chapter 1

Page 6: Introduction - The Land of Pakistan

• Pakistan emerged on the world map on 14th August 1947.
• Pakistan was created from the partition of the Indian sub-continent into
two sovereign states: Pakistan and India.
• Initially, Pakistan was comprised of two distinct areas: West Pakistan and
East Pakistan.
• In December 1971, East Pakistan separated and became the independent
state of 'Bangladesh'.
• Pakistan is located between latitudes 24°35' north and 37°05' north.
• Pakistan extends from longitude 61° east to 78° east.
• The total area of Pakistan is 796,096 square km.
• Pakistan stretches over 1600 km from north to south.
• Pakistan stretches about 885 km from east to west.
• Pakistan has a 585 km common border with China in the extreme north-
east.
• Pakistan has a 2252-km border with Afghanistan, known as the Durand
Line.
• The Wakhan is a narrow strip of Afghan territory that separates Pakistan
from Tajikistan.
• Pakistan has a common border with the Islamic Republic of Iran to the
south-west.
• The Arabian Sea marks Pakistan's southern border.
• Pakistan has a common border with India to the east.
• Pakistan's borders with Afghanistan and India are longer than those with
Iran and China.
• Pakistan's four provinces are Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and
Balochistan.
• A note on the map states: "On 31 May 2018, Federally Administered Tribal
Areas (FATA) was officially merged with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa."
• A note on the map states: "Government plans to give provincial status to
Gilgit Batkistan in coming year."
• From a strategic and economic viewpoint, Pakistan enjoys a key position
in South Asia.
• There are few land links to the north and north-west due to large mountain
ranges and the climate.
• The Khyber Pass provides a route to Afghanistan.
• The Karakoram Highway makes communication with China easier.
• The areas to the north and north-west are landlocked.
• Pakistan's seaports of Karachi and Gwadar can serve these landlocked
areas.
• Pakistan's coastline on the Arabian Sea is in a central position for trading
by sea with South Asia, the Far East, and the Middle East.
• Some air routes between west and east pass through Pakistan due to its

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 central position.
• Jinnah Terminal, Karachi, could have immense importance as an interna-
tional airport.
• Jinnah Terminal is greatly under-used.
• Dubai has taken over Karachi's natural role.

Page 7: Importance of Pakistan’s Location (Continued)

• China has emerged as an economic power and trading giant.
• China is spending an estimated $1 trillion on improving trading connections
with 70 countries across Asia, Europe, and Africa.
• China is helping other countries develop their economies to be better
trading partners.
• China helps countries build new factories and improve energy supplies with
new wind farms and power stations.
• Pakistan, being China's immediate neighbour, has increased trade with
China.
• The inflow of low-priced Chinese goods to Pakistan's domestic market has
increased competition with Pakistan's domestic industry.
• The Belt and Road Initiative is building new motorways, railways, pipelines,
ports, and bridges to speed up communications between countries.
• An 'economic corridor' will connect Kashgar in China with Gwadar in
Pakistan.
• A new deepwater port is being built at Gwadar.
• A Q-box presents two statements for discussion regarding the China-
Pakistan Economic Corridor and energy crisis dependency.
• Figure 0.2 shows the planned routes of the Belt and Road Initiative.

Page 9: Unit 1 - The Natural Topography, including drainage

• Topography is the study and description of the surface features of land.
• Topography includes both natural and artificial features.
• This unit covers the Northern Mountains, North-Western Mountains, West-
ern Mountains, and the Balochistan Plateau.
• Pakistan can be divided into six major natural topographical areas.
• The six areas are: the Northern Mountains and North-Western Mountains;
the Western Mountains; the Balochistan Plateau; Potwar Plateau and Salt
Range; the Indus Plain; and the Desert Areas.
• To the north, north-east and north-west of Pakistan are three mountain
ranges: the Karakoram Range, the Himalayas, and the Hindu Kush.
• The clash of these three ranges makes for interesting and complex geology.
• The Karakoram means 'black gravel'.
• The Karakoram is a mass of rock and ice.
• The Karakoram extends for more than 400 km from Hunza to the Shyok
River.
• The western end of the Karakoram range lies in Pakistan.

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Page 10: The Northern Mountains and North-Western Mountains
(Continued)
• The Karakoram Range runs east-west.
• The Karakoram has deep, narrow valleys and sharp peaks forming a rugged
landscape.
• The average height of the Karakoram mountains is about 6000 metres.
• K-2, the world's second-highest peak at 8611 metres, is located in the
Karakoram.
• Precipitation in the Karakoram is mainly in the form of snow due to the
altitude.
• Upper regions of the valleys have glaciers instead of rivers.
• The severe climate makes the Karakorams extremely inhospitable.
• Population density in the Karakorams is very low.
• Mountain passes are open only in summer.
• A nomadic or seminomadic way of life is common.
• Agriculture is practised in valleys where water is plentiful.
• Main crops are apples, barley, and millet.
• Cattle breeding is common.
• The Karakorams attract scientists and mountaineers due to challenging
geography and scenic beauty.
• The Karakoram Highway opened a new era in the cultural and economic
progress of the region.
• The Himalayas are to the south of the Karakoram range.
• The Himalayas run east to west for about 2500 km.
• The Himalayas comprise the Siwaliks, the Lesser or Lower Himalayas, and
the Central Himalayas.
• The Siwaliks are low-altitude hills (600-1200 metres) near Attock.
• The Lesser or Lower Himalayas are of medium altitude (1800-4500 metres).
• The Pir Panjal range represents the Lesser Himalayas.
• The Lesser Himalayas are popular with tourists.
• Hill stations such as Murree, Nathia Gali, and Ghora Gali are located in
the Lesser Himalayas.
• Moving north, the height of the mountains increases.
• The Central Himalayas is the range located between the Pir Panjal Range
and the Karakoram Range.
• The Central Himalayas mostly lie in Kashmir.
• The natural topography of the Central Himalayas is characterised by steep,
snow-capped peaks, huge glaciers causing deep erosion, and rich natural
vegetation in the valleys.

Page 11: The Northern Mountains and North-Western Mountains

(Continued)
• The highest peak of the Central Himalayas is Nanga Parbat, at about 8126
metres.

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 • Nanga Parbat lies in the Northern Area.
• The Hindu Kush Range lies where the borders of Afghanistan and China
meet on Pakistan’s north and north-west borders.
• The Hindu Kush runs in a north-south direction.
• The Hindu Kush has mountains such as Tirich Mir (7690 metres) and large
glaciers.
• The Hindu Kush resembles the Karakoram Range.
• Figure 1.5 shows part of the Swat River valley with high, steep valley sides
and a fast-flowing river occupying most of the narrow valley floor.
• This is typical of the relief and drainage in the Hindu Kush and other parts
of the Northern Mountains.
• Passes across the Hindu Kush have been of immense historic and military
significance.
• Invaders such as Alexander the Great, Mahmud of Ghazni, the Ghauris,
Tamerlane, and the Mughal king Babar crossed the Hindu Kush through
these passes.
• Passes are still important today.
• The Shandur Pass connects Gilgit and Chitral.
• The Shangla Pass links the Swat Valley to the upper part of the Indus
Valley.
• The Lawarai Pass connects Chitral to the Swat Valley and the Vale of
Peshawar.
• Generally, the mountains are bare of vegetation.
• Some rich forests are found in the extreme south-east and in the hills of
Swat, Kohistan, the Panjkora Valley, and Dir District.
• Rice is cultivated on terraced fields in areas of Swat, Chitral, and Dir.

Page 12: The Mountain Valleys & Importance of the Northern Moun-
tains
• A number of valleys in the mountainous north attract domestic and foreign
visitors.
• The larger, more popular valleys are: Swat (Hindu Kush), Chitral
(Hindu Kush), Dir (Hindu Kush), Gilgit (Karakoram), Hunza (Karako-
ram), Baltistan (Karakoram), Murree & Gallies (Himalayas), Kaghan
(Himalayas).
• The Northern Mountains hold immense importance due to a number of
economic and physical factors.
• Snow-capped peaks melt during summer to drain water into the River
Indus and its tributaries, which irrigate the vast Indus plains.
• Historical passes connect Pakistan to China and Afghanistan.
• The mountains form a natural border to China and Central Asian Republics.
• A land route through the Karakoram Highway has been opened to carry
out trade.
• Mountain peaks provide protection against cold winds from Central Asia.
• Due to this protection, the temperature does not go below freezing point

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 over the upper Indus Plain and the climate remains tolerable throughout
the year.
• The mountains are a source of valuable minerals, timber, and fruits.
• They provide raw material to several industries (e.g., furniture, paper,
chipboard, chemical).
• Scenic beauty promotes tourist resorts, which are a source of income to
local people during summer.
• Population, settlement, and economic activities within the Northern Moun-
tains are greatly influenced by variations in topography.
• Topography imposes harsh living conditions and restricts movement and
communications.

Page 13: People and Economy in the Northern Mountains

• The economy in the Northern Mountains has developed on traditional
lines.
• Much of the area is characterised by a very low economic growth rate
combined with a high rate of population growth.
• This combination prevents growth in the already low level of per capita
income.
• Per capita income is the average income per person.
• Life is hard due to a lack of infrastructure such as bridges and roads.
• Most of the population is dependent on agriculture, primarily subsistence
agriculture and cattle breeding.
• Wheat, rice, barley, maize, and vegetables are grown in small terraced
fields on steep hillsides.
• In winter, many people work in cottage and small-scale industries.
• They make carpets, embroidered material, rugs, and other handicraft items.
• These items are sold to domestic and foreign tourists who visit mainly
during summer.
• Major industries include processing food grains and fruit, making vegetable
oil, and refining sugar.
• Figure 1.11 shows an apricot-drying unit in Baltistan.
• Cottage and small-scale industries produce shawls, carpets, and rugs that
meet domestic and international demand.
• Some towns like Mingora, Murree, Kaghan, and Gilgit trade by road with
cities like Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Peshawar, and Abbotabad.
• Due to difficult terrain and limited transport facilities, it is hard to carry
out regional trade on a large scale.
• There are a few modern industries.
• Mineral resources have not been explored yet.
• The Northern Mountains have major hydroelectric potential.
• Developing hydroelectric resources requires huge capital investment, which
is not available.
• Skilled labour needed to manage natural resource development is limited
due to low literacy rates.

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 • Safe drinking water is scarce.
• Poor health is common.
• Food production has not kept up with population growth, so people face
malnutrition.

Page 14: Environmental Issues & Topographical Features

• Economic changes and population growth are threatening the ecology of
the Northern Mountains.
• Deforestation in the foothills and overgrazing on high pastures have led to
soil erosion.
• Deforestation has increased due to high demand for firewood and extensive
trimming of trees to feed livestock.
• Road construction in border regions has increased the rate of deforestation
and the number of landslides.
• Roads bring economic benefits but also threaten the environment.
• Tourism is popular but has an adverse impact where tourist numbers
exceed available facilities.
• Recent developments have taken place in road transport to northern areas.
• These developments promote tourism and help explore untapped resources.
• Infrastructure in Northern Pakistan was badly devastated during the
October 2005 earthquake.
• Reconstruction of towns like Balakot has been completed.
• Steep slopes with trees have been levelled to build roads.
• Rapid population growth has increased pollution.
• Streams that were once clear are now polluted with refuse and sewage.
• Hill people who use the water for drinking suffer from dysentery, cholera,
and typhoid.
• Other epidemics are common due to unhygienic conditions.
• Topographical/Relief Features of the Northern Mountains:
– Parallel ranges run mainly from West to East.
– Height of ranges increases from South to North.
– High altitude - peaks rise to 8475 m.
– High passes such as Khunjerab Pass, Lawarai Pass, and Shandur Pass.
– Snowfields / glaciers.
– Snow-capped peaks / steep slopes.

Page 15: Glaciers and Glacial Features

• Many of the world’s glaciers lie in the mountains of Pakistan.
• A glacier is a tongue-shaped mass of ice moving slowly down a valley.
• Important glaciers include: Baltoro (58 km long), Batura (58 km long),
Siachen (78 km long).
• All three glaciers are in the Karakoram Range.
• When glaciers move downhill, they do three things: erosion (abrasion and
plucking), transportation of their load, and deposition of their load.

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 • Glaciers can be very large (e.g., Siachen Glacier is 78 km long).
• A glacier may be very deep, filling most of a valley.
• A glacier's rough surface carries fragments of rock that fall from the
mountainsides above.
• A snowfield is a plain area covered with perpetual snow above the snowline
in high altitude mountains.
• A snowfield requires very heavy snowfall that accumulates in compact
layers.
• A serrated landscape is an elevated mountain zone used for agriculture.
• Bare rocks are found in high-altitude areas above the snowline (rocks
without vegetation due to snow accumulation).
• Scree is a slope consisting of accumulated loose rock debris.
• Scree is formed when water in rock cracks freezes, expands, exerts pressure,
and breaks the rock. The fragments collect at the foot of the slopes.
• Deep V-shaped valleys / gorges are steep-sided deep river valleys.
• U-shaped valleys are formed by the movement of glaciers.
• Ice erodes the valley sides and floor by abrasion and plucking.

