KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

DIGITAL SCHOOL OF VIRTUAL AND OPEN LEARNING

IN COLLABORATION WITH
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD AND SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION,

ESN 856: FOUNDATIONS OF RESEARCH AND PROPOSAL DEVELOPMENT

WRITTEN BY: Dr. Nelly Were Otube
VETTED BY: Dr. Francis Muriithi

Copyright © Kenyatta University, 2020

All Rights Reserved

Published By: KENYATTA UNIVERSITY PRESS

0
 INTRODUCTION

Welcome to this module. You must have heard about research from your coursework and
attending postdoctoral dissertations. You could have probably thought about a possible research
you would wish to undertake in your field of interest. In this module, we will introduce you to
the basic concept of a research proposal. You will be taken through strategies of developing a
researchable topic and viable research problem. This is an interactive instructional module that
uses both action and collaborative learning styles that provide you with diverse online learning
experiences and effective learning processes. The key purpose of this module is to expose you
albeit theoretically to the various components of a good research proposal. This should hopefully
equip you with the necessary attitudes, knowledge and skills crucial in conceptualizing and
developing a research proposal in your area of interest with the aim of collecting relevant data
for recommendation and possible intervention.

In this module, we shall define the basic concepts a research proposal and take you through how
to develop a viable research topic. The module takes you the components that are required in a
research proposal and how each component should be developed. Each component is significant
and plays an important role in developing a complete researchable proposal. Each section
addresses different aspects of the research process. The module takes you through the proposal
development process starting with developing the topic to the instrumentation and data collection
process.

We hope that you will find this module very informative and engaging. We also hope that it
stimulates your mind so that you can think of a research problem in area on interest. We hope
that this unit will stimulate your thinking on potential gaps in the field of speech and language
pathology that may be addressed through research.

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 FOUNDATIONS OF RESEARCH AND PROPOSAL DEVELOPMENT FLOW CHART
WEEK TOPIC
WEEK 0: INTRODUCTION (YOUR CONTEXT, YOUR GOALS, THOUGHTS
ABOUT BUSINESS)
WEEK 1: THE CONCEPT OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
WEEK 2: THE PROPOSAL TITLE AND ABSTRACT
WEEK 3: THE INTRODUCTION
WEEK 4: THE PROBLEM STATEMENT
WEEK 5: THE RESERCH OBJECTIVES
WEEK 6: THE THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
WEEK 7: THE LIETRATURE REVIEW
WEEK 8: THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WEEK 9: SAMPING METHODS
WEEK 10: RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
WEEK 11&12 EXAMINATION

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OVERVIEW OF THE COURSE
Week 0: Introduction
This lesson is intended to help you acclimatize to blended learning and to create a community of
learners who will motivate each other during the course. You will be required to introduce
yourself to your lecturer and colleagues either physically during a face to face session or even
online before other academic interactions start. This will be at the discretion of individual
universities and lecturers. It will be important to also state your context and goals as well as what
you think about businesses. You can also share any experience that you may have regarding
businesses.

Week 1: The Concept of a Research Proposal

In this first lesson, we provide you an introduction to the course on foundation of a research and
proposal development, Introduce to the students the necessary skills for designing and
developing a research proposal.

Week 2: The proposal Title and Abstract

In this lesson you will be introduced to the proposal title. A proposal title is the part of a paper
that is read the most, and it is usually read first. It is, therefore, the most important element that
defines the research study. An effective title not only pricks the reader's interest, but also
predisposes him/her favorably towards the proposal.

Week 3: The Introduction

In this lesson you will learn about the preliminary pages of your proposal, the title, the abstract
and the introduction. These are the sections that provides the reader or your supervisor a glimpse
on what your work is all about.

Week 4: The problem Statement

In this lesson you will learn about the problem statement. The problem statement is among the
most critical parts of the research proposal or dissertation because it provides focus and direction
for the remainder of the study (and subsequent report). A well-written problem statement defines
the problem and helps identify the variables that will be investigated in the study.

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Week 5: The Research Objectives
In this lesson you will be taken through research objectives. Having decided on the research
topic and knowing why you want to study it (Problem Statement), you can now formulate the
study objectives. Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem. Research
objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem and summarize what you
hope will be achieved by the study.

Week 6: The Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks

In this lesson you be familiarized with the research topic and how to develop a researchable topic.
Having decided on the research topic and knowing why you want to study it (Problem
Statement), you can now formulate the study objectives. Objectives should be closely related to
the statement of the problem.

Week 7: The Literature Review

In this lesson, you will be introduced to the theoretical and conceptual frameworks. Students
often are confused with ‘theoretical framework’ and ‘conceptual framework’ – they are both
different. Conceptual framework consists of two words; ‘conceptual’ which is the process of
forming concepts and ideas; and ‘framework’ which is the structure that connects the concepts
and basic ideas.

Week 8: Research Methodology

In this lesson you will be taken through ways of reviewing relevant literature for your research.
In proposing a research topic, there is already a substantial amount of previously published work
already in place, the prospect of delivering a good literature review can seem like a daunting task
because of so many books and articles with so many citations.

Week 9 Sampling Methods

This lesson you will be taken through research methodology. Part of the methodology is the
research design. A research design is the process that guides researchers on how to collect,
analyze and interpret the research instruments. It is a logical model that guides the researcher in
the various stages of the research. There are different types of study designs including
exploratory, descriptive or analytical and intervention studies.
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Week 10: Research Instruments
This lesson builds on lesson 8 on research methodology. After selecting the study population,
you will now consider the sampling methods. Determining the sampling methods is significant in
ensuring that you have the right sample for your study. This is usually followed by data
collection.

Week 11&12: Examination

These two weeks bring together the work you have been doing to an end. This course unit will
be examined and will partially contribute to the award of the degree in the programme that you
are undertaking. We acknowledge that different universities across East Africa may have
different Semester dates. It is however anticipated that most Universities will have a minimum of
13 weeks’ semester. We have therefore placed examinations in the last two weeks but
Universities are allowed to go with their schedules. Your university examinations regulations
will apply.

Troubleshooting

o If you have problems accessing or logging into the system (LMS):

1. Go to the Student Help Desk -[Link]

2. Chat with us at [Link]

3. Call the Digital school offices at (See our Contacts here) -

[Link]

4. Guides about how to use moodle are available at[Link]

resources

5. Also use our social media huddles:

Twitter: @KUDigitalSchool

Facebook: @KUDSVOL

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 MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Acquire skills and knowledge necessary to develop a research proposal.
2. Cultivate an awareness of research problems in the field of Speech and Language
Pathology
3. Equip yourself with problem-solving skills that will enable you develop a research
problem and related objectives to gather relevant information in society.

