wave Shaping Circuits
Wave shaping circuits transform one waveform into another, often used in function
generators.
For example, a sinusoidal waveform can be converted to a square waveform using
integrators, and then processed to create a triangular waveform.
These circuits are common in transmitters and receivers for TVs and radars.
Note 21
Clipping and Clamping Circuits
Clipper Circuits remove portions of an input signal waveform.
Clamper Circuits add a DC component to an AC input waveform, forcing peaks to specified
voltage values.
An example is Vin(t) = 5sin(ωt), where the capacitor discharges slowly, maintaining a
constant voltage across it, influencing the output voltage:
V0(t) = Vin(t) - Vc.
Note 22
Voltage Multiplier Circuits
Voltage multipliers step up the peak output voltage, maintaining low transformer peak
voltage.
Commonly used for high voltage, low current devices like cathode-ray tubes in TVs and
oscilloscopes.
Note 23
Voltage Doubler and Tripler
Voltage doublers and triplers are types of voltage multipliers that increase output voltage
significantly while controlling transformer peak voltage.