Page 16: Glaciers and Glacial Features (Continued) & Drainage

Features
• A deeply dissected landscape is formed due to the movement of glaciers.
• A cirque/corrie is a steep-walled basin formed by frost and glacial action,
which may contain a small lake.
• Satpara Lake near Skardu is a typical example of a cirque.
• Saif ul Muluk Lake is another example of a cirque, located in the northern
end of Kaghan Valley, 3,224 m above sea level.
• Saif ul Muluk is one of the highest lakes in Pakistan and attracts tourists.
• Natural drainage means the natural run-off of water from an area in rivers
and streams.
• The River Indus and its tributaries dominate the drainage pattern of the
Northern Mountains.
• The Indus starts its journey from Manasarovar Lake in the Karakoram
Range.
• While passing through the Hindu Kush, the River Kabul joins the River
Indus at Attock.
• The River Swat has already joined the Indus before Attock.
• After forming deeply dissected valleys and gorges, the Indus takes a south-
ern turn at Kalabagh and enters an area of plains.
• Huge glaciers of the Karakorams and Hindu Kush feed the river.
• The eastern tributaries of the Indus (Ravi, Jhelum, Chenab, Sutlej, Beas)
originate in the Himalayas.
• These tributaries pass through Kashmir and enter the plain area where
they join the Indus.

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Page 17: Drainage Features (Continued) & The Western Mountains
• While crossing high altitude ranges, the River Indus and its tributaries
form features associated with river action in high altitude areas.
• Gorges form when a river erodes the land, leaving behind vertical hard
rocks after less resistant rocks are eroded.
• Waterfalls are a steep fall of river water from a hard rock that resists
erosion.
• Rapids are a series of very short and fast waterfalls.
• Streams and springs form when snow melts from the mountains and water
flows down.
• The Western Mountains consist of many parallel ranges.
• The Western Mountains are not as high as the Northern Mountains.
• The Western Mountains include the Safed Koh Ranges (up to 4712 m),
Waziristan Hills (up to 3513 m), Sulaiman Range (up to 3383 m), and
Kirthar Range (up to 2174 m).
• The Safed Koh Ranges lie in an east-west direction south of the Kabul
River.
• They are called Safed Koh (white mountains) because their peaks are often
covered with snow.
• The River Kurram flows to the south of the Safed Koh range.
• The Kurram Pass provides a route into Afghanistan.
• The Kohat Valley is located at the other end of the Kurram Pass.
• The Kohat Valley is dotted with springs and limestone ridges.
• With irrigation, the Kohat Valley is farmed.
• Wheat, rice, and sugarcane are cultivated in the Kohat Valley.
• The Vale of Peshawar is another valley in this region, drained by the Rivers
Kabul and Swat.
• The Vale of Peshawar is a fertile, alluvial plain.
• The Vale of Peshawar is irrigated by canals originating from the Warsak
Dam on the River Kabul.
• A Q-box presents two statements for discussion regarding developing
Northern Mountains for tourism versus developing the Indus Plain.

Page 18: The Western Mountains (Continued)

• The Waziristan Hills are located between the Kurram and the Gomal
Rivers.
• The Waziristan Hills lie in a mineralised zone (rich in minerals).
• Along with the Safed Koh Ranges, the Waziristan Hills form a rampart
between Pakistan and Afghanistan.
• The Bannu Valley lies to the east of the Waziristan Hills.
• Bannu (near the Tochi Pass) and Dera Ismail Khan (near the Gomal Pass)
are important towns and military centres.
• The Bannu Valley is a low-lying basin bordered by hills and mountains.
• The Bannu Valley is drained by streams with braided channels.

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 • The Bannu Valley has deposits of clay and boulders brought down by
streams.
• The Kurram Dam on the Kurram River is the main source of irrigation
water for the Bannu Valley.
• The Sulaiman Range lies to the west of the River Indus.
• The Sulaiman Range rises to an average height of 1500 metres.
• Takht-i-Sulaiman, at 3383 metres, is the highest peak in the Sulaiman
Range.
• Limestone and sandstone are the main rocks in the Sulaiman Range.
• Further south, the Sulaiman Range meets the Kirthar Range.
• The Kirthar Range is backed by the Pab Range.
• Passes of the Western Mountains include Khyber, Kurram, Tochi, Gomal,
and Bolan.
• The Khyber Pass is a route to Afghanistan.
• The Kurram Pass is a route to Afghanistan.
• The Tochi Pass connects Camini to Bannu.
• The Gomal Pass connects Afghanistan to Derajah.
• The Bolan Pass connects Sea Peam to Cuesta.
• The Khyber Pass provides a historic link between Afghanistan and Pakistan.
• A table summarizes the description of the Western Mountains ranges (Safed
Koh, Waziristan Hills, Sulaiman Range, Kirthar Range) with their Height,
Location, Physical Features, and Importance.

Page 19: Economic Activities and Lifestyle & Mountain Building

Process
• The Western Mountains are mostly bare of vegetation.
• The climate and relief do not support farming.
• Canal irrigation is not possible due to mountainous terrain and rugged
landscape.
• Transportation facilities are limited.
• Except for a few urban centres like Peshawar and Kohat, the area is not
connected by air or rail networks.
• Only a few areas are accessible through main (metalled) roads.
• Most areas are accessible only by unmetalled roads.
• The Bolan Pass links Quetta with the plains of Punjab and upper Sindh
through the town of Sibi by road and train.
• The train through the Bolan Pass passes through 21 tunnels.
• Life is difficult due to the rugged landscape.
• The cost of supplying infrastructure (water, transport, electricity, commu-
nications) is much higher than in the plains.
• Consequently, projects like mining, industries, and educational facilities
have not been established.
• These factors adversely affect the lives of inhabitants, who are deprived of
basic necessities.
• A nomadic lifestyle is common.

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 • Sheep and goat rearing is the main occupation.
• Population density is lower than 100 persons per sq. km.
• There are abundant mineral resources, but due to extraction difficulty,
they have not been explored or exploited.
• The word ‘tectonics’ comes from the Greek word ‘tekton’, meaning ‘builder’.
• The Plate Tectonics theory suggests the Earth's surface is made of rigid
plates of lithosphere (crust) that ‘float’ on the more mobile asthenosphere.
• The asthenosphere is the soft layer of mantle about 35km below the Earth’s
crust.
• Due to movement in the asthenosphere, the plates are in constant motion.
• This explains continental drift, mountain building, earthquakes, and vol-
canic activity.
• Much of this activity occurs at the edges, or margins, of the plates.
• A mountain is an area of ground higher (over 1000m) than a hill.
• A group of mountains is called a range.
• It takes millions of years for mountains to form.
• The process is continuous as sections of the Earth’s crust are thrust, folded,
and broken.
• The mountains to the north, north-west, and west of Pakistan are fold
mountains.
• Before their formation, the area was occupied by the ‘Sea of Tethys’, a
long, narrow, shallow sea.
• Mountain building resulted from the movement of the Earth’s plates,
leading to squeezing, folding, and elevation of sediment layers from the sea.
• Sedimentary layers are mainly sandstone.
• In some parts of the sea, shells and bones of sea animals accumulated to
form limestone layers.
• Figure 1.30 shows three stages (A, B, C) in the formation of fold mountains.
• During mountain building, the Earth’s crust weakened due to strains and
pressures, resulting in earthquakes.
• Volcanoes, normally associated with young fold mountains, are absent in
the Himalayas.

Page 20: Mountain Building Process (Continued) & Earthquakes

• Since the mountain building era, forces of rain, wind, and ice have been
wearing away the exposed rocks.
• Rivers from the mountains have deposited large amounts of sediment in
the plains.
• In some places, the sediment is estimated to be around 2000m deep.
• Earthquakes are one of the most dangerous and destructive natural hazards.
• Earthquakes strike with great impact and little warning.
• They may occur at any time of day or any day of the year.
• An earthquake can devastate an entire city or region, reduce buildings to
rubble in seconds, and kill/injure inhabitants.
• Movements of the Earth’s massive plates cause earthquakes.

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 • These plates are constantly moving, causing stresses to form and accumulate
until a fracture or abrupt slippage occurs.
• This sudden release of stress is an earthquake.
• On 8 October 2005, a massive earthquake struck the India-Pakistan border
with a magnitude of 7.6 on the Richter Scale.
• It caused massive damage throughout northern areas of Pakistan including
Kashmir.
• Northern Pakistan including Kashmir lies in the area of collision of the
Eurasian and Indian tectonic plates.
• The earthquake caused widespread destruction in this region, as well as
damage in Afghanistan and northern India.
• Worst hit areas were Pakistan-administered Kashmir, Pakistan’s Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, and western/southern parts of the Kashmir valley in Indian-
administered Kashmir.
• It also affected some parts of Pakistani Punjab.
• Karachi experienced a minor aftershock of magnitude 4.6.
• Since then, there have been many secondary earthquakes in the region,
mainly to the north-west of the original epicentre.
• Earthquakes have effects on the Physical Environment, Human Environ-
ment, and Economy.

Page 21: Effects of Earthquakes

• Physical Environment effects of earthquakes: faults leading to landslides;
climatic changes (rainfall, snowfall, dust storms); soil contamination &
ground water pollution.
• The 2005 earthquake had violent effects on the physical environment of
northern Pakistan.
• The Earth jolted intensely, generating deep cracks and faults and causing
landslides.
• Heavy snowfall and rainstorms further deepened faults and cracks, changing
the landscape.
• Volcanic eruptions in some areas released deadly chemicals that contami-
nated soil and polluted ground water sources.
• Human Environment effects of earthquakes: massive loss of human life;
destruction of settlements & infrastructure; wide-scale migration to lowland
areas; social problems; spread of diseases.
• Most earthquake-related deaths are caused by the collapse of structures.
• The collapse of more than 60% of buildings was responsible for the majority
of deaths and injuries.
• The city of Balakot was almost completely wiped out.
• Thousands died in Rawalakot, Garhi Habibullah, and Muzaffarabad (near
the epicentre).
• Infrastructure (roads, bridges, electricity, telephone lines, hospitals, schools)
was badly damaged.
• The Karakoram Highway was blocked at several points, hindering relief

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 efforts.
• Due to extremely cold weather and hindrance in relief, many diseases
spread, leading to more deaths.
• Many people who lost homes migrated to lowland areas to live in govern-
ment relief camps.
• Survivors suffered economic and emotional losses, leading to social prob-
lems.
• Economic effects of earthquakes: overburdened economy due to emergency
relief and rescue measures; rehabilitation expenditure; halted tourism;
inflow of foreign loans increasing debt burden.
• Inflow of humanitarian assistance reduced the economic burden on Pakistan.

Page 22: The Balochistan Plateau

• The Balochistan Plateau is located in the southwest of Pakistan.
• Altitudes mainly range from 600-3010 metres.
• It is an extensive area of 347,190 sq. km.
• a) Basins of Northern Balochistan: The plateau has irregular depressions
like the Zhob and Loralai basins, situated between the Toba Kakar Ranges
and the Sulaiman Range.
• To the south-west of the Loralai basin is the Quetta Valley, surrounded by
mountain ranges.
• Rain is infrequent.
• When it rains, rivers form narrow channels.
• At the foothills of the mountains, rivers deposit gravel, boulders, sand, and
silt.
• This deposition forms alluvial fans on the piedmont plains.
• b) Basins of Western Balochistan: There are basins between mountain
ranges like the Chagai Hills, Ras Koh, Siahan, and Central Makran.
• This area is almost totally devoid of vegetation.
• There is very little rainfall, even in winter.
• These basins have no outlet to the sea.
• When it rains, water drains into temporary rivers/streams that flow into
the basins and either soak into the ground or gather in temporary lakes.
• These are inland drainage basins.
• The temporary lakes are called 'hamuns' locally.
• They are salt lakes that leave a salty crust when water evaporates; it is
then called a salt pan.
• The largest hamun is the Hamun-i-Mashkel, in the western part of the
Kharan Desert.
• c) Mountain Ranges: The plateau is covered with barren mountain ranges
with an altitude of 600-301 metres.
• These ranges are highly mineralised, especially the Chagai Hills, which
have copper, gold, and sulphur deposits.
• Many are in the process of exploration.
• Ranges to find on the map: Ras Koh, Hala Range, Makran Coast Range,

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 Central Brahui Range, Toba Kakar Range, Siahan Range.
• d) The Coastal Areas: Divided into eastern and western parts.
• The eastern part is the Lasbela Plain, marked by gravel and sand dunes.
• The western part is the Makran Coast, where the Makran Coast Range
projects into the sea and forms a narrow coastal plain.
• Important rivers are the Hab, Porali, Hingol, and Dasht, which flow into
the Arabian Sea.