4. Nurture research skills in reviewing relevant literature for research purposes

5. Think creatively about gathering relevant data in the society for recommendations and
possible intervention

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 COURSE DESCRIPTION

This is a common course unit meant for all students taking a Masters of Speech and Language
Pathology. The rationale of offering the course is to equip students with requisite with
knowledge and skills in research proposal development for purposes of gathering relevant
information related to Speech and Language Pathology. This common unit or course is usually
taken in the second year of study. The general purpose of the course therefore is to introduce the
components of a research proposal and how these components are conceptualized and developed.
Specifically the course will take you through the research topic and how to develop a
researchable topic, the abstract and its components, the introduction and problem statement.
After the problem statement you will be taken through the research objectives and how to come
up with objectives that will assist gathering relevant data based on the research topic. Also
covered will be the theoretical and conceptual framework, literature review and research
methodology. Finally you will be taken through the sampling methods and the research
instruments The course will take you 39 instructional hours some of which will be covered face
to face and others in online activities. You will therefore be required to set aside about 5 hours
per lesson to complete this course successfully.

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 COURSE REQUIREMENTS

This is a blended learning course that will utilize the flex model. This means that learning
materials and instructions will be given online and the lessons will be self-guided with the
lecturer being available briefly for face to face sessions and support and also on-site (online)
most of the time. Your lecturer will be meeting you face to face to introduce a lesson and put it
into perspective and you will actively participate in your search for knowledge by undertaking
several online activities. This means that some of the 39 instructional hours of the course will be
delivered face to face while other lessons will be taught online through various learner and
lecturer activities. It is important for you to note that one instructional hour is equivalent to two
online hours. Three instructional hours will be needed per week. Out of these, one will be used
for face to face contact with your lecturer (also referred as e-moderator in the online activities)
while the other two instructional hours (translating to four online hours) will be used for online
activities otherwise referred to as e-tivities in the lessons. This will add up to the 5 hours
requirement per lesson earlier mentioned. There are 27 online activities each taking at least two
hours and totaling to 54 online hours. You are advised to follow the topic flow-chart given so
that you cover at least a lesson every week.
You will be required to participate and interact online with your peers and the e-moderator who in this
case is your lecturer. Guidelines for the online activities (which we shall keep referring to as e-tivities)
will be provided whenever there is an e-tivity. Please note that since the online e-tivities are part of the
learning process, they may be graded at the discretion of your e-moderator. Such grading will however
be communicated in the e-tivity guidelines and feedback given as soon as possible after the e-tivity. The
e-tivities will include but will not be limited to online assessment quizzes, assignments and discussions.
There are also assessment questions that you can attempt at the end of every lesson to test your
understanding of the lesson. The answers to all the assessment questions are at the end of the module
after lesson 10. All the resource that have been used in this module in form of books are available under
the resources section after the answers to the questions.

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 ASSESSMENT

It is important to note that the module has embedded certain learner formative assessment
feedback tools that will enable you gauge your own learning progress. The tools include online
collaborative discussions forums that focus on team learning and personal mastery and will
therefore provide you with peer feedback, lecturer assessment and self- reflection. You will also
be required to do one major assignment/project that is meant to assess the application of the
skills and knowledge gained during the course. The project score in combination with scores for
e-tivities (where graded) will account for 30% of your final examination score with the
remaining 70% coming from a face to face sit-in final written examination that will be guided by
your university examination policy and procedures.

We wish you the very best of experiences in this course!

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LESSON 1: FOUNDATIONS OF RESEARCH AND PROPOSAL DEVELOPMENT 11
1.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes ………………………………………………………..11
1.3 Assessment Questions………………………………………………………………16
1.4 References…………………………………………………………………………..16
LESSON 2: THE PROPSAL TITLE AND ABSTRACT 16
2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………16
2.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes………………………………………………………....17
2.3 Assessment Questions……………………………………………………………… 18
2.4 References…………………………………………………………………………...19
LESSON 3: THE PROPOSAL INTRODUCTION..............................................................19
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3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….19
3.2 Lesson learning outcomes…………………………………………………………...19
3.3 Assessment Questions……………………………………………………………….21
3.4 References………………………………………………………………………….. 21
LESSON 4: THE PROBLEM STATEMENT 22
4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….22
4.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes………………………………………………………….22
4.3 Assessment Questions……………………………………………………………….26
4.4 References…………………………………………………………………………. .26
LESSON 5: THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 27
5.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………27
5.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes…………………………………………………………27
5.3 Assessment Questions………………………………………………………………29
5.4 References…………………………………………………………………………..29
LESSON 6:THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 29
6.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….29
6.2 Lesson Learning outcomes………………………………………………………….29
6.3 Assessment Questions………………………………………………………………34
6.4 References…………………………………………………………………………..34
LESSON 7: THE LITERATURE REVIEW………………................................................35
7.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………35
7.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes………………………………………………………....35
7.3 Assessment Questions………………………………………………………………39
7.4 References…………………………………………………………………………..40
LESSON 8: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 40
8.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………40
8.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes…………………………………………………………41
8.3 Assessment Questions………………………………………………………………44
8.4 References…………………………………………………………………………..44
LESSON 9: SAMPLING METHODOLOGY 45
9.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………45
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9.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes………………………………………………………..45
9.3 Assessment Questions………………………………………………………………47
9.4 References…………………………………………………………………………..47
LESSON 10: RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS 48
10.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………48
10.2 Learning Outcomes…………………………………………………………………48
10.3 Assessment Questions………………………………………………………………51
10.4 References…………………………………………………………………………...51

ESN 856: FOUNDATIONS OF RESEARCH AND PROPOSAL DEVELOPMENT

Lesson 1
THE CONCEPT OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

1.1 Introduction

In this first lesson, we provide you an introduction to the course on foundation of a research and
proposal development, introduce to the students the necessary skills for designing and
developing a proposal. Most post graduate learners do not have the requisite skills in developing
a research proposal. To be quite honest, the final thesis document will only be as good as one's
proposal, if the proposal is not focused then the end result will most likely not be good. A weak
or poor proposal dooms the entire research while a well thought out proposal, a well written
proposal on the other hand promises makes the whole research process successful. This lesson is
therefore to intended to aid students understand the concept of a research proposal, the key
terminologies used in research proposals and the key considerations when writing proposals

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1.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1.2.1 Describe he concept of a research Proposal.
1.2.2 Explain the purpose of research proposal.
1.2.3 Analyze the components of a research proposal.

1.2.1 The Concept of a Research Proposal

This lesson we introduce you to the concept of a research proposal. A research proposal is a
comprehensive summary of an intended research. It focusses on matters or questions that one
intends to investigate. It presents your overall study area in which your research will be based, it
also refers to the present state of familiarity and the existing discussions on the theme. It also
showcases the novelty of the research that is being proposed.

Whichever area or research methods you select, all research proposals must answer the questions
that follows: What do you intent to achieve? What do you want to achieve? and how do you
intent to achieve it? Your research proposal must persuade readers that you have a vital idea that
you wish to research on, that you possess a clear understanding of the appropriate literature and
the principal problems, and that the proposed methodology is sound. The value of the proposal is
depended not only on the value of the proposed study, but also on the quality of the proposal
writing. Hence, it pays to write coherently, clearly and in a compelling manner.

1.2.1 E-tivity 1.2.1 the concept of a Research Proposal

Numbering, spacing and sequencing 1.2.1

Title Concept of a research proposal
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to help you learn
concepts of a research proposal.
Brief Summary of overall task Watch video
video
Read the materials
book on the definition of a research proposal
and write it down in your own words.

Spark

image source

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Individual task a) Highlight the key words in concept of a
research proposal and explain what they
mean.
b) Save this work in your portfolio.

Interaction begins a) Post your work on the understanding of

a research proposal.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback
to your classmates. Do this on the
discussion forum the discussion forum
1.2.1
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are attentive on the
content and context of discussion
2. Arouse further learning and generation
on new ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning
progress
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This activity should be done in 1 hour
Next Identifying the purpose of a research proposal

1.2.2 Purpose of Research Proposal

A research proposal helps you to focus on the research area you are about to undertake. For
students who aren't quite sure what their focus will be, the research proposal provides you an
opportunity to explore options. As a student, a research proposal can be good starting point to
discuss projects with your supervisors. A well thought out topic or research area may provide a
basis for more effective supervision whereby a supervisor may gain a clearer understanding
about your proposed research and he or she may be able to guide your more effectively. A
research proposal helps you to remain on track on the subject matter. During the proposal
development phase, you may hit a snag and may start experiencing difficulties when developing
a thesis in terms of organizing the ideas, or actually starting to write. When this happens, you
may be required to reread the initial research proposal to help you to refocus your work in an
effective manner.

The main aim of a research proposal is to rationalize the necessity to study the research problem
and to identify and show ways in which the proposed study will be conducted A proposal should
consist of all the key components involved in coming up with the research study, with the
13
required information that will enable your supervisors ascertain the legitimacy and expediency of
your anticipated research. The only chapters not in a research proposal includes the findings and
the analysis of the findings. Lastly, any good proposal is judged by the quality of writing and
hence, your proposal should be very is coherent, clear, and compelling.

E-tivity 1.2.2 Purpose of Research Proposal

Numbering pacing and sequencing 1.2.2

Title Purpose of a research proposal
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to help you to understand
the purpose of a Persuade proposal.
Brief Summary of overall task Watch video -.
Video
Reading materials:
book reference
book reference 2 on the purpose of a research proposal
and summarize it in your own words.

Spark

image source

Individual task a) In a paragraph explain the purpose of a research

proposal.
b) Save this work in your portfolio
Interaction begins a) Post your work on the purpose of a research
proposal.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback to your
classmates. Do this on the discussion forum
1.2.2
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the content and

14
 context of discussion
2. Stimulate further learning and generation on new
ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning progress
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This activity should be done in 1 hour
Next Identifying the components of a research proposal

1.2.3 Components of a Research Proposal

In this part of the lesson you will be taken through the main components of the proposal. You
should note that the specific proposal technique will be determined by the requirements of your
institution where the proposal is written. The American Psychological Association manual
(APA), latest edition should always be referred to pertaining to form and style of the proposal.

A research proposal is comprised of three chapters: Chapter one (1) which mainly consists of the
Introduction; study background, problem statement, purpose of study, objectives and research
questions, significance, limitations and delimitations of the study, assumptions, Theoretical and
conceptual framework and finally operational definition of terms, Chapter two (2) covers the
review of related literature and literature summary, In the third chapter (3); The study design,
variables, study locale, target population, sampling procedures and sample size, research tools,
pilot study, validity and reliability, proposed methods of data collection and analysis. Note that
that before the first chapter there are several pages containing the preliminary material.

E-tivity 1.2.3 Components of a Research Proposal

Numbering pacing and sequencing 1.2.3

Title Components of a research proposal
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to help you
identify all the components required of a
research proposal
Brief Summary of overall task Watch video: video
Reading materials,
book
Journal on the guidelines of writing research
proposals and dissertation and highlight the
key components of a proposal.

15
Spark

image source

Individual task a) Describe briefly the components of a

research proposal.
b) Save this work in your portfolio
Interaction begins a) Identify and post your work on the
components of a proposal and explain
the significance of each component of
the proposal.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback
to your classmates in a discussion Do
this on the discussion form 1.2.3
E moderator interventions 1. Make sure that students are focused on the
content and context of the conversation
2. Arouse more knowledge and creation of
new ideas
3. Give feedback on progress of learning
4. End the e-tivity
Schedule and time The task should be done in 1 hour
Next Describing proposal title and abstract.

1.4 E References

1. “The Life Cycle of a Project.” Planning and Managing Scientific Research: A Guide for the
Beginning Researcher, by Brian Kennett, ANU Press, 2014, pp. 19–37. JSTOR, retreived
from [Link] Accessed 15 July 2020
2. Punch, K., n.d. Developing Effective Research Proposals. Retrieved from
[Link]
h_pdf
3. Suter, W., n.d. Introduction To Educational Research. Retrieved from
[Link]
16
 4. Tayie, S. (2013). Children and New Media Literacy: an Egytian case study. Anàlisi, (48),
65. doi: 10.7238/a.v0imonografico.1966. retrieved from
[Link]

LESSON 2

THE PROPOSAL TITLE AND ABSTRACT

2.1 Introduction
In lesson 2 we will cover the preliminary pages of your proposal, the title, the abstract and the
introduction. These are the sections that provides the reader or your supervisor a glimpse on what
your work is all about. You therefore need to devote enough time into thinking through the focus
of your research, whether it is viable or whether it warrants enough attention to base the research
on, remember that your study title forms the foundation on which every other aspect of the
proposal will be built on so you have to devote enough time thinking about it, reading about it
and consulting your supervisor and even your peers to gather their opinion regarding what you
want to focus on.

2.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

2.2.1 Distinguish between clear and unclear titles

2.2.2 Identify components of the abstract.

2.2.1 Clear and Unclear Title

In a proposal, the title is read the most in any, and it is usually among the first things that catches
the attention of the reader. It is, therefore, the most important part of the proposal because it
defines the research study. An effective heading not only draws the reader's attention, but also
can make them have a general impression of what the proposal is all about. The topic is the
portion of the proposal that is mostly read, and it is generally read first. It is, thus, the utmost
vital component which describes the research study.

You should evade the following when developing a title. Avoid writing very long titles, long
titles usually happen where we have a lot of un-necessary words. Don’t use words like, "A study
to Investigate the...," or "Factors affecting...." These expressions are mostly not necessary, except
they are employed to express the scope and intent of the research. On the contrary however, a
title considered too short is likely that the researcher has used words that are very broad and
therefore effectively tell the reader what is being studied. For example, a study with the title,
"Speech Pathology in Africa" is a very non-specific the title, it is like a book title or could refer
to anything related to Speech pathology. An ideal title need to furnish the reader adequate
information on study focus.

17
Components of an Abstract
When writing an abstract, you have to remember that it should just consist of a summary of
approximately 300 words. It should also have a synopsis of the entire proposal namely, research
question, justification for the study, hypothesis if you have them, methodology and major results.
While describing methods, you can include the design, sample and tool that to be employed.