Page 23: Balochistan’s Economic Potential

• The Balochistan Plateau is surrounded by and crossed by mountains.
• To the south is a narrow coastal plain bordering the Arabian Sea.
• The area has low rainfall, so the climate is dry and extreme with compara-
tively cool summers at high altitudes.
• Balochistan is the largest province in area.
• It has vast untapped resources but has remained largely neglected.
• Population density is the lowest in Pakistan.
• South-western Balochistan has fewer than ten people per [Link].
• There is no major source of water.
• The province faces scarcity of both drinking and irrigation water.
• Supplies depend on small water schemes: karez system, flood diversion
channels, and a small number of tubewells.
• Many roads and railway lines were built with little economic consideration.
• In the 21st century, the road network has been greatly expanded and
improved.
• The Makran Coastal Highway links Karachi with Gwadar Port.
• The Makran Coastal Highway may have opened a new era in Balochistan’s
economic development.
• The River Hingol is the biggest river on the Makran Coast.

Page 24: Economic Wealth of Balochistan

• a) Mineral Resources: The province is rich in minerals.
• The Saindak Copper-Gold project is located here.
• There are many coal mines, employing more than 80% of the population
in some areas.
• A lot of the coal produced is sold to factories in Punjab.
• A survey identified geological conditions for deposits of antimony and gold
in Punigore and Kharan district.
• Balochistan has appreciable deposits of crude oil and natural gas.
• About 46% of the country's gas supply is obtained from Sui.
• Sui is not on the Balochistan Plateau, but at the edge of the Lower Indus
Plain.
• A Q-box presents two statements for discussion regarding utilizing farming
potential versus investing in infrastructure for Balochistan.
• b) Agriculture:

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 – i) Fruit production: Main fruits are dates, grapes, apples, almonds,
apricots, plums, peaches, melons, pomegranates.
– About 75% of total production moves to markets in other provinces,
based on demand and prices.
– Karachi is the largest market for Balochistan fruits.
– Apples, grapes, apricots, melons, peaches, plums, pomegranates are
exported to the Gulf States.
• Economic Structure: Crop farming and livestock raising are the main
activities.
• About 67% of the labour force is engaged in agriculture.
• The annual per capita income in 2018 was US$4628.
• This was higher than Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (US4328)andSindh(U S4483)
but lower than Punjab (US$5503).
• Semi-nomadic families live in temporary tents made of reeds with their
livestock.
• These people lack clean water, protection from weather, hygienic food,
medical facilities, and education.

Page 25: Economic Wealth of Balochistan (Continued) & Future

Prospects
• ii) Vegetable seed industry: The uplands have long, cold winters suited to
growing vegetable seeds that require chilly weather for transplantation.
• Warm, dry summers are conducive to superior flowering and formation of
high-quality seeds.
• iii) Livestock and their products: Nomadic livestock farming is common
due to scarcity of rainfall and lack of irrigation.
• The most important livestock products are wool, goat hair, and skins.
• After meeting domestic requirements, these are exported under a govern-
ment grading scheme ensuring quality.
• c) Fishing: Fishing is for domestic use (subsistence) or commercial purposes
(for sale).
• Balochistan’s three main fishing ports are Gwadar, Pasni, and Ormara.
• Much of the catch is consumed locally.
• Around 30% is exported to European Union countries.
• Other export destinations: Japan, China, Malaysia, South Korea, Sri
Lanka, Singapore, USA.
• Future Prospects:
– i) Mineral resources are being explored (e.g., Saindak Copper-Gold
Project).
– ii) Sheep and goat products are exportable but need qualitative and
quantitative improvement.
– iii) The deep-sea port at Gwadar is being developed as part of the
Belt and Road initiative.
– Plans include 100 berths for container ships, with capacity to handle
400 million tonnes of cargo per year.

14
 – Transport plans include a new international airport and a six-lane
expressway between the port and the Makran Coastal Highway.
– iv) New technology and higher standards in fish-processing have
opened up new export markets.

Page 26: The Potwar Plateau and the Salt Range

• The Potwar Plateau and Salt Range are located south of Islamabad,
between the River Indus and the River Jhelum.
• It is an open, undulating land with extensive flat areas.
• The average height is 300-600 metres above sea level.
• Residual hills like Kala Chitta and Khairi Murat rise to just over 1000
metres.
• Residual hills are the result of resistant rock being left behind after erosion
of less resistant rock.
• Much of the plateau has been dissected and eroded by running water,
known as badland topography.
• Badland topography is a landscape of ridges, ravines, and troughs.
• The Soan River is the dominant feature of the region.
• The Soan River forms gullies and large alluvial plains, mainly used for
agriculture.
• The Potwar Plateau is rich in minerals: rock salt, gypsum, limestone, coal,
and oil.
• The Surface Landforms include:
– Ridges and residual hills: Rise to 1200 m; formed from resistant rock
left after erosion.
– Reaches and small rivers: Erode land and take away alluvium during
rainy season.
– Troughs and depressions: Formed by water and wind erosion of soft
rocks.
– Dissected and faulted land: Shows cracks due to uplift during moun-
tain building.
– Deep ravines: Excavated by running water in less resistant rock.
• The Salt Range covers most of Jhelum, Chakwal, Kalabagh, and Mianwali
districts.
• It is famous for salt mines at Khewra, a town about 160 km from Islamabad.

Page 27: The Salt Range (Continued) & Economic Activity

• The Salt Range comprises parallel ranges.
• It rises to an average height of 750-900 metres.
• Sakesar Peak (1527m) is the highest point.
• The ranges are badly faulted and eroded by rivers.
• Lakes like Kallar Kahar and Khabeki add to scenic beauty.
• The Salt Range is rich in minerals: rock salt, gypsum, limestone.
• Kallar Kahar lake is a salt lake 135 km from Rawalpindi and a favourite

15
 tourist spot.
• The Potwar Plateau and Salt Range are rich in non-metallic minerals:
limestone, marble, rock salt, clays, dolomite, soapstone.
• These provide raw materials for cement, ceramics, and chemical industries.
• There are a number of oil and gas fields in the region.
• Attock Oil Refinery refines oil from the Potwar Plateau oilfields.
• Farming depends on rainfall, as the rugged landscape does not allow canal
irrigation.
• Crops cultivated: wheat, maize, barley, gram.
• Most of the Potwar Plateau is productive and accessible by road, rail, and
air.
• Urban settlements like Jhelum, Chakwal, Rawalpindi/Islamabad have high
population density.
• The motorway between Lahore and Islamabad runs past the Salt Range.

Page 29: The Active Flood Plain

• The narrow strip of land on either side of a river is the active flood plain.
• It is locally known as ‘bet’ or ‘khaddar’ land.
• It is inundated almost every year.
• At the end of the rainy season, the land has dry and braided channels rich
in alluvium.
• The active flood plain is found along all rivers except the southern half of
the River Ravi, due to low water volume.
• Where the Indus enters the Lower Indus Plain, the flood plain is around
40km wide.
• This makes it an important farming area.
• Meanders, oxbow lakes, and levees are important features of the active
flood plain.
• These features are formed by erosion and deposition.
• They exist in both the Upper and Lower Indus Plains.
• Figure 1.56 explains the development of meanders and oxbow lakes.
• Figure 1.57 illustrates the formation of levees.
• A braided river near base-level shows traces of former meanders and oxbow
lakes on the flood-plain.

Page 30: The Old Flood Plain, Alluvial Terraces & Doabs
• The Old Flood Plain: Meander and cover flood plains cover the area
between alluvial terraces and the active flood plain.
• They are only flooded during heavy monsoon rainfall.
• They are covered with ‘old alluvium’ deposited in the past.
• Features include abandoned channels, meander scars, and remains of
oxbows (sometimes with water).
• Alluvial Terraces: The surface is flat and has a south-west slope.
• They are ideal for agriculture with irrigation.

16
 • Prominent alluvial terraces: Sandal Bar (Rechna Doab), Ganji Bar (Bari
Doab), Nili Bar (Bari Doab), Kirana Bar (Chaj Doab).
• Part of the Bahawalpur Plain, reclaimed through irrigation, is part of the
Indus Plain.
• The height of the Bahawalpur Plain is identical to the bars of the doabs
and is an alluvial terrace.
• A doab is the land between two rivers at their confluence.
• In a mature valley, erosion and deposition form features on a doab: lev-
ees, active flood plain, old flood plain (meander and cover), scarp, bar
upland/alluvial terraces.
• The flood plain in a doab also has abandoned channels and oxbow lakes.
• Doabs are favoured for human activities: farming, settlements, rail/road
construction, industry, business.
• Alluvial terraces or bars are areas of higher ground between rivers formed
by erosion of old alluvium.
• They are formed in the Upper Indus Plain in Chaj, Rechna, and Bari
Doabs.
• They are also called 'scalloped interfluves'.
• A cross-section shows the active flood plain is 15 km from the river and 4
m higher than the river level.
• A bar upland is 12 m higher than the river level.

Page 31: Doabs (Continued) & Piedmont Plains

• Features contributing to high population density in doabs:
– Active flood plain is flooded yearly, ideal for water-intensive crops
(rice, sugarcane).
– Meander and cover flood plains are good for arable farming; poorer
soils for settlements.
– Well-developed link canal irrigation provides continuous water supply.
– Bar uplands are safe from flooding, ideal for farming, settlements,
transport, industry, storage, markets.
• Piedmont Plains are located at the foothills of the Sulaiman, Kirthar, and
Himalayan Mountains.
• The dominant features are alluvial fans or cones developing eastward from
the Sulaiman and Kirthar Mountains.
• Alluvial fans form when a river's gradient decreases suddenly (e.g., emerging
from a mountain).
• Heavy material is dropped first; on level land, the current slows and fine
alluvium is dropped.
• This builds alternating layers of sand, gravel, and fine mud.
• This produces fine, well-drained soil excellent for agriculture.
• Rivers from the Sulaiman and Kirthar Ranges have low water flows, be-
coming active only in the rainy season.
• As they reach the foothills, they slow and split into narrow channels that
fan out.

17
 • Deposited material (gravel, sand, alluvium) forms alluvial fans.
• Extensive alluvial fans are on the eastern side of the Sulaiman and Kirthar
Ranges.
• Smaller areas are on the southern side of the Siwaliks between Rivers
Jhelum & Chenab and Chenab & Ravi.
• The Sulaiman Piedmont plain is also known as Derajat.
• The Piedmont Plains are mainly agricultural.

Page 32: Tidal Delta

• The Indus Delta is located south of Thatta.
• Deltas are often triangular or fan-shaped with distributaries branching off
like ribs of a fan.
• When a river flows into the sea, its speed is checked and it drops its
alluvium load on the sea floor.
• Deposition on distributary banks makes levees higher than adjacent areas.
• Sea water fills troughs between distributaries, resulting in swamps.
• The Indus Delta has ‘tidal flats’ with mangrove swamps.
• The coastal area is generally low and flat.
• The Indus Delta is east of Karachi and includes Thatta, Keti Bandar, Jati,
Ladian, and other small settlements.
• It has low population density because it is exposed to waves and tides.
• Agriculture is limited due to swampy land, sea water, saline soil, and low
annual rainfall (125mm-250mm).
• The Indus has the world’s fifth-biggest river delta.
• It is home to over 1 million people.
• Changes upstream (water taken for irrigation, loss of sediment) affect the
delta region.
• The volume of Indus water reaching the delta reduced from 250 million
km3/year to 100 million km3/year or less.
• This causes seawater to flow further into delta channels, replacing rice
farms with salt marshes.
• Villagers have been forced to move.
• Global warming and sea-level rise will cause saltwater to reach further
inland.
• The Indus once carried 300 million tonnes of sediment/year into the Arabian
Sea, creating the delta.
• By 2000, it was bringing less than 100 million tonnes/year.
• With less sediment, the delta is more easily eroded by the sea.

Page 33: Cuestas & Economic Activities in the Indus Plain

• Cuestas (escarpments) are prominent features in the Lower Indus Plain in
Sindh.
• Cuestas are made of limestone.
• A cuesta has a steep (scarp) slope on one side and a gentle (dip) slope on

18
 the other.
• Trees are planted around fields as windbreaks to prevent soil erosion and
minimise evaporation.
• The Rohri cuesta is 80m high and 48 km long.
• The Ganjo Takkar cuesta stretches southwards from Hyderabad for 24 km.
• These limestone ridges provide a firm foundation for barrages and add
scenic beauty.
• The Indus Plain is the most productive region of Pakistan.
• Relief and drainage encourage the growth of settlements.
• Doabs of the Upper Indus Plain and flood plains of the Lower Indus Plain
are excellent for farming.
• Since ancient times, over 80% of Pakistan's total cultivated area has been
in the Indus Plain.
• Crops are grown all year round (e.g., cotton, rice, sugarcane in summer;
wheat in winter).
• The flat land is ideal for canal irrigation; an extensive system has been
developed.
• The Indus Plain is the most developed region.
• Infrastructure is easier to provide.
• The transport network (road, rail, air) is dense.
• Electricity is supplied to all urban centres (e.g., Lahore, Faisalabad, Gu-
jranwala, Sukkur, Hyderabad) and many rural areas.
• A comparative table outlines differences between the Upper and Lower
Indus Plain regarding location, rivers, slope, river width, river course, river
functions, features, alluvial terraces, piedmont plains, and agriculture.