E-tivity 2.2.1 Proposal Title and abstract

Numbering pacing and sequencing 2.2.1

Title Research Title and abstract
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to help you
understand how to write a research title, abstract
and introduction.
Brief Summary of overall task Watch video:
video 1
video 2

Read the materials:

book
reference
Spark

image source
Individual task a) Write a power point presentation on major
considerations when writing a research title,
abstract and introduction.
b) Save this work in your portfolio

Interaction begins a) Post and share your PowerPoints on the

major considerations when writing a
research proposal.
b) provide constructive response to your
classmates on the discussion forum. Do this
on discussion forum 2.2.1

18
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the
content and context of discussion
2. Inspire extra learning and generation of new
ideas
3. Give response on progress of learning
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should be done in 1 hour
Next Discussing the proposal introduction

2.4 E-References

1. Stenius, K., Mäkelä, K., Miovský, M., & Gabrhelík, R. (2017). How to Write
Publishable Qualitative Research. In Stenius K., Miovský M., Babor T., Pates R.,
O’Reilly J., & Candon P. (Eds.), Publishing Addiction Science: A Guide for the
Perplexed (pp. 155-172). London: Ubiquity Press. Retrieved July 15, 2020, from
[Link]
2. Anderson, G., 2002. Fundamentals Of Educational Research. London: Routledge
Falmer, pp.27-33. From
[Link]
tals%20of%20Educational%[Link]?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Lesson 3 THE PROPOSAL INTRODUCTION

3.1 Introduction
In this lesson you will been taken through 5the preliminary pages of your proposal, the title, the
abstract and the introduction. These are the sections that provides the reader or your supervisor a
glimpse on what your work is all about. Therefore you need to devote adequate time into
thinking through the focus of your research, whether it is viable or weather it warrants enough
attention to base the research on remember that your study title forms the basis on which every
other aspect of the proposal will be built on so you have to spend enough time thinking about it,
reading about it and consulting your supervisor and even your peers to gather their opinion
regarding what you want to focus on.

3.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes

3.2.1 Describe the introduction to a proposal.

3.2.2 The Introduction of the Proposal

The aim of the introduction of the proposal is to contextualize the problem of the study.
Developing and writing a problem of the study is probably the major issue in coming up with
19
any research proposal. A problem written in a non-focused confused manner, has the research
appear unexciting. However, a focused problem and current research area has an evident
significance. Regrettably, we have no standard way of writing an exciting and captivating first
paragraph. More relies on how creative you are and your understanding of the selected problem
area. One ought to give a suitable historic background, then give the current situation of the
study. Finally, establish your study population and review the most relevant and current literature.

When writing an introduction, you must first start with the research problem, also known as the
purpose of the study. Within the introduction, you must provide the context and background of
the study area in a way that shows its usefulness, the state the purpose of the study and plainly
show why it is important to undertake it. Describe briefly the main concerns that will be
addressed by your research. The introduction must also highlight the key separately and
dependent variables of proposed research and the area you wish to study.

E-tivity 3.2.1 Proposal Introduction

Numbering pacing and sequencing 3.2.1

Title Proposal Introduction
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to enable you
gain understanding on how to write a research
proposal and introduction.
Brief Summary of overall task Watch video :
video
Read the materials:
book
book reference from page 27on research title
abstract and introduction and write the key
points.

Spark

image source
Individual task a) Describe the major considerations

20
 when writing a research proposal
introduction.
b) Save this work in your portfolio
Interaction begins a) Share feedback on the consideration of
a research proposal on the discussion
forum.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback
to your classmates. Do this on the
discussion forum 3.2.1
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the
content and context of discussion
2. Stimulate further learning and
generation on new ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning
progress
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should be done in 1 hour
Next Identifying the problem statement

3.4 E-References
LESSON 4
1. Angelsen, Arild, et al., editors. Composing a Research Proposal.
Center for International Forestry Research, 2011, pp. 33–50,
Measuring Livelihoods and Environmental Dependence: Methods
for Research and Fieldwork from
[Link]
pdf
2. Fundamentals of Educational Research by Gary Anderson and
Nancy Arsenault retrieved from
[Link]
Fundamentals%20of%20Educational%[Link]?sequence=
1&isAllowed=y

THE PROBLEM STATEMENT

4.1 Introduction

The problem statement is a fundamental part of the research proposal since it gives focus and
guidance to the rest of the research. A properly-conceived and described statement of the
problem helps the researcher recognize variables to be explored. Commonly, we don’t have a
21
single correct for statement of problem writing. A problem of the study is a clear expression on
issues requiring exploration, a situation needing enhancement, a hard situation needing to be
removed, or a bothering situation existing in scholarly works, either in existing practice or theory
that requires a deliberate investigation. A problem statement does not state how the problem will
be addressed; however, it offers a broad proposition, or present a value question.

Lesson Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

4.2.1 Define a research problem statement.

4.2.2 Identify the purpose of a problems statement.
4.2.3 Examine the attributes of a good problem statement.

4.2.1 Definition of a Problem statement

In the research problem, you are provided a basis on which the question "So what? This question
helps establish the relevance pf the research problem. By answering this question, it requires that
the study exhibits that literature has been reviewed and there is enough understanding of the need
for a problem statement and its usefulness in creating new knowledge in the relevant field.

E- tivity 4.2.1 Definition of a Research Problem

Numbering pacing and sequencing 4.2.1

Title The problem statement
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to enable you
define a problem statement.
Brief Summary of overall task Watch the video:
video
Read the materials:
journal article. Accessed 15 July 2020.
Spark

image source
Individual t a) Write in your own words what you
understand by a research problem
statement.
22
 b) Save this work in your portfolio.
Interaction begins a) Post your work on your understanding
of the problem statement in the
discussion forum.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback
to your classmates. Do this on the
discussion forum 4.2.1
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the
content and context of discussion
2. Stimulate further learning and generation
on new ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning
progress
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should be done in 1 hour
Next Identifying the purpose of a problem
statement

4.2.2 The purpose of the research problem statement:

 Highlight the significance of the topic being studied.
 Places the questions, hypotheses, or assumptions to be followed.
 Explains the rationale of your research.
 Places the topic into a specific setting that describes the delimitations of subject to be
examined.

E-tivity 4.2.2 Purpose of the research problem statement

Numbering pacing and sequencing 4.2.2

Title The purpose of a research problem
Purpose The aim of this e-tivity is to enable you
understand the purpose of the research
problem.
Brief Summary of overall task Watch the video:
video
Read the materials
reference

23
Spark

image source
Individual task a) Write in your own words what you
understand by the purpose of a
research problem.
b) Save this work in your portfolio.
Interaction begins a) Post your views on the purpose of the
research problem.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback
to your classmates. Do this on the
discussion forum 4.2.2
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the
content and context of discussion
2. Stimulate further learning and
generation on new ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning
progress
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should be done in 1 hour
Next Identifying the attributes of a good research
proposal.

4.2.3 Attributes of a Good Research Problem

Any good problem statement should have the following attributes:

 Clear and precise [a well-written statement of the problem makes no generalizations)

 Show that the topic is researchable and that it’s based on information which can be easily
acquired, colected, construed, synthesized, and comprehended],
 Identify of what will be studied and avoid the use of technical words and terms,
 Identify the main question or a few major questions accompanied by key factors or
variables,

24
  Identify the key concepts and terms,
 Articulate the study's conceptual boundaries or parameters or limitations,
 Convey the study's significance, benefits, and justification [i.e. it is important to validate
that the study is not insignificant],
 Does not write needless or compound sentences,
 Convey of more than merely assembling data or only a glimpse of area of study.