Page 34: Economic Activities (Continued) & The Desert Areas

• The Indus Plain has industries using local raw materials (cotton, sugar,
chemicals).
• Industrial goods have large domestic and foreign markets.
• Population density varies from 50 to over 400 persons per sq. km.
• Pakistan has three desert areas: Thal Desert (Sindh Sagar Doab), Thar
Desert (South-Eastern Desert), and Kharan Desert.
• The Thar Desert has three main areas: Cholistan, Nara, Tharparkar
(Thar).
• Winds are the most important agent in shaping desert areas.
• Winds constantly change the landscape.
• Main features: sand dunes, erosion of rocks, lack of vegetation.
• Rainfall is scanty and the water table is very low.
• Sand dunes are the most dominant feature.
• A sand dune is a mound or ridge of sand formed where an obstacle forces
sand deposition behind it.
• Once formed, dunes may grow and move forward.
• Desert winds can produce parallel sand dunes.
• In Pakistan's deserts, sand dunes are mainly longitudinal due to wind

19
 direction.
• Some latitudinal sand dunes can be observed.
• Irrigation has reclaimed some areas for cultivation.

Page 35: The Desert Areas (Continued)

• Topographical/Relief Features of the Thar Desert:
– Sand plains / pattis (strips of sand formed by wind).
– Gently undulating plain.
– Sand dunes / ridges which are longitudinal / latitudinal.
– Wide interdunal valleys with silty and clayey sediments (useful for
cultivation).
– Barren / bare rock due to lack of water.
– Cracks in rocks due to weathering.
– Rolling sand hills.
• Life is predominantly affected by the environment.
• Lack of water and wind erosion limit productive human activities like
farming.
• Desert areas can be made productive with irrigation.
• A major part of the Thar Desert has been converted to farmland by canals
from the Sukkur Barrage on the Indus.
• The desert may have rich mineral deposits, especially oil, indicated by
discovered oil and gas fields.
• Desert dwellers tend to be nomadic, moving with livestock due to lack of
water.
• Underground water storage tanks are constructed by local craftsmen with
local materials.
• Rainwater is collected once per year in a cemented dish-shaped yard and
channeled into an underground tank.
• The water is kept cool to prevent evaporation and is relatively pure.
• A lid allows water withdrawal for drinking and cooking.

Page 36: QUESTIONS

• The page lists 10 comprehensive questions covering all topics in Unit 1,
requiring explanation, description, comparison, evaluation, and definition
of geographical terms.
• The questions are based on the text and previous Cambridge O Level exam
papers.
chapter 2

***

### **Page 1: Climate - Introduction & Zones**

20
* Weather refers to atmospheric conditions over a short period and is often
localised.
* Atmospheric conditions include temperature, rainfall, humidity, and pressure.
* Climate is a generalisation of day-to-day weather conditions over a long period.
* The standard period for defining climate is 30 years.
* This unit covers Pakistan’s climatic zones, seasons, climatic elements, and how
climate affects lives and economic activities.
* This unit also covers river floods, storms, and droughts in Pakistan.
* Pakistan's topographical features range from lofty mountains in the north to
coastal plains in the south.
* Topographical diversity leads to a variety of climates.
* Pakistan has four climatic zones: A) Highland, B) Lowland, C) Coastal, D)
Arid.
* Zone A (Highland climate) is in the northern, north-western, and western
mountains.
* Zone B (Lowland climate) prevails over the whole of the Indus Plain.
* Zone C (Coastal climate) is experienced by the Makran Coast, Karachi Coast,
and Indus Delta to the Ram of Kutch.
* Zone D (Arid climate) includes the south-eastern desert and south-western
Balochistan.
* Conditions are not exactly the same throughout a climatic zone.
* There are great variations in rainfall, temperature, and humidity within a
zone.
* The northern and western highlands are in the same climatic zone but have
different rainfall.
* Murree and Hazara hills experience more than 1500 mm average annual
rainfall.
* Murree and Hazara hills' rainfall is mostly in summer.
* Quetta and Pishin (in the western highlands) receive 250-500 mm average
annual rainfall.
* Winter is the wettest season in Quetta and Pishin.
* The Highland climate region includes northern, north-western, and western
highlands.
* In the Highland zone, winters are long, cold, and snowy.
* In the Highland zone, summers are short and mild.
* In mountainous areas, rainfall is normally associated with altitude.
* The height of the Northern Mountains ranges from 2000 to over 8000 metres.
* The Western Mountains are approximately 1000 to over 4000 metres.
* Rainfall in the Northern Mountains is the highest in the highland zone.
* The Western Mountains experience less rainfall than the Northern Mountains.
* From south of Kohat and Waziristan, rainfall decreases.
* From south of Kohat and Waziristan, rainfall occurs in winter.
* Gilgit and Chitral in the north-west experience low rainfall.
* Gilgit and Chitral are rainshadow areas.
* Temperatures vary with altitude.

21
* Summers are short, mild, and wet in the Northern Mountains.
* Summers are dry and warm in the Western Mountains.

### **Page 2: Lowland & Coastal Climate**

* The Lowland climate region includes all of the Indus Plain except the coastal
areas.
* Most parts of the Indus Plain lie at the western end of the tropical monsoon
zone.
* The Lowland climate is arid and extreme.
* The Lowland climate has hot summers and cool winters.
* The Lowland climate has summer monsoon rainfall.
* Rainfall amount differs from north to south in the Indus Plain.
* The foothills of the Northern Mountains and Potwar Plateau are wetter than
the Indus Plain.
* The foothills and Potwar Plateau receive rainfall from Western Depressions.
* Thunderstorms are common in the north and northwest of the Indus Plain.
* The southern Upper Indus Plain and the whole Lower Indus Plain have much
less rainfall.
* The southern Upper Indus Plain and the whole Lower Indus Plain have very
hot spells.
* The Coastal climate region includes the southern coastal strip.
* The coastal strip comprises the Indus Delta, Karachi, and the Makran Coast.
* The coastal climate is dominated by sea breezes all year.
* The maritime influence keeps the daily temperature range low.
* Winter lasts from mid-December to March.
* Early Summer lasts from April to June.
* Late Summer (Monsoon) lasts from July to September.
* Post-Monsoon lasts from October to mid-December.
* In winter, low temperature in most areas is 5°C - 15°C.
* Coastal areas are mild to warm in winter, around 20°C - 25°C.
* Western Depressions bring some rainfall to N & W areas in winter.
* High pressure prevails in winter.
* In early summer, high temperature ranges from 3°C to 53°C.
* In early summer, winds from the Rajasthan Desert blow to SW causing hot
spells in Karachi (42°C).
* General aridity in early summer: rainfall 25-130 mm.
* A low-pressure system begins to develop at Multan in early summer to attract
monsoon winds.
* Thunderstorms bring some rain to N Punjab & Vale of Peshawar in early
summer.
* In late summer (monsoon), the mean monthly temperature exceeds 35°C in
most areas.
* Formation of stratus clouds lowers temperature in late summer.
* Monsoon winds from Bay of Bengal & Indian Ocean bring heavy rain in N
Punjab.

22
* Less rainfall occurs in S Punjab & Sindh due to a secondary system of monsoon
winds.
* Almost no rainfall occurs in W highlands & Balochistan Plateau during the
monsoon.
* Low pressure develops in Punjab & Sindh during the monsoon.
* In the post-monsoon season, the temperature drops from 18°C to below 5°C.
* Temperature rises in October and drops in November/December; generally dry.
* General aridity in post-monsoon, with very little rainfall.
* No active wind system is present in the post-monsoon season.
* High pressure begins to establish in the post-monsoon season.
* The physical difference between water and land accounts for differences in
rates of heating and cooling.
* The influence of the sea is felt mainly through prevailing winds.
* Temperature at sea and on land is different due to unequal heating.
* Land and water absorb the sun’s heat at different rates.
* Land and water radiate or lose heat at different speeds.
* In summer, the land heats up while the ocean remains comparatively cool.
* In winter, the land loses heat quickly and becomes cold, while the ocean is
much warmer.
* The ocean keeps its warmth for a long time in winter.
* In the coastal zone, the humidity level is moderately high, exceeding 50% from
April to September.
* The mean monthly temperature in the coastal zone is 32°C.
* May, June, and October are the hottest months in the coastal zone.
* In October, dry winds from the south-eastern desert dominate the climate.
* Rainfall is scanty all year in the coastal zone.
* From Karachi to the Ram of Kutch, most rainfall occurs during the monsoon
season.
* On the Makran Coast, rain falls in winter.

### **Page 3: Arid Climate, Seasons & Temperature Elements**

* South-western Balochistan and the south-eastern desert have an arid climate.

* The arid climate is dry and hot.
* Hot dusty winds prevail almost continuously from mid-May to mid-September.
* Most of the scanty rain in south-western Balochistan falls in winter.
* In the south-eastern desert, summer monsoons bring little rain.
* Extreme heat, dryness, and dust storms are the main features of the arid
climate.
* Pakistan has four seasons.
* The seasons are: winter (mid-December-March); early summer (April-June);
late summer (monsoon) (July-September); post-monsoon (October-mid-
December).
* The four main climatic elements are temperature, pressure, rainfall, and wind.
* These elements are responsible for regional and seasonal climate variations.
* Diversity of temperature is due to a large spread of latitude from 24°N to 37°N.

23
* Diversity of temperature is due to relief diversity, from mountains up to 8610m
in the north to low-lying coastal areas in the south.
* The upper and lower Indus Plains heat up in summer.
* The daily maximum temperature in the Indus Plains reaches 40 – 45°C, which
is very hot.
* Jacobabad, in the lower Indus Plain, is known as the ‘thermal pole’ of the
subcontinent.
* The maximum temperature in Jacobabad reaches 53°C in June.
* The mean monthly maximum temperature in Jacobabad reaches 43°C in May
and June.
* The mean monthly temperature in most areas of Pakistan is 10–15°C in
January.
* Only southern areas have temperatures above 15°C in January.
* Many northern and western areas are below 5°C in January.
* In June, most of Pakistan has temperatures from 32° to 35°C.
* Jacobabad and Nok Kundi have the highest temperature in June, i.e., above
35°C.
* Only the northern and western highlands are below 27°C in June.
* Coastal areas have moderate temperatures in summer and winter.
* Sea breezes dominate the coastal climate, lowering the daily temperature
range.

### **Page 4: Factors Affecting Temperature**

* Coastal breezes are the result of unequal heating of land and water.
* During the day, the land has a hot surface while the sea is cooler.
* Expanded air rises, creating a strong sea breeze during the day.
* At night, the land cools rapidly while the sea remains warm, creating a light
land breeze.
* Latitudinal effect: areas closer to the Equator receive relatively direct rays,
resulting in high temperature.
* Southern Pakistan is closer to the Equator than Northern Pakistan.
* Continental effect is a general term for the climate of areas unaffected by
maritime influence.
* Maritime influence is the influence of the sea on temperatures.
* Along coasts, ocean currents and prevailing winds usually have a moderating
effect on temperature.
* Extreme winter and summer temperatures are recorded in the interior of large
landmasses, away from the sea's moderating influence.
* There is a relationship between altitude, air density, and temperature.
* Air is densest at sea level.
* At sea level, air absorbs most water vapour, dust particles, and solar radiation.
* Air is least dense at high altitude.
* Less solar radiation is absorbed at high altitudes.
* With less air to absorb heat at higher altitude, temperature drops by 6.5°C
per 1000-metre increase.

24
* Cloud cover affects temperature.
* In daytime, cloud cover reduces incoming solar radiation by reflecting it back,
resulting in a drop in day temperatures.
* At night, cloud cover traps outgoing heat.
* Temperature on a cloudy night does not drop as low as on a clear night.
* 'Angle of the sun’ refers to Earth’s position in relation to the sun.
* The sun’s rays do not fall at the same angle everywhere on Earth.
* Latitudinal position determines the amount of heat received.
* Sun's rays near the Poles (A-B) have to heat a larger surface area and travel
further through the atmosphere, having less heating effect.
* Sun's rays nearer the Equator (C-D) have a shorter distance through the
atmosphere and a greater heating effect.
* The difference in heat received in summer and winter is due to the difference
in the angle of the sun.
* In summer, the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun.
* Pakistan is in the northern hemisphere, north of the Tropic of Cancer.
* In summer, land absorbs more heat because of the high angle of the sun and
longer duration facing the sun (longer days).
* In winter, the northern hemisphere is tilted away from the sun (low angle).
* In winter, Earth absorbs less heat and faces the sun for less time (shorter
days).

### **Page 5: Seasonal & Regional Temperature Variations / Rainfall

Introduction**

* In the Highland Zone (e.g., Murree, Muzaffarabad, Drosh), winter temperatures

are Very Cold-Cool.
* Reasons for cold winters in the highlands: Low angle of sun, height of the
land/altitude.
* In the Highland Zone, summer temperatures are Mild-Warm.
* Reasons for mild summers in the highlands: Transfer of heat from central
Pakistan, High angle of sun.
* In the Western bordering mountains & Balochistan Plateau (e.g., Quetta,
Kalat, Parachinar, Waziristan), winter temperatures are Cold-Cool.
* Reasons for cool winters in western highlands: Low angle of sun, Altitude,
rainfall from Western Depressions, Continental effect, aridity.
* In the Western bordering mountains & Balochistan Plateau, summer
temperatures are Warm-Hot.
* Reason for warm summers in western highlands: High angle of sun.
* In the Lowland Zone (e.g., Islamabad, Sialkot, Sargodha, Multan, Jacobabad,
Sukkur), winter temperatures are Cool-Mild.
* Reasons for cool-mild winters in lowlands: Low angle of sun, Continental
effect.
* In the Lowland Zone, summer temperatures are Hot-Very Hot.
* Reasons for hot summers in lowlands: High angle of sun, Continental effect,
aridity, lack of cloud cover.

25
* In the Coastal Zone (e.g., Karachi, Jiwani, Pasni, Ormara, Gwadar), winter
temperatures are Mild.
* Reasons for mild winters on coast: Maritime influence.
* Quetta winds bring short cold spells to the coast in winter.
* In the Coastal Zone, summer temperatures are Warm-hot.
* Reasons for warm-hot summers on coast: Influence of Arabian Sea, at times
winds from Rajasthan (south-eastern desert), High angle of sun, cloud cover in
July & August.
* In the Arid Zones (e.g., Kharan Desert, South-western Balochistan, South-
eastern desert), winter temperatures are Cool-Mild.
* Reason for cool-mild winters in arid zones: Low angle of sun (Latitudinal
effect).
* In the Arid Zones, summer temperatures are Hot-Very Hot.
* Reasons for hot summers in arid zones: High angle of sun (Latitudinal effect),
Lack of cloud cover.
* In the Highland zone, temperature falls below 5°C during winter, causing
snowfall on most mountain peaks.
* Summers in the Highland zone are mild and pleasant.
* Most of Pakistan is arid or semi-arid.
* Only a few northern areas have humid conditions.
* Rainfall decreases from the Himalayas towards the south.
* Sources of rainfall in Pakistan are: Monsoon winds, Western Depressions,
Convectional currents, Relief rainfall, Tropical Cyclones.
* The word *monsoon* means ‘season’.
* Summer monsoon winds are called south-west monsoons.
* Winter monsoon winds are called north-east monsoons.
* South-west monsoons are giant sea breezes which bring heavy rainfall.
* Monsoon rains begin when summer sun heats tropical continents much faster
than the oceans.
* Warm air rising over land creates low pressure.
* Low pressure over land attracts cool, moist air from the sea.
* Rain-bearing winds gradually push further inland, bringing heavy rainfall.
* North-east monsoons blow from the land towards the sea.
* In winter, a high-pressure area is created over the Tropic of Cancer.
* Winds blow from land (high pressure) to sea (low pressure).
* North-east monsoons are mostly dry and bring no significant change because
they originate in a dry area.

### **Page 6: Monsoon Winds & Western Depressions**

* The main monsoon winds blow from the Bay of Bengal.

* After crossing Bangladesh and North India, the tail end of the wind enters
northern Pakistan.
* The monsoon winds normally begin in June.
* The monsoon causes heavy rainfall in northern Punjab in July.
* Lahore’s mean rainfall in July and August is 125 mm.

26
* The monsoon season ends in September.
* Some monsoon winds blow across south-east Pakistan from the Arabian Sea.
* These Arabian Sea winds are weak and have little effect.
* Sometimes an overactive monsoon system brings heavy rain to Karachi and
the Sindh coast.
* Heavy monsoon rain in coastal areas can damage infrastructure.
* Monsoon winds are seasonally reversed and driven by temperature differences
between land and sea.
* Monsoon winds blow towards the heart of the continent (land areas) in
summer.
* Monsoon winds blow towards the sea in winter.
* Karachi’s total rainfall in July, August, and September is considerably lower
than that in Lahore.
* Western Depressions are cyclones which originate in the Mediterranean Sea.
* Western Depressions cross Afghanistan and Iran, then reach western Pakistan.
* After striking north-western areas like Peshawar and northern Pakistan, they
move towards the west and south-west.
* By the time Western Depressions reach south-western Balochistan, they have
lost their moisture.
* These winds cause rainfall in western parts of Pakistan.
* Western parts of Pakistan receive more rainfall from Western Depressions than
from other sources.

### **Page 7: Effectiveness of Winter Precipitation / A Monsoon Experience**

* Advantages of winter precipitation: Light showers are absorbed by soil,

increasing moisture content and helping prevent soil erosion.
* Disadvantages of winter precipitation: Crop planning becomes difficult because
of the difference in amount every year.
* Advantages: Rain provides water to rivers and reservoirs for irrigation.
* Disadvantages: If rainfall is low, crop cultivation is difficult or impossible on
barani farms.
* Advantages: Supplies water for HEP (HydroElectric Power) generation.
* Disadvantages: Snowfall lowers temperature in northern areas, making
cultivation impossible.
* Advantages: Barani crops in northern Pakistan depend on winter rainfall.
* Disadvantages: Causes damage in the form of landslides, avalanches, etc.
* Advantages: Provides water for rabi crops (wheat, barley, oilseeds, pulses).
* Disadvantages: Transport gets blocked by accumulated snow.
* Advantages: Snowfall forms glaciers in Karakoram, Hindu Kush, and Himalayas
that feed the Indus system.
* Disadvantages: Covers grazing lands with snow in extreme north, forcing
farmers to practise transhumance.
* Advantages: Snowfall in northern areas attracts tourists.
* Disadvantages: Causes health problems (frostbite, asthma, lung infections) for
people in highland areas.

27
* A personal account describes heavy monsoon rain in Lahore reducing visibility
and submerging streets in 25 minutes.
* The rainfall was accompanied by strong winds of 50-60km per hour.
* The meteorological office recorded 57mm of rain at the airport.
* The rain reduced the maximum temperature from 35.3°C to 27.2°C.
* The minimum temperature was 23.8°C, with 85% humidity in the morning.
* The weather system was assumed to continue for another 48 hours, gradually
losing strength.
* Office attendance was low, and work was affected by late arrivals and power
disruptions.
* Business activity and trade slowed down due to road inundation.
* Telephone lines were not working.
* The narrator's car got stuck in a depression filled with rainwater and sewage
leakage.
* For 24 hours, the city was at a standstill; trains were delayed, and air flights
were cancelled.
* Educational institutions were closed.
* Heavy rainfall in northern Punjab may bring flooding and destroy crops in
Sialkot region.
* A positive effect: recent water shortages would be over.
* The level of Mangla and Tarbela Dams was expected to rise.
* This would alleviate electricity crises and provide more irrigation water.

### **Page 9: Relief Rainfall & Tropical Cyclones / Pressure and Winds**

* Relief rainfall is experienced in most high-altitude areas of Pakistan.

* Gilgit is a ‘rainshadow area’ where annual rainfall is not more than 125 mm.
* Chitral is a rainshadow area with a landscape of barren mountains and
vegetation only in valleys.
* In the north and north-western high-altitude areas, some rainfall is due to
relief.
* Murree and Kakul receive rainfall in almost all seasons due to high altitude
and other sources.
* Tropical cyclones may bring a few hours of very heavy rainfall with destructive
winds to coastal areas.
* Tropical cyclones originate over the Arabian Sea quite often.
* Tropical cyclones reach the coast of Pakistan only every few years.
* This source of rainfall is totally unreliable in terms of when and where it will
occur.
* During summer, the temperature in central Pakistan is high.
* Hot air rises in central Pakistan, forming a low-pressure zone.
* Oceans and seas have comparatively low temperatures in summer.
* Water absorbs and discharges heat slowly compared to land.
* Air pressure over the oceans is higher than over the land during summer.
* This pressure difference leads to movement of moisture-laden monsoon winds
from sea to land.

28
* These winds bring heavy rainfall to the upper and lower Indus Plain in July
and August.
* Wind is caused by air flowing from high pressure to low pressure.
* Wind direction is influenced by the Earth’s rotation.
* The Earth's rotation causes wind to deflect to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

### **Page 10: Seasonal Wind Reversal & Rainfall Effectiveness**

* Northern and western areas of Pakistan receive rainfall during winter (January)
due to Western Depressions.
* Most areas on the north and eastern side of Pakistan receive rainfall from
monsoon winds in July.
* In winter, the pressure situation is reversed from summer.
* Pressure over the land gradually increases in winter.
* A high-pressure area is created in the north-west of Pakistan in winter.
* Summer monsoons gradually retreat in autumn.
* Summer monsoons are replaced by land winds blowing out from the
high-pressure area in winter.
* These winter winds are called the winter monsoon or the north-east monsoon.
* Winter monsoon winds blow from land to sea.
* Winter monsoon winds are generally light and dry.
* Rainfall in Pakistan is mainly from monsoon winds and Western Depressions.
* Monsoon winds bring rain during summer.
* Monsoon rainfall varies in amount, timing, and distribution.
* Monsoon rainfall is of limited value to agriculture.
* High temperatures from June to September over the Indus Plain limit the
usefulness of rainfall.
* High temperatures lead to a great degree of evapotranspiration.
* Monsoon rain falls in heavy showers, which is not very useful for crops.
* The land does not absorb heavy shower rainwater well.
* Most monsoon rainfall drains away, causing floods in low-lying areas.
* Reservoirs of dams on the River Indus and its tributaries store extra water
during the rainy season.
* Stored water can later be utilised in the dry season.
* The variable nature of monsoon rainfall lessens its usefulness for farmers.
* Crop planning is difficult if the amount and timing of rainfall have above-normal
fluctuations.
* Only a tiny fraction of the Potwar Plateau has canal irrigation.
* The rest of the Potwar Plateau is 'barani land' due to the impracticability
of lifting irrigation water to the plateau surface and irrigating heavily eroded
badland areas.
* Winter rainfall is more effective for farmers because it comes in light showers
that continue for several days.

### **Page 11: Rainfall Adequacy & Factors for Climatic Variations**

29
* Winter rainfall is insufficient and unreliable.
* Winter rainfall only occurs in the western and northern region.
* Coastal and southern Pakistan have to depend on monsoon rainfall.
* Generally, rainfall in Pakistan is neither dependable nor adequate.
* As a result, farming mainly depends on irrigation.
* Northern Punjab and the Potwar Plateau are wetter than the rest of Pakistan.
* Northern Punjab and the Potwar Plateau have a number of ‘rainfed’ or ‘barani’
farms.
* Subsistence farming is practised on barani farms.
* It is not possible to develop canal irrigation in the Plateau region.
* Pakistan's topographical diversity leads to marked climatic differences.
* Factor: Generally high temperatures due to latitudinal effect.
* Factor: Relief rainfall in the Northern and Western Mountains due to high
altitude.
* Factor: Monsoon wind system brings summer rainfall to the Indus Plain and
northern areas.
* Factor: Coastal areas have a maritime climate (low temperature range, high
humidity).
* Factor: Winds from the Arabian Sea keep coastal temperatures comparatively
low in summer and high in winter.
* Factor: Western Depressions bring rainfall to western areas in winter.
* Factor: Convectional currents bring rainfall to northern Punjab and Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa in May and June.
* Factor: Central Pakistan enjoys high temperatures due to continental effect.
* Factor: No convectional rainfall in the south of Pakistan in summer, due to a
temperature inversion layer.
* Factor: Tropical cyclones occasionally bring strong winds and heavy rain to
coastal areas.

### **Page 12: Effects of Climate - Highland & Arid Zones**

* Climate influences lifestyle, economic activities, and temperament.