E-tivity 4.2.3 Attributes of a Good Research Problem

Numbering pacing and sequencing 1.2.1

Title Attributes of a good research problem
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to enable you
analyses the attributes of a good research
problem.
Brief Summary of overall task Watch the video: video
Read the materials:
book on the attributes of a good a research
problem statement and write down a
summary.
journal
Spark

image source
Individual task a) Prepare a PowerPoint on the attributes
of a good a research problem.
b) Save your work in your portfolio
Interaction begins a) Post your power point on the attributes
of a good research problem on the
group forum.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback
to your classmates. Do this on the
discussion forum 4.2.3
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the
content and context of discussion
2. Stimulate further learning and
generation on new ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning
25
 progress
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should be done in 1 hour
Next Identifying Student for Assessment

4.4 E-References
1. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research papers pages 24 to 29 on the
definition of a research problem statement and underline the key
points.
2. “Write.” Listen. Write. Present.: The Elements for Communicating
Science and Technology, by Stephanie Roberson Barnard and Deborah
St James, Yale University Press, New Haven; London, 2012, pp. 18–67.
JSTOR, [Link]
3. Essential Research Methods for Social Work By Allen Rubin, Earl R.
Babbie pages 61 to 70 from
[Link]
ods_for_Social_Work
4. Gordon, J. (2007). Creating Hypotheses and Models. In Planning
Research: A Concise Guide for the Environmental and Natural Resource
Sciences (pp. 44-52). New Haven; London: Yale University Press.
Retrieved July 15, 2020, from
[Link]

Lesson 5

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

5.1 Introduction
This lesson highlight research objectives development. After deciding on the on the research
topic and stating the reason why you want to study it in your problem statement, you can now
come up with objectives of the study. Objectives must always be linked to the problem statement
and should highlight what is hoped to be achieved through the research.

5.2 Lesson Learning outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1. Describe how research objectives can be stated

5.2.1 Stating Research Objectives

Stating the research objectives clearly will help you to:

26
  Outline the study parameters
 Indicate the variables you intend to measure.
 Describe study limits
 Avoid gathering un-necessary data.
An example of a good objective based on the problem identified as low utilization of speech and
language services in a rural part of Kenya, the general objectives can be
1) to assess reasons for low utilization of speech and language services in a selected region (eg
Bungoma County).
2. If this general objective can be broken down into smaller and more specific and measureable
objectives, then we get specific study objectives.

Some studies might require general and then specific objectives while most studies focus on just
general objectives. The purpose of the general objective is to state the overall expectation of the
study. However, specific research objectives give a breakdown of the general objective into
logical and measurable objectives addressing the major aspects of your research problem. When
stating specific objectives, you become more specific on what you want your study to achieve,
how, when, where, and why.

When stating objectives, you must always use action verbs that are specific and measurable, the
following stems can be applied to objectives to; explain, calculate, describe, assess, compare,
determine, verify etc. You should always avoid use passive verbs like to: understand, appreciate,
study, etc., non-active words are usually difficult to measure or to determine whether they have
been achieved or the extent to which they have been achieved.

E-tivity 5.2.1 Stating Research Objectives

Numbering pacing and sequencing 5.2.1

Title Research Objectives
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to enable you
understand how to write research Objectives.
Brief Summary of overall task Watch the video:
video
Read the materials: book on the
characteristics of good research objectives.
Spark

image source
Individual task a) Identify a specific topic and write
27
 down 5 research objectives.
b) Save this work in your portfolio
Interaction begins a) Identify and post the objectives you
above on the group forum.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback
to your classmates. Do this on the
discussion forum 5.2.1
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the
content and context of discussion
2. Stimulate further learning and
generation on new ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning
progress
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should be done in 1 hour
Next Describing the theoretical and conceptual
framework

E References
1. “Stating Problems and Objectives Clearly.” Planning Research: A Concise Guide for the
Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, by John C. Gordon, Yale University Press, New
Haven; London, 2007, pp. 32–43. JSTOR,[Link] Accessed 15
July 2020
2. How to Design, Write, and Present a Successful Dissertation Proposal By Elizabeth A. Wentz.

LESSON 6

Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks

6.1 Introduction
Most students often have a problem distinguishing between ‘theoretical framework’ and
‘conceptual framework’ – they are two do not mean the same thing. When look at a conceptual
framework, it has two words; ‘conceptual’ which is known as formation of ideas and concepts;
and ‘framework’, the structure connecting the concepts and the ideas. The most vital item to
comprehend concerning a theoretical and conceptual framework is that they are only a model of
your plan about the study, a diagrammatic theory of the phenomena under investigation. The
purpose of the theory is to enlighten the rest of the design to enable you assess objectives, come
up with relevant and realistic questions, choose suitable methods, and recognize possible validity
threats to the study.

6.1 Lesson Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
6.2.1 Distinguish between a theoretical and conceptual framework

28
6.2.2 Describe the significance of a theoretical framework
6.2.3 Explain significance of a theoretical framework
6.2.4 Describe the conceptual framework

6.2.1 Definition of a Theoretical and conceptual Framework

It entails concepts, their explanations and reference to appropriate scholarly studies, existing
theory used in the study. A theoretical framework has to prove a clear comprehension of theories
and ideas relevant to the study topic and relate to areas of knowledge under study. The
theoretical framework is not often obtained from the literature. There is therefore need to review
reading from the course and key studies to get theories and models for analysis relevant to the
problem of the study under investigation. Theory selection is depended on its application and
suitability.

6.2.1 E-tivity Definition of theoretical Framework

Numbering pacing and sequencing 6.2.1

Title Theoretical and conceptual Framework
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to enable you
understand the different between a theoretical
framework and a conceptual framework
Brief Summary of overall task Watch the video:
video 1
video 2
Read the materials:
book. Accessed 15 July 2020
Reasons and Rigor by Matthew Riggan on
and make a summary of the theoretical and
conceptual framework.

29
Spark

image source
Individual task a) Identify the major differences between
a conceptual and theoretical
frameworks.
b) Save this work in your portfolio.
Interaction begins a) Identify and post the major differences
between the theoretical and conceptual
frameworks in a research proposal.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback
to your classmates. Do this on the
discussion forum 6.2.1
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the
content and context of discussion
2. Stimulate further learning and
generation on new ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning
progress
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should be done in 1 hour
Next Discussing the significance of a theoretical
framework

6.2.3 The significance of the theoretical framework:

The theoretical framework links you as the current knowledge on the area of study. When you
base your study on a relevant theory, it provides you a base for selection of hypotheses and
research methods. In the framework you will be required to articulate assumptions of your
research forcing you to address questions of why and how. It allows for intellectual transitioning
from simple description to generalization of the several facets of the subject of research. The
theoretical framework therefore enables one establish the extent of the generalizations. In your
framework, you will specify the key variables influence you study area of concern and highlight

30
the necessity for examining how important variables may be different and the circumstances
under which the differ.