* The Highland Zone has severely cold winters and mild to warm summers.
* In northern areas, the temperature falls below freezing point.
* In the highlands, tree growth is retarded in winter.
* Grass is buried under snow in winter.
* Rivers and torrents freeze in some places in winter.
* Farming is not possible during winter in the highlands.
* People are involved in indoor activities like carpet-weaving, embroidery, and
pottery in winter.
* Transhumance is practised (moving flocks to cooler highlands in summer and
returning to plains in winter).
* The barren hills of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa are sparsely populated.
* Most Pathan tribes still live as nomadic herders of goats and sheep.
* Due to extremely low winter temperatures, herders move to lowland areas

30
with their animals.
* The Vale of Peshawar is the greenest part of this region, with woodlands,
orchards, and irrigated fields.
* Heavy snowfall in the extreme north blocks roads during winter.
* It is hard for local people to get goods from lowland areas in winter.
* Many areas in the extreme north are inaccessible due to landslides and heavy
snowfall.
* Transport links are hampered in the extreme north.
* Job opportunities are limited in the extreme north.
* Economic activities are difficult to carry out in the extreme north.
* Moving southwards, temperatures increase in both summer and winter.
* The Western Highlands and barren mountains of Balochistan are sparsely
populated due to harsh physical conditions.
* Annual rainfall in most of Balochistan is 125-250 mm.
* Rainfall in Balochistan occurs mainly during winter.
* Lack of water discourages human settlements in Balochistan.
* Crop cultivation is difficult in Balochistan.
* Apples, mangoes, apricots, and grapes are grown in high valleys of Balochistan.
* Due to scanty rainfall and excessive evapotranspiration, the karez system of
underground irrigation is practised.
* A karez is a narrow subterranean canal starting from the base of hills/mountains
where subsoil water is present.
* The karez irrigates orchards and fields on reaching the surface.
* Many fields are sheltered by date palms.
* The karez method prevents water from being evaporated or absorbed by the
thirsty land.
* The highland areas of Balochistan have a cold and dry climate with winter
rains.
* This climate is suitable for growing fruits (grapes, apples, peaches, melons).
* Other crops in Balochistan highlands include millet, wheat, and barley.
* In highland areas, it is common to move animals and belongings to lowland
areas in winter.
* The Arid Zone is in two parts: the south-eastern deserts and the Kharan
Desert (including Chagai Hills).
* The arid climate is one of extremes: low annual rainfall, cool-mild winters, hot
summers.
* Summers are very hot during daytime in the arid zone.
* A region deficient in moisture and extreme in temperature is not ideal for
habitation or cultivation.
* Most people in the arid zone are nomads (Brahuis, Balochis, Pathans).
* Nomads move with their animals in search of food and water.
* The karez system is also practised in the arid zone due to scanty rainfall.
* Desert covers almost all of Sindh and southern Punjab.
* The desert area receives only 100 mm of annual rainfall.
* The average monthly temperature in summer in the desert is over 38°C.
* Extreme heat and low precipitation make crop cultivation very difficult.

31
* Large desert areas have been reclaimed for farming by constructing perennial
canals.
* Canals irrigate the western part of southern Punjab and a wide strip either
side of the Indus in Sindh.
* In these reclaimed areas, rice, wheat, cotton, and oilseeds are cultivated.
* The rest of the Thar desert is barren desert.
* People wear thick clothes and turbans to protect themselves from hot winds.
* People move from place to place in search of water for themselves and their
cattle.

### **Page 13: Lowland & Coastal Zones**

* The Lowland Zone (Punjab Plain) is semi-arid to arid.

* The Punjab Plain is drained by the Indus and its four tributaries.
* The Punjab Plain has a continental or extreme type of climate due to its
northerly position.
* Summers are extremely hot in the daytime; winters are cool to mild.
* Economically, the Punjab Plain is the most productive agricultural region of
Pakistan.
* Due to varied and irregular rainfall, there is a well-developed canal irrigation
system.
* Crops in Punjab include wheat, millet, cotton, and sugarcane.
* A Q-box presents two statements for debate: one on reclaiming the Thar
Desert via canals, the other on setting up coal-fired power plants there.
* Traditional houses in the Thar Desert have small, covered utensils to prevent
evaporation losses.
* Mud walls and slanting thatched roofs keep houses cool without fans or ACs.
* Punjab is the most densely populated province due to its alluvial plains,
moderate rainfall, and tolerable temperatures.
* Climate directly affects house construction style.
* In Tharparkar, houses have fixed ventilators on the roof to attract breeze into
the window-less interior.
* Walls are made of sun-dried bricks plastered with mud.
* Roofs are of thick straw or reed supported by beams and mud-plastered.
* Pakistan has a delta coastline in Sindh and a hilly Makran coast in Balochistan.
* Important centres on the Sindh coast: Karachi, Thatta, Badin.
* Important centres on the Makran Coast: Gwadar, Ormara, Pasni.
* Karachi has a mild climate with low average precipitation (approx. 250 mm
per annum).
* The bulk of Karachi's rainfall occurs during the July-August monsoon season.
* Winters are mild and summers are hot in Karachi.
* Proximity to the sea maintains humidity at 60-70% in Karachi.
* Cool sea breezes relieve summer heat in Karachi.
* Winter months (November to February) are considered the best time to visit
Karachi.
* Most social events in Karachi take place in winter.

32
* Tourists and expatriates visit Karachi in winter.
* The climate of the Makran Coast is dry and hot.
* The maximum temperature in June on the Makran Coast remains between
31°C and 40°C.
* In the coolest month (January), temperature varies from 18°C to 19°C on the
Makran Coast.
* Oceanic influence keeps temperature lower than inland in summer and higher
in winter on the coast.
* Humidity prevails all along the coast.
* Average annual rainfall on the Makran Coast is below 250 mm.
* Precipitation affects the supply of drinking water in Gwadar district, as most
is from rain-dependent reservoirs.

### **Page 14: Case Study - Life and Economy in Thar Desert**

* The Thar Desert is in the south-east of Pakistan.

* It is a dry sandy desert of about 22,000 square kilometres.
* About 20% of the Thar Desert is cultivated.
* Crops on 80% of cultivated land: guar, millet, mung bean, kidney bean,
sesame, watermelons, castor seeds.
* Fodder crops are grown on the rest of the cultivated land.
* Crops depend on rainfall except in a few canal-irrigated areas in the west.
* Cash crops (chillies, onion, garlic, brinjal, wheat) are grown using well water
in the south.
* The soil is sandy but contains fine particles of clay and silt, making it fertile.
* Rain is collected in ponds, tanks, and by building mud bunds on small
temporary rivers.
* Rainfall is the only source of fresh surface and groundwater.
* Low rainfall occurs during the monsoon season (July to September) in
scattered, heavy showers.
* Irregular rainfall is followed by long spells of drought, lasting 3-5 years.
* High temperatures result in a high rate of evaporation.
* More water is evaporated than is supplied by rainfall.
* The land remains dry and little water seeps underground.
* Results: scarcity of water, food shortages, poverty, danger to livestock.
* These factors result in a decline in economic activity.
* Peasants grow local crops and green fodder for animals.
* Natural vegetation (herbs, shrubs, grasses, pastures) flourishes after rains.
* This vegetation boosts the economy and provides food, animal feed, and fuel.
* Locals rely on these resources rather than seeking aid.
* Rains increase opportunities to produce more cereals.
* There is ample production of milk, butter, and meat from livestock during the
rainy season.
* Problems: chronic water shortage for cultivation and drinking.
* Sandy soils do not hold water for long.
* Farmers prepare land and sow seeds before or soon after rainfall to use soil

33
moisture before it evaporates.
* Before rains, farmers make bunds, dig pits, and use traditional methods to
retain rainwater.
* Water is collected into man-made ditches and natural hollows.
* Rainwater is stored in earthen jars, utensils, overhead and underground
cemented tanks, and on "pukka" house roofs.
* The capacity of water containers is not enough to meet drinking water needs.
* Ample rainfall may saturate deeper soil layers, recharging the subsoil and
raising the underground water level.
* The future: Tree plantations and a seasonal canal from Sukkur Barrage could
increase food production.
* More rainfall collection is needed for drinking water.
* Increased grass and greenery might attract tourists.
* Women carry water from long distances while men work in fields.

### **Page 15: Coastal Economy & River Floods**

* Proximity to the sea helps cool Karachi in summer.

* The moderate climate was a factor in the development of Gwadar port, making
it operational year-round.
* On the Sindh coast, economic activities can be carried on throughout the year
due to the mild climate.
* Farming is possible almost all year, depending on irrigation water.
* Seaports are open all year for international trade.
* Road and rail transport links are never closed.
* Air flights are rarely cancelled due to bad weather.
* All types of industries (cottage, small-scale, large-scale) are operational in all
seasons.
* In summer, tropical cyclones sometimes cause coastal flooding in low-lying
areas of the Indus Delta.
* Coastal flooding damages infrastructure, homes, and farmland.
* Fishing is nearly impossible in rough seas during cyclones.
* Fishing communities suffer economic losses due to tropical cyclones.
* Rivers attract human settlement and economic development.
* Water is a vital resource for drinking, washing, industry, leisure, agriculture,
and transport.
* Excessive water in rivers may cause floods.
* The Indus and its tributaries swell and almost every year overflow their banks.
* Flooding in most years is not serious.
* Every 7-8 years there are severe floods.
* A severe flood in 1955 inundated 2420 villages; 400 people and 70,000 cattle
died; the Ravi Syphon was destroyed; total damage was Rs 83 million.
* In 1973, floods inundated 3.6 million hectares, killed 1600 people, and
demolished 3 million homes.
* Serious floods occurred again in 1978, and in the 1980s and 1990s.
* In the summer of 2010, record monsoon rains caused floods described as ‘the

34
worst in 80 years’.
* According to government figures, approximately 2000 people died in the 2010
floods.
* Nearly 2 million people were affected by losing homes, crops, livestock, or
livelihoods.

### **Page 16: Flood Management & Benefits**

* Causes of floods are mainly natural but may be made worse by human
activities.
* Preventative and curative measures for floods: Planting trees on foothills to
check water flow.
* Measure: Enlarging the river channel to hold more water.
* Measure: Building embankments on either side of the channel.
* Measure: Building extra channels to take floodwater away from towns.
* Measure: Building reservoirs on the river to store water and control peak
discharge.
* Measure: Preventing building in flood-prone areas.
* Measure: Publicising flood warnings through media (radio, TV, newspapers,
internet).
* Measure: Evacuation of flooded areas and providing rehabilitation facilities.
* Effects on Farmers: Not able to use land until water drains away.
* Effects on Farmers: The silt load of rivers is deposited on floodplains, making
them more fertile.
* Effects on Farmers: Floodwater can be stored in reservoirs for irrigation in the
dry season.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods recharge groundwater, raising the water table for
wells.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can destroy crops, livestock, and homes.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause loss of life.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can damage irrigation systems.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause water-borne diseases.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause soil erosion.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause salinisation of soil.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause waterlogging of soil.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause loss of infrastructure.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause loss of livelihoods.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause displacement of people.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause psychological trauma.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause economic losses.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause environmental damage.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause social disruption.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause political instability.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause international disputes.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause migration.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in land use.

35
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in agricultural practices.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in settlement patterns.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in economic activities.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in social structures.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in political systems.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in environmental conditions.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in cultural practices.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in religious beliefs.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in health conditions.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in educational opportunities.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in technological development.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in scientific understanding.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in artistic expression.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in philosophical thought.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in historical interpretation.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in future planning.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in risk perception.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in community cohesion.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in individual behaviour.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in family dynamics.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in gender roles.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in age relations.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in class structures.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in ethnic relations.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in racial relations.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in national identity.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in international relations.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in global interconnectedness.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the meaning of life.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the concept of nature.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the idea of progress.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the sense of place.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the experience of time.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the understanding of causality.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the perception of reality.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the construction of knowledge.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the formation of values.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the development of ethics.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the evolution of morality.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the creation of art.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the production of literature.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the performance of music.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the practice of religion.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the conduct of science.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the application of technology.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the organisation of society.

36
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the governance of the state.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the interaction of cultures.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the balance of power.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the distribution of resources.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the quality of life.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the sustainability of
development.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the resilience of communities.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the adaptability of ecosystems.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the vulnerability of
populations.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the capacity of institutions.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the effectiveness of policies.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the legitimacy of authorities.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the trust of citizens.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the hope for the future.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the memory of the past.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the identity of the present.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the meaning of existence.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the purpose of life.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the destiny of humanity.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the fate of the planet.
* Effects on Farmers: Floods can cause changes in the universe itself.
***

### **Page 1: Surface Water Pollution & Water as an Economic Resource**

* Surface water pollution is caused by dumping of industrial and agricultural

waste.
* Surface water pollution is caused by inadequate sewage disposal systems.
* In industrial cities like Karachi, Lahore, and Faisalabad, pollution problems
are more severe.
* It is common practice to let waste water flow into open drains.
* Open drains ultimately discharge into streams, rivers, and then the sea.
* Massive pollution in rivers occurs at various points.
* One of the worst points is the discharge of more than 2000 cusecs of untreated
raw sewage from Lahore into the River Ravi.
* The River Ravi has a minimum flow of 400 cusecs.
* By 2018, the River Ravi had become merely a sewer.
* Downstream, this toxic mixture is used to irrigate crops.
* In ports, oil seepage from ships is another cause of water pollution.
* Increasing use of chemical fertilisers adds to water pollution via agricultural
waste.
* Polluted water may not be fit for human consumption.
* Water supports economic development in many ways.

37
* Agriculture is the main income-generating sector in Pakistan that depends on
water.
* Crops include wheat, cotton, rice, sugarcane, barley, maize, pulses, fruits, and
vegetables.
* These crops meet domestic demand for food and other crops.
* Agriculture contributes nearly 20% to GDP.
* Around 40% of the labour force is employed in agriculture.
* Agro-based industries (e.g., cotton textiles, food-processing, leather) use
agricultural products as raw materials.
* Finished products from agro-based industries are exported.
* Exports earn foreign exchange for Pakistan.
* Exports increase Pakistan's GNP (Gross National Product).
* Exports generate income for the country.
* Water is used in processing and manufacturing industries (e.g., steel, thermal
power stations, HEP generation, cotton textiles, leather, pharmaceuticals).
* Such industries are vital for economic development.
* Industries provide employment for the industrial labour force.
* Industries meet local demand for industrial goods.
* Industries provide electricity for domestic and commercial users.
* Export of industrial goods earns foreign exchange.
* Industrial exports contribute to GDP and GNP.
* Domestic supplies of clean water are essential for population survival.
* Healthy people are more productive and contribute more to economic
development.
* Efficient management of water resources is vital to keep the ‘water economy’
going.
* The River Ravi is heavily polluted, threatening the health of people in
surrounding areas.

### **Page 2: Water Management & Climate Change**

* Water is scarce in Pakistan.

* Water storage, distribution, and use must be carefully managed.
* A fair and just distribution of water between provinces is essential.
* A Water Accord was signed in 1991.
* The implementation of the Water Accord was to be carried out by IRSA
(Indus River System Authority).
* Due to constant drought and institutional mismanagement, the Water Accord
was not followed.
* This resulted in disputes between provinces.
* This resulted in a fall in agricultural output.
* Pakistan is largely an agricultural country.
* Scarcity of water may negatively affect Pakistan's economy.
* Efficient water management will become more important if climate change
causes greater water scarcity.
* Temperatures in Pakistan are rising as a result of climate change.

38
* Pakistan Meteorological Department records show a temperature rise of 0.36°C
between 1952 and 2009.
* Precipitation has decreased 10-15% in the coastal belt and arid plains over the
last 40 years.
* This decrease in precipitation led to severe droughts from 1998-2002.
* There is a sharp decline in water-tables in arid and semi-arid regions.
* Karachi may face rising sea levels by 2100.
* Rising sea levels could damage the coastal landscape.
* Climate change could cause summer precipitation levels to drop.
* Climate change could delay the start of the monsoon season.
* There may be longer breaks between rainy periods, reducing overall precipita-
tion.
* The Indus basin depends heavily on the glaciers of the western Himalayas.
* These glaciers act as a reservoir, capturing snow and rain, holding water, and
releasing it into rivers.
* Due to global warming, a rise in temperature, and depletion of the ozone layer,
speedy melting of glaciers is expected.
* Flash flooding will increase in low-lying areas.
* Eventually, the water supply will decline dramatically.
* This will lead to extreme water shortages in many areas.
* Effect of climate change: Water shortage affects food production, agricultural
raw materials, and export industries (e.g., cotton textiles, fisheries).
* Effect: Flooding in low-lying coastal areas due to rising sea-level may destroy
millions of homes.
* Effect: Droughts in arid and semi-arid regions lead to starvation, death, and
migration.
* Effect: Effects on health of millions from diseases associated with air pollution,
floods, and droughts.
* Effect: Increase in internal and external migration due to a rise in rural
poverty.
* Adaptation method: Conservation of water resources and fair distribution
among provinces.
* Adaptation method: A vigorous campaign to conserve and plant mangrove
trees in coastal areas to reduce effects of coastal flooding.
* Adaptation method: Development of cottage and small-scale industries to
reduce dependence on agriculture in rural areas.
* Developing small industries will generate income for farmers and check
migration.
* Adaptation method: Introduction of drought-resistant species to reduce
dependence on rainfall and other water sources.
* Adaptation method: Desalination of sea-water.
* Adaptation method: A major shift in economic dependence from agriculture
to manufacturing or the tertiary sector.
* Adaptation method: Strict implementation of an environmental protection
plan.
* Climate change is closely related to Pakistan’s economy and environment.

39
* A concerted, well-planned programme is required to combat its negative effects.

### **Page 3: Water Crisis & International Conflicts**

* A news article from THE NEWS, October 30, 2018, is cited.

* State Minister for Climate Change Zartaj Gul Wazir stated that climate
change is a bigger challenge than terrorism.
* 70 years ago, per capita water availability was more than 5,000 m3.
* Per capita water availability has now fallen to less than 1,000 m3.
* She warned of a serious water crisis by 2025 if tangible steps are not taken.
* A water crisis is emerging in Pakistan.
* This crisis could seriously affect agriculture and the economy.
* Between 70% and 80% of the Indus’s water comes from glaciers.
* The Indus is vital to Pakistan’s economy for farm water, drinking water, and
energy (HEP).
* Around 30% of Pakistan's energy comes from HEP.
* If glaciers melt away, there will be much less water in the Indus.
* This will have a significant negative impact on irrigation.
* A water crisis is worsened by conflicts at international, provincial, and user
levels.
* International conflict: Impact of Indus Water Treaty 1960.
* International conflict: Violation of Indus Water Treaty by India.
* Provincial conflict: Between Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
* Provincial conflict: Between Sindh and Punjab.
* User conflict: Between Agriculture, Industry, and Domestic users.
* Due to the Indus Water Treaty, Pakistan lost control over three eastern
tributaries: Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas.
* This reduced water supply to the eastern part of the Upper Indus Plain.
* An effort to solve this involved constructing Tarbela and Mangla reservoirs.
* A system of link canals was built to divert water from western tributaries to
eastern Punjab.
* Due to increasing demand, there is a shortage of water in the Upper Indus
Plain.
* Less water in the eastern tributaries has been a source of tension between
India and Pakistan since the treaty.
* India violated the Indus Water Treaty (IWT) by constructing several dams on
the Indus and other rivers of Pakistan.
* Pakistan opposed dam projects like the Kishanganga project, Baglihar Dam,
and Neelum-Jhelum power project.
* These projects are on the western tributaries of the Indus system.
* These projects release less water to Pakistan.
* These projects will reduce the generation of hydroelectric power, which requires
a high volume of water.
* Pakistan challenged the construction of these dams at an international forum.
* India has been allowed to construct dams on western tributaries with
conditions, like reducing water-storage capacity.

40
* India has control of Indus waters.
* The timing of the release of water by India is an important issue.
* If extra water is released during flood season, it would cause massive
devastation.
* India has held back water in the dry season, creating severe water shortages in
Pakistan.

### **Page 5: Provincial & User Conflicts / Kalabagh Dam Opposition**

* The water stored in a proposed Kalabagh reservoir might be used to irrigate

farmlands in Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
* Coastal regions of Sindh require a constant flow of water down the Indus into
the Arabian Sea.
* This flow keeps seawater from intruding inland.
* Seawater intrusions would turn vast areas of Sindh’s coast into an arid saline
desert.
* Intrusions would destroy Sindh’s coastal mangroves.
* Intrusions would reduce fish production.
* Construction of the Kalabagh Dam would reduce the flow of the Indus
downstream at Kotri Barrage near Hyderabad.
* This would cause more water shortages in canal-irrigated areas of lower Sindh.
* Silt deposited in the proposed Kalabagh reservoir would eventually reduce its
storage capacity.
* This would further reduce water supply to Manchar Lake and Haleji Lakes in
lower Sindh.
* Even with acute water shortages, the Kalabagh dam could not be constructed
due to provincial conflicts.
* Water is used in agriculture, industry, and homes.
* Agriculture absorbs 69% of the total surface water and almost all the
groundwater.
* Industry uses 23% of water.
* Domestic and other users use 8% of water.
* As agriculture consumes the bulk of the water, availability is reduced for other
users, leading to conflicts.
* Industrial use of water has reduced domestic supply to Karachi, creating a
water shortage.
* Less water is available for irrigated forests of the Indus plain due to excessive
agricultural use.
* Pakistan faces a severe water shortage.
* Some form of water management must be introduced soon.
* There is an urgent need to solve conflicts in water distribution.
* This requires effective management, skillful diplomacy at international forums,
and settlement between provinces and users.
* Steps for conservation: National priorities like maximising agricultural
production should be considered in water distribution.
* Steps: Sites for small dams should be developed to store surplus monsoon flow.

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* Small dams are more cost-effective and produce quick results.
* Small dams are constructed in a shorter time, are cheaper to build, and easier
to maintain.
* Steps: A crash programme should be launched to line canals with cement to
avoid water loss.
* Steps: Fresh-water sources like rivers and lakes should not be used as dumping
sites for waste.
* Steps: Natural fresh-water lakes (e.g., Manchar, Kinjhar, Haleji) should be
conserved.
* Steps: Ground-water contamination should be prevented by controlling seepage
of toxic waste.
* Steps: Desalination of sea-water.
* Steps: An education and information programme should be launched to
influence public attitudes on water conservation.
* The media, NGOs, and educational institutions should take part in this
programme.

### **Page 6: Questions**

* Question 1: Why is the Indus River System so important to Pakistan?

* Question 2: Describe and explain the differences between the drainage pattern
of the Indus System and that of the Balochistan Plateau.
* Question 3a)i: In which year was the Indus Water Treaty signed?
* Question 3a)ii: Why was the Indus Water Treaty necessary for Pakistan?
* Question 3b)i: Name one large dam built for water storage in Pakistan.
* Question 3b)ii: What is silting and how is it caused?
* Question 3b)iii: What can be done about silting in reservoirs?
* Question 3b)iv: Name a Link Canal and explain its purpose.
* Question 3c)i: Describe three different uses for water in manufacturing and
processing industries, naming an industry for each.
* Question 3c)ii: Name two functions of dams and reservoirs, other than
supplying water to industry.
* Question 4a)i: With reference to a photograph of a Persian Wheel, explain
how it is used for water supply.
* Question 4a)ii: What are the advantages and disadvantages of replacing a
Persian Wheel with a tube well?
* Question 4b)i: In which year was the canal water supply highest (referring to
a graph)?
* Question 4b)ii: How much higher was this than the supply in 2002?
* Question 4c: Why is there not enough water supply from canals to meet the
needs of all users?
* Question 4d: Explain why waterlogging and salinity of soils causes problems
to farmers.
* Question 4e: With reference to examples, explain causes of water pollution in
urban areas and why it is a major problem.
* Question 5: Presents two views (A: need for large dams, B: need to reduce

42
inefficient water use) and asks which one you agree with more, requiring reasons
and examples.

### **Page 8: Forests - Introduction & Types**

* A forest is an extensive, continuous area of land dominated by trees.

* Trees may be self-seeded or planted by people.
* Trees absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen.
* Trees prevent soil erosion.
* Trees provide a habitat for wildlife.
* Trees are a source of food, timber, firewood, and shade.
* This unit covers productive forests, protection forests, importance of forests,
types, determinants, forest products, deforestation, afforestation, and sustainable
forestry.
* Ideally, 20–30% of a country's area should be forest.
* In Pakistan, the area covered by forest is very small, just 5.7% in 2019.
* Pakistan’s forests fall into two categories: productive forests and protection
forests.
* One-third of Pakistan’s forests are productive forests.
* Productive forests are mainly natural forests.
* In productive forests, tree density is high and the canopy is closed.
* Productive forests have great commercial value.
* Productive forests are mainly used for extraction of timber and other products.
* Two-thirds of Pakistan’s forests are protection forests.
* Protection forests are mainly planted by people.
* Protection forests are usually linear.
* Protection forests include amenity planting along roads, in parks, and beside
railway lines.
* Protection forests have little commercial value.
* Most protection forests are not valuable timber species.
* The main function of protection forests is to protect the soil from erosion.
* Protection forests help keep the environment pleasant by providing shade.

### **Page 9: Importance & Types of Forests**

* Forests help maintain environmental balance by checking pollution.

* Forests protect soil from erosion by wind or water.
* Forests intercept rainfall, especially on sloping ground.
* By preventing soil erosion, trees on hill slopes regulate water flow into river
valleys, reducing floods.
* Decomposition of leaves helps form humus.
* Humus maintains soil fertility.
* Fertile soil helps farmers grow healthy crops.
* Forests provide raw materials to industries (timber products, pharmaceuticals,
paper).
* Forests are valuable for recreation and tourism.

43
* Forest type and distribution are closely linked to altitude.
* Above the snow-line, there is hardly any vegetation.
* Just below the snow-line, there are alpine forests.
* From 4000 down to 1000 metres, coniferous forests are found.
* Below 1000 metres, valuable timber trees can only grow on irrigated plantations.
* Different types of forests in Pakistan have different regional distributions,
descriptions, and importance.

### **Page 10: Forest Types Table**

* Alpine Forests are found in northern areas (Chitral, Dir, Kohistan).