E-tivity 6.2.3 The significance of the theoretical framework

Numbering pacing and sequencing 6.2.3

Title Research Objectives
Purpose The significance of this e-tivity is to enable
you understand the significance of a
theoretical framework.
Brief Summary of overall task Watch the video:
video

Read the materials :

Part IV of The Dissertation on the
significance of the theoretical framework and
make a summary of the significance of a
theoretical and framework.
Spark

image source
Individual task a) Develop a power point on the
significance of a theoretical and
conceptual framework.
b) Save this work in your portfolio.
Interaction begins a) Identify and post the significance of
both the theoretical and conceptual
frameworks in a research proposal.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback
to your classmates. Do this on the
discussion forum 6.2.3
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the
content and context of discussion
2. Stimulate further learning and
generation on new ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning
progress
31
 4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should be done in 1 hour
Next Describing the conceptual Framework

6.2.4 A conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework therefore refers to a graphical or representation of an expression of the

main ideas. The main concepts include the variables or factors under study and the supposed
associations among them. For instance, if your research is about ‘job satisfaction’ and its
relationship to leadership style and demographic factors. In the section on ‘Review of Literature’
you would discuss the theories underlying leadership style, job satisfaction and the relationship
between leadership style and job satisfaction, theories underlying gender of the leader and job
satisfaction and so forth. You will create a ‘conceptual framework’ showing the perceived
relationships between the concepts which are also known as variables or factors under
investigation in your study. A conceptual framework therefore represents your understanding of
the related literature on how you have used it to explain a phenomenon. Your conceptual
framework provides a roadmap of the actions required in the course of your study given your
observations on the subject of research. In other words, in your conceptual framework you will
show an understanding of how the particular variables in his study connect with each other
therefore it is the researcher’s “map” in pursuing the investigation.

E-tivity 6.2.4 A conceptual Framework

Numbering pacing and sequencing 6.2.4

Title Research Objectives
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to enable you
understand what a conceptual framework
entails
Brief Summary of overall task Watch the video:
video
Read the materials
Reason & Rigor: How Conceptual
Frameworks Guide Research
By Sharon M. Ravitch, Matthew Riggan
pages 70 to 95 on a conceptual framework
and make a summary a conceptual
framework.

32
Spark

image source
Individual task a) Draw a conceptual framework
indicating the major variables.
b) Save this work in your portfolio.
Interaction begins a) Draw and post your conceptual
framework drawing on the group
forum.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback
to your classmates. Do this on the
discussion forum 6.2.4
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the
content and context of discussion
2. Stimulate further learning and
generation on new ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning
progress
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should be done in 1 hour
Next Describing methods of conducting a literature
review

E References

1. “Developing Your Conceptual Framework and Significance Statement.” Writing

Successful Science Proposals, by Andrew J. Friedland and Carol L. Folt, Yale University
Press, New Haven; London, 2000, pp. 35–48. JSTOR,
[Link]
2. “Developing Your Conceptual Framework and Significance Statement.” Writing
Successful Science Proposals, by Andrew J. Friedland and Carol L. Folt, Yale University
Press, New Haven; London, 2000, pp. 35–48. JSTOR

33
Lesson 7

THE LITERATURE REVIEW

7.1 Introduction
The purpose of writing a literature review is to establish your authority in your research.
Whenever you come up with a research topic you have remember that there is already a
substantial amount of previously published work that you can review. Reviewing literature may
seem like a difficult task because of the amount of so books and articles with so many citations
on the internet or in the library. It is therefore safer to restrict your review to the last decade to
make it easier to access the relevant materials. Also when conducting a literature review, you
should demonstrate that you have done the background work, meaning that you have identified
and developed a catalogue of the material you want to present as the foundation for your work.
Without a comprehensive list of the materials relevant to your work, you cannot provide a strong
justification for your proposed research, you need to demonstrate that are you filling an
identified gap, addressing identified weaknesses in someone else’s work, or perhaps extending
an existing study to a broader or new population sample? Therefore if you fail to conduct a
comprehensive literature review, you are likely to lose context when attempting to critique any
of the previously published material.

7.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
7. 2.1 Define Literature review and explain its functions
7.2.2 Discuss the components of a literature review.
7.2.3 Explain the steps in preparing a literature review
7.2.4 Definition and functions of a literature review
A literature review is also an activity involving a surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other
sources relevant to a particular area of research and therefore provides the researcher provides a
summary, and evaluates critically these works in relation to the research problem under
investigation. Literature reviews provide an overview of all the sources you have explored while
researching on your specific topic and demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within
a larger field of study.

Functions a literature Review.

The literature review serves several important functions that you need to be aware of, they
include:
 Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel".
 Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research.
 Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem.
 Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to your
research question.
 Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information.
34
  Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature.
 Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework
for your research.
 Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and substantial
contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a
major gap in the literature).

E-tivity 7.2.1 Definition of Literature review and explain its functions

Numbering pacing and sequencing 7.2.1
Title Definitions and functions of the literature
review
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to enable you
understand the definition of the literature
review and its functions.
Brief Summary of overall task Watch video:
video 1
video 2
read the materials:
book on the definitions of a literature review
and its functions make a summary of the
conceptual and theoretical framework
book .
Spark

image source
Individual task a) Describe the major functions of a
literature review.
b) This this work in your portfolio.
Interaction begins a) Identify and post your work on the
major functions a literature review and
share on the discussion forums.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback
to your classmates. Do this on the
discussion forum 7.2.1
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the
35
 content and context of discussion
2. Stimulate further learning and
generation on new ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning
progress
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should be done in 1 hour
Next Identifying Student for Assessment

7.2.2 Components of the literature review

When writing a literature review, you must ensure that you include the following components:
 The Objective of the review
 The overview of the research area under study.
 A catalogue of sources selected into those in support of and those offering completely
different arguments in relation to the study.
 A comprehensive discussion of both the similarities and differences of those sources.
 The steps involved in the review of literature.
#

E-tivity 7.2.2 Components of a Literature Review

Numbering pacing and sequencing 7.2.2

Title Research Objectives
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to enable you
understand the components of a literature
review.
Brief Summary of overall task Watch video: video 1
video 2

read the materials:

book on and make a summary on the
components of the literature review.
book

36
Spark

Individual task a) Describe any 5 components of the

literature review.
b) Save this work in your portfolio
Interaction begins a) Post your work on the components of
the literature review in the discussion
forum.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback
to your classmates. Do this on the
discussion forum 7.2.2
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the
content and context of discussion
2. Stimulate further learning and
generation on new ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning
progress
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should be done in 1 hour
Next Discussing the steps in preparing literature
review
7.2.3 Steps in preparing literature review

Preparing a literature review requires that you adhere to the following sequence
1. You must first determine your subject and the scope of the review.
2. Then you embark on searching the library catalogue, subject specific databases and other
search tools to find sources that are relevant to your topic.
3. Next you must read the sources thoroughly and keenly to determine their suitability topic
at hand.
4. Finally you conclude by analyzing, interpreting and discussing the findings and
conclusions of the sources you selected.

E- tivity 7.2.3 Steps in preparing literature review

37
Numbering pacing and sequencing 7.2.3
Title Literature Review
Purpose The main aim of this e-tivity is to introduce
you to the steps in developing a literature
review.
Brief Summary of overall task Watch video:
video reference
Read the materials on
The Literature Review: Six Steps to Success.
Spark

Individual task a) In a paragraph of an identified

research area show the steps in
developing that literature review.
b) Save this work in your portfolio.
Interaction begins a) Post the steps you prepared of your
reviewed literature and share the same
on the discussion forum.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback
to your classmates. Do this on the
discussion forum 7.2.3
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the
content and context of discussion
2. Stimulate further learning and
generation on new ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning
progress
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should be done in 1 hour
Next Describing the research Methodology

E References

1. Writing the Literature Review By Sara Efrat Efron, Ruth Ravid pages 41 to 56 as retrieved from
[Link]
by-Efron-Sara-Efrat-Ravid-Ruth-z-lib-org-pdf

38
 2. Webster, J., & Watson, R. (2002). Analyzing the Past to Prepare for the Future: Writing a
Literature Review. MIS Quarterly, 26(2), Xiii-Xxiii. Retrieved July 15, 2020, from
[Link]
3. The Literature Review: Six Steps to Success By Lawrence A. Machi, Brenda T. McEvo page 3 to 10.
Retrieved from
[Link]
ix_Steps_to_Success_3rd_edition_by_Lawrence_A_Machi_and_Brenda_T_McEvoy_2016

4. [Link]

Lesson 8

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

8.1 Introduction
In the previous chapters we have focused on the following; the identification, selection, analysis
and Statement of the problem. We also discussed the importance of literature review, developing
clear and concise study objectives were also emphasized. Now we must decide exactly how we
are going to achieve all this, the major issues that constitute the "methods section" of a research
proposal will be dealt in this section.

The proposal methodology is the most crucial section for any researcher simply because when
you develop unreliable method you are most likely to end up with unreliable results consequently
undermining the value of your analysis of the findings and the overall research.

In most cases, there are various of methods you can select from when investigating a research
problem. Whichever method you choose, you should clearly articulate the reasons why you have
chosen a particular method or technique. The reader will want to clearly see your study design,
the target population, how the data will be collected or generated in a way that is consistent with
accepted practice in research. In research related to the social and behavioral sciences, you must
always provide enough information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate your
methodology.

8.2 Lesson Learning outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

8.2.1 Identify the types of study designs.

39
8.2.2 Describe a study population and factors to consider when selecting a study population.
8.2.1 Types of study designs
The design of a study refers to the process that guides researchers on the methods they will adopt
in collecting, analyzing and interpreting the research instruments. It is a logical model that guides
the researcher in the various stages of the research. In this lesson you will be taken though the
different types of study designs including exploratory, descriptive or analytical and intervention
[Link] shall first focus on exploratory studies, these type of studies are carried out when
very little is known about a situation or a problem,
Descriptive studies are studies that describe the patterns of occurrence of a phenomenon.
Among descriptive studies include case reports, ecological studies where data is collected from
entire populations and used to compare frequencies between different groups during the same
period of time or in the same population at different points in time. Cross-sectional studies are
also descriptive in nature because they provide information concerning the situation at a given
time. In this type of studies, the status of an individual with respect to the presence or absence of
both exposure to a particular situation is assessed at the same point in time, these type pf studies
usually focus on prevalence rather than incidence. Another example of descriptive studies are
longitudinal studies, in this type of studies, the researcher repeats observations in the same
community over a prolonged period therefore they provide the required data at more than one
point in time. In analytical studies, one or several hypotheses are tested to determine the
relationship between a suspected risk factor and an outcome and also to measure the magnitude
of the association and its statistical significance.
A third category of studies are intervention studies. These types of studies are divided into
experimental and quasi-experimental studies. In experimental study, individuals are randomly
allocated to at least two groups. One group is subject to an intervention, or experiment, while the
other group(s) is not. The outcome of the intervention (effect of the intervention on the
dependent variable/problem) is obtained by comparing the two groups. While In a quasi-
experimental study, one characteristic of a true experiment is missing, either randomization or
the use of a separate control group. A quasi-experimental study, however, always includes the
manipulation of an independent variable which is the intervention.

E- tivity 8.2.1 Types of Research Designs

Numbering pacing and sequencing 8.2.1

Title Research Objectives
Purpose The main aim of this e-tivity is to introduce to
40
 various research designs.
Brief Summary of overall task Watch video
video

Read the materials

reference and make a summary of the various
research designs
Spark

Individual task a) Analyze the main difference in various

research designs.
b) Save this work in your portfolio
Interaction begins a) Post your work on the different
research designs on the group
discussion forum.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback
to your classmates. Do this on the
discussion forum. 8.2.1
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the
content and context of discussion.
2. Stimulate further learning and
generation on new ideas.
3. Provide feedback on the learning
progress
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should be done in 1 hour
Next Describing the study populations

8.2.3 Study population and factors to consider when selecting a study population
When developing your proposal, you must make decisions concerning the study population that
you wish to focus on. The study population include the individual units which may include

41
persons, households to be investigated. The population that you wish to investigate should be
clearly and explicitly defined in terms of place, time, and other relevant criteria. If the study
population comprises speech therapy services, the procedures to be used for case identification
should be stated. Often it is expected that you as the researcher will select a study population
defined the topic of your research proposal. You select a population by reason of your interest in
a specific community or a specific factor. By doing that, you must consider whether the
population is appropriate or practical. The selection of study population on the basis of suitability
usually affects the validity and subsequent generalizations from the findings. Therefore as a
researcher you are expected to give close attention to the population at the early stage of the
proposal development.
Factors to consider when selecting a study population

- Whether the proposed population will provide the required information?

- Whether the proposed population will cooperate with the researcher in participate ?
- Whether the proposed population will enable you to identify enough cases to yield
relevant information in relation to your study?

E-tivity 8.2.3 Study population and factors to consider when selecting a study population
Numbering pacing and sequencing 8.2.3
Title Research Objectives
Purpose The main aim of this e-tivity is to introduce to
factors to consider when selecting a study
population.
Brief Summary of overall task Watch video
video 1
video 2

read the materials

View Video 2 on the factors to consider when
selecting a study population and make a
summary of the steps of developing a
literature review.
Spark
Individual task a) Write a power point on factors that
should be considered when selecting a
study population.
b) Save this work in your portfolio.
Interaction begins a) Post your work on factors that should
be considered when selecting a study
population on the discussion forum.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback

42
 to your classmates. Do this on the
discussion forum 8.2.3
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the
content and context of discussion
2. Stimulate further learning and
generation on new ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning
progress
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should be done in 1 hour
Next Identifying Sampling Methods

E References
1. Angelsen, Arild, et al., editors. Composing a Research Proposal. Center for International Forestry
Research, 2011, pp. 33–50, Measuring Livelihoods and Environmental Dependence: Methods for
Research and Fieldwork. Retrieved from
[Link]
2. Encyclopedia of Research Design, Volume 1edited by Neil J. Salkind. Retrieved from
[Link]

LESSON 9 SAMPLING METHODS

9.1 Introduction
After selecting the study population, you will now consider the sampling methods. Determining
the sampling methods is significant in ensuring that you have the right sample for your study.
This is usually followed by data collection.
9.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

9.2.1 Distinguish between sampling methodology, data collection and study variables
9.2.1 Sampling Methods
After selecting the population, you will need to focus on your sampling methodology. One of the
major issues that will influence your choice of the most appropriate sampling method is whether
a you have developed a sampling frame. A sampling frame is basically a list of all the units that

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comprise your study population. It is important to note that there are several types of sampling
strategies within the non-probability sampling techniques, they include, purposeful sampling and
random sampling methods. Probability sampling techniques on the other hand include simple
random sampling, systematic sampling, stratifies sampling, cluster sampling, multi-stage
sampling
Data collection
Once you have decided on the design you will adopt for your research and your study population,
the next step is to establish how you will collect information. The most commonly used methods
of collecting information include the use of documentary sources, interviews and self-
administered questionnaires. The most suitable method of data collection for your study will be
based on the accuracy of information they will yield and practical issues such as availability of
relevant personnel, allocated time of the research, required equipment and other facilities, in
relation to what is available. Always remember to balance between the accuracy of the methods
and their practicability considerations.
Study Variables
In this section, it is first and foremost important to understand what a study variable is. A
variable is a characteristic of a person, object used by the researcher in their study. A simple
example of a variable is a person's age. The variable can take on different values, such as, 20
years old, 30 years old, and so on. Study variable may also include: marital status (single,
married, divorced and widowed) occupation (civil servant, farmer, student, et.) disability
condition (presence or absence of a disability or level of severity). There are two main types of
variables, depended and independent variables. A dependent variable is used to describe or
measure the problem under study while independent variables that are used to describe or
measure the factors that are assumed to influence (or cause) the problem. When defining
variables, it is important to realize which variables are measurable therefore they must have
indicators. Once appropriate indicators have been identified we know exactly what information
we are looking for. After this is done, the collection of data as well as the analysis will be more
focused and efficient.

E-tivity 9.2.1 Sampling methodology, data collection and study variables

Numbering pacing and sequencing 9.2.1

Title Research Objectives
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to introduce
you to sampling methods and data collection
methods and study variables.
Brief Summary of overall task Watch video
video 1
video 2
44
 video 3

Read the materials on

Online article and make a summary of the
sampling methods and data collection and
study variables.
Spark

Individual task a) Identify a research area and show the

sampling methods and data collection
used in the selected research.
b) Save this work in your portfolio.
Interaction begins a) Post your work on the sampling
methods and data collection
procedures for the selected study and
b) provide positive constructive feedback
to your classmates. Do this on the
discussion forum. 9.2.1
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the
content and context of discussion
2. Stimulate further learning and
generation on new ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning
progress
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should be done in 1 hour
Next Research instruments

9.4 E-References
1. Research Methodology by Khan Pages and 97 to 111 retrieved from Pearson, P., Barr, R.,
Kamil, M., Mosenthal, P., Moje, E., Afflerbach, P., Enciso, P. and Lesaux, N., n.d. Handbook Of
Reading [Link] from
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[Link]
am%20Design_An%20Examination%20of%20Teachers%20College%20Units%20of%20Study
%[Link]

LESSON 10
Research Instruments
10.1Introduction
In this final lesson, you will learn that there is no single research method or instrument that is
considered the best. There is no instrument that can be declared as ‘one-size-fits-all’. At the same
time, none is inherently more superior that the other. Always remember that each has its own
strengths and weaknesses. The aim of this lesson therefore is to help you to acquaint yourself
with a variety of research instruments to enable you make informed decisions about the
instrument best suited to the requirements of your own research.
10.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

10.2.1 To identify different types research instruments and their roles data collection.

10.2.1 Types of research Instruments

Questionnaires
Questionnaires include a list of questions subjected to the study population for the purposes of
eliciting specific information related to the research. They are usually favored by many
researchers because they provide a cheap and effective way of collecting data in a structured and
manageable form. Most questionnaires can be very comprehensive, they cover many issues.
They can also simple and focused on one important research area. Every research requires
information on a range of subjects and to obtain that information we may be required to ask
people questions using questionnaires. They can therefore be designed and used to collect vast
quantities of data from a variety of respondents
Interviews
The second research instruments we shall look at are interviews, these have long been used in
research as a way of obtaining detailed information about a topic or subject. The research
interview is far more resource-intensive. It requires the researcher to elicit information from
respondents on a one-to-one basis. Interviews can last for longer than an hour and can produce
vast amounts of data. It has been said that while other instruments focus on the surface elements

46
of what is happening, interviews give the researcher more of an insight into the meaning and
significance of what is happening.

Focus Group Discussion

A focus-group research is a form of qualitative method used to gather rich, descriptive data in a
small group format from participants who have agreed to ‘focus’ on a topic of mutual interest.
The emphasis is on understanding participants’ experiences, interests, attitudes, perspectives and
assumptions. In order to effectively collect data using this method, you must carefully plan and
moderate the discussion in such a way that one person’s ideas bounce off another’s creating a
chain reaction of informative dialogue. FDGs help to address a specific topic, in depth, in a
comfortable environment to elicit a wide range of opinions, attitudes, feelings or perceptions
from a group of individuals who share some common experience relative to the dimension under
study.
Observation
In order to understand fully what these activities mean to people, how they themselves perceive
them and what their perspective is on them, it is necessary to see those people in action, to
experience what it is they do, even to wade in and have a go yourself. This is the research
method called observation, and one of the clearest basic definitions we have found of
observation as a research method tells us that it is ‘research characterized by a prolonged period
of intense social interaction between the researcher and the subjects, in the milieu of the latter,
during which time data, in the form of field notes, are unobtrusively and systematically
collected’ (Bogdan 1972: 3). Social researchers are interested in people and, in particular, the
ways in which people act in, interpret and understand the complex world around them, whether
that is the world of the classroom, the hospital, the factory floor, the head office, the local
government department or wherever. How people see and understand their surroundings will no
doubt play a part in the ways in which they behave, they act and interact with others, and in the
ways their actions are perceived by others. Observation is an extremely handy tool for
researchers in this regard. It can allow researchers to understand much more about what goes on
in complex real world situations than they can ever discover simply by asking questions.
E-tivity 10.2.1 types research instruments and their roles data collection

Numbering pacing and sequencing 10.2.1

Title Research Instruments
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to introduce
you to types research instruments
Brief Summary of overall task Watch
47
 video 1
video 2
read the materials
book
journal article and make a summary of the
research instruments
Spark

Individual task a) Identify the role of research

instruments in the data collection
process.
b) Save this work in your portfolio
Interaction begins a) Post your answer on the role of
research instrument in the data
collection process.
b) Provide positive constructive feedback
to your classmates. Do this on the
discussion forum 10.2.1.
E moderator interventions 1. Ensure the students are focused on the
content and context of discussion
2. Stimulate further learning and
generation on new ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning
progress
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should be done in 1 hour
Next Revision

REFERNCES

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1. Thorndike, R. (1951). Tests as Research Instruments. Review of Educational Research, 21(5),
450-462. Retrieved July 15, 2020, from [Link]
2. Using Research Instruments: A Guide for Researchers By Peter Birmingham, David Wilkinsonon.
Cited from [Link]
[Link]

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