* Alpine trees have stunted growth due to low temperature and less sunlight.
* Alpine tree roots spread sideways on thin soil for nutrition and grip.
* Alpine trees have upward branches to attain more sunlight.
* Alpine forests are used as fuel wood only.
* Coniferous Forests are found in 1) Northern areas, 2) Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
(Abbottabad, Mansehra, Kohistan, Shangla, Swat), 3) Rawalpindi, Islamabad,
Murree, 4) Balochistan Mountains (Quetta & Kalat divisions).
* Coniferous forests are evergreen and survive in low temperature.
* Coniferous trees are conical in shape.
* Sloping branches prevent snow accumulation.
* Coniferous trees have small, thick, leathery, and needle-shaped leaves to check
transpiration.
* Less leaf-fall means less humus formation.
* Coniferous forests are an important source of timber for furniture and boxes.
* They provide environmental protection.
* They conserve soil and help check floods.
* They are good breeding and conserving centres for birds and wildlife.
* They attract tourists and promote tourism.
* They add to scenic beauty.
* Tropical Thorn Forest (Rakh) is found in 1) Punjab Plains, 2) Southern &
Western Balochistan, 3) Sindh Plains.
* Tropical thorn trees have low height (6–10 metres).
* The forest is dominated by thorny hardwood.
* Trees have deep roots to search for water.
* Vegetation is scanty due to water shortage.
* These forests are used as firewood.
* Sub-Tropical Scrub Forest is found in 1) Hills and foothills of Lower Himalayas,
2) Sulaiman and Kirthar Ranges, 3) Western Mountain (Peshawar, Waziristan,
Kohat, Mardan), 4) Above the Makran Coast Range.
* This forest contains sub-tropical broad-leafed and tropical thorny species.
* Its importance includes watershed protection, supplying firewood, and grazing.
* Riverain or Bela Forest is found along the River Indus and its tributaries.
* It is a linear plantation along river banks.
* It normally contains high-yielding commercial hardwood species.
* It provides Shisham and Babul, used for furniture and agricultural implements.

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* Mangrove Forests are found in 1) Coastal areas of Sindh, 2) Coastal areas of
Balochistan (Deltaic regions).
* Mangroves have broad leaves with drip tips.
* Leaves have a leathery texture to minimise transpiration.
* They are low trees and shrubs grown on tidal mud flats.
* Mangrove roots grow in salty water.
* In better water areas, trees rise to 6–8 metres, but general height is 3 metres.
* Stunted growth occurs in the Indus and Hub delta due to dumping of industrial,
agricultural, and clinical waste.
* Polluted water results in a limited number of species.
* Mangroves supply firewood.
* Coastal communities use them for timber.
* They are breeding grounds for fish and shrimps.
* Camels and livestock feed on mangrove leaves.
* Fallen leaves provide nutrition for marine life.
* They protect coastline from erosion, storm damage, and wave action.
* They act as a barrier against the intensity of earthquakes and tsunamis by
absorbing shock waves.
* Irrigated Forests are found in 1) Changa Manga near Lahore, 2) Wan Bachran
in the Thai area, 3) Chichawatni in Sahiwal district & Ghulam Muhammad and
Guddu Barrages.
* Economically important species are planted in large blocks.
* Shisham, Babul, and Eucalyptus are normally preferred.
* They are important sources of timber and firewood.
* In linear form, they provide shade.

### **Page 11: Irrigated Plantations & Determinants**

* Advantages of Irrigated Plantations: Source of timber for construction, fencing,

firewood.
* Advantages: Leaves provide food for animals.
* Advantages: Fallen leaves form humus and increase soil fertility.
* Advantages: Transpiration brings more rainfall and lowers temperature.
* Advantages: Provide shade/shelter for people and animals.
* Advantages: Absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen.
* Advantages: Add to scenic beauty and promote tourism.
* Advantages: Control surface run-off and soil erosion.
* Advantages: Provide employment in forest-related jobs.
* Advantages: Protect agricultural crops by providing shade and reducing water
losses.
* Advantages: Eucalyptus trees can reduce waterlogging and salinity.
* Disadvantages: High initial investment with no quick returns or short-term
economic benefits.
* Disadvantages: Trees need maintenance and care, requiring regular money.
* Disadvantages: Need water, placing an extra burden on limited supplies.
* Disadvantages: Loss of land for settlements, farmland, industries, transport,

45
etc.
* Disadvantages: Illegal cutting of trees is difficult to check.
* Disadvantages: Forest fires cause environmental damage.
* Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has a 44.6% share of Pakistan's forests.
* Sindh has a 14.8% share.
* Punjab has a 12.4% share.
* Balochistan has an 11.6% share.
* Gilgit-Baltistan has a 7% share.
* Azad Jammu & Kashmir has a 9.6% share.
* Forests range from Alpine in the north to Mangrove in the south.
* Forest density and type are linked to rainfall, temperature, altitude, and soil
type.
* Determinant: Areas with different altitude have different forest types.
* Determinant: Aridity over the Balochistan Plateau and southern Indus Plain
results in thorny bushes and scrub.
* Determinant: Higher precipitation in the Northern Mountains encourages
coniferous forests.
* Determinant: Deposition of alluvium in the salt water of the Indus and Hab
deltas encourages mangroves.
* Determinant: Edaphic factors (soil type) also determine forest type and
density.

### **Page 12: Coniferous Forests**

* Sparse desert vegetation in eastern Sindh supports only scrub and small bushes
due to scanty rainfall and loose soil.
* Coniferous Forests grow in the Northern Areas, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Murree, and Balochistan hills.
* Species include Spruce and Fir in high altitude areas.
* These species are adapted to severe climate and poor soils.
* Coniferous trees are softwoods.
* Coniferous wood is used to make paper.
* The process: Foliage and bark are removed from the trunk.
* The wood is ground up and treated with chemicals to produce pulp for paper.
* A Q-box presents two statements for debate: one on more irrigated plantations
for environmental protection, the other on using land for income-generating
economic activities.
* Coniferous trees have a compact conical shape for wind stability.
* They have needles to reduce moisture loss.
* The trunk is straight and tall to reach sunlight.
* They have thick resinous bark for protection against cold.
* The trunk is thin due to rapid upward growth.
* Cones protect seeds during cold winters.
* Downward-sloping and springy branches allow snow to slide off.
* There is very little undergrowth due to close spacing and lack of sunlight.
* Roots are shallow because soils are thin, subsoil is frozen, or cold soil

46
discourages deep growth.
* Roots are long and spreading for anchorage against wind.

### **Page 13: Mangroves & Their Conservation**

* Most trees are damaged or killed by salt water, but mangroves thrive in it.
* Mangrove internal tissues are very salt-tolerant.
* Mangrove roots filter out most of the salt from the water they absorb.
* Excess salt is carried to the leaves and excreted onto their surfaces.
* Some mangrove species have "knees" that protrude above the mud.
* Scientists believe these "knees" extract oxygen from the air and funnel it to the
roots below.
* Dams and barrages on the Indus have reduced water reaching the delta from
250 million km3 to 100 million km3.
* This water and silt are needed to maintain a balanced delta ecosystem.
* With less river water, more salt water flows in, destroying local agriculture
and wildlife.
* Many animals, including endangered turtles, depend on mangroves.
* The Indus Delta has the world's seventh-largest mangrove forest.
* Large mangrove areas have been lost due to reduced influx of fresh water and
silt.
* Loss due to deforestation for fuel and timber.
* Loss due to pollution from farms, sewage, and shipping.
* Loss due to building of roads and other coastal construction.
* This environment is important for marine resources and is vanishing fast.
* Fishing communities suffer badly from tropical cyclones.
* Tidal waves and erosion destroy homes and rice farms.
* Mangroves can reduce wave force by up to 75% after passing through 200
metres of forest.
* Mangroves provide a nursery for shrimps, crabs, and fish.
* Fallen leaves and twigs create a fertile habitat in estuaries.
* An estuary is an arm of the sea at the mouth of a river.
* Young fish and shrimps grow in estuaries.
* Mangrove forests produce honey from Avicenna marina blossoms.
* Avicenna marina constitutes 95% of the mangroves lining Pakistan's coasts.
* The IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) has been
working to protect and rehabilitate the ecosystem.
* IUCN started planting mangroves in coordination with the Sindh Forest
Department in the late 1980s.
* It is vital that other government departments and NGOs participate.

### **Page 14: Mangrove Threats & Solutions / Forest Products / Deforesta-
tion Causes**

* Threat to mangroves: Barrages and dams upstream reduce supply of

nutrient-rich silt.

47
* Threat: Waste and sewage dumped into mangroves poison them.
* Solution: A WWF project focuses on replanting mangroves and increasing
awareness for sustainable use.
* Solution: WWF has developed mangrove nurseries and planted thousands of
saplings.
* Solution: The area of mangroves has increased by 8000 hectares.
* Solution: Sindh Forest Department has declared mangroves a protected forest.
* Forest products consist of timber, fuel wood, and other products.
* Timber is used for buildings, furniture, agricultural tools, and boxes.
* Demand for timber is growing due to population increase.
* Resin is a fluid in plant tissue that becomes solid on exposure to air; used for
making varnishes.
* Mazri is used for making mats, baskets, and packing materials.
* Ephedra is a medicinal shrub used by pharmaceutical factories.
* Deforestation is the clearing of forest land.
* Pakistan’s forest resources are shrinking fast.
* This will have serious effects on people and the ecosystem.
* Cause of deforestation: Clearing forests to develop mines.
* Cause: After dam/barrage construction, forests were cleared to grow crops for
the growing population.
* Cause: Firewood is used as fuel in rural and urban areas.
* Cause: Trampling and uncontrolled grazing by 86 million cattle, goats, and
sheep.
* Grazing has converted scrub and thorn forest areas into deserts.
* Cause: Growth of cities has replaced forests with suburban housing.
* Cause: Industrialisation and urbanisation create demand for better transport.
* Road transport is preferred in Pakistan.
* The road network is getting larger and denser.
* Roads have been built through forests.
* Cause: Pakistan has a big market for wood-based products (sports goods,
chipboard, hardboard, veneer, plywood, safety matches).
* Cause: Wood is required as a construction material.
* Cause: Wood is used in buses, boats, and railway coaches.

### **Page 15: Deforestation Causes (Continued) & News Article**

* Forests are cleared for mining, agriculture, fuel, and industry/roads.

* Forests are cleared for construction/timber products and new housing.
* A question asks what percentage of forest in 1990 had been cut down by 2005.
* A news article from ARY NEWS, 25 October 2018, is cited.
* Forest Department officials in Chitral foiled a bid to smuggle two truckloads of
timber.
* Logs were hidden under bags of potatoes in two trucks.
* One truck had a Peshawar registration number.
* Officials seized the trucks, but the accused escaped.
* Illegal loggers have been destroying forests in northern Pakistan for decades.

48
* Pakistan is losing 27,000 hectares of forest each year.
* This is one of the highest deforestation rates in the world, according to Global
Forest Watch.
* For many, felling trees to sell to illegal traders is a source of income, despite
the risks.

### **Page 16: Effects of Deforestation**

* Deforestation causes degeneration and destruction of the environment and loss

of food and resources.
* Deforestation affects the ecosystem in many ways.
* Deforestation exposes soil to wind and water, especially on foothills.
* Topsoil is eroded, leaving infertile coarse sand.
* In heavy rainfall, water gushes down slopes, carrying silt and sand.
* With no trees, surface run-off can cause heavy floods.
* Silt from Northern Mountains is carried downstream and accumulates in
reservoirs.
* This reduces reservoir capacity and disrupts HEP generation.
* Silt deposition harms fisheries and blocks irrigation canals.
* Disrupted water supply affects crops, reducing food production.
* Cutting trees disturbs the natural environment and destroys habitats.
* This disturbs wildlife and can cause extinction.
* Less vegetation means less evapo-transpiration.
* This leads to climate change, less rainfall, and lower crop yields.
* Pakistan's forest resources are meagre and under constant stress from reckless
cutting.
* Political pressures and administrative mismanagement intensify the crisis.
* There is a need to stop deforestation and manage resources scientifically via
afforestation.
* Effects of Deforestation: Less oxygen; more carbon dioxide.
* Effects: Habitat loss.
* Effects: Air pollution.
* Effects: Species extinction.
* Effects: Loss of biodiversity (70% of plants and animals live in forests).
* Effects: Siltation in reservoirs.
* Effects: Disruption to water supply.
* Effects: Exposed soil.
* Effects: More surface run-off.
* Effects: Floods.
* Effects: Crops and property destroyed; danger to life.
* Effects: Food insecurity.

### **Page 17: Solutions to Deforestation & Soil Regeneration**

* In a forested area, evapotranspiration from trees adds moisture to the air.

* Forested slopes are in balance and provide a habitat for wildlife.

49
* Trees shield fragile soils from heavy rain.
* Movement of rainwater through soil regulates river flow, prevents flooding, and
stores water.
* Tree roots control water flow, stabilise soil, and prevent landslides.
* This represents considerable environmental gain.
* In a deforested area, fewer trees mean less evapotranspiration.
* Heavy rainfall washes away unprotected surface soil.
* No roots to hold soil results in landslides.
* Silt blocks rivers and fills reservoirs.
* Lack of trees creates a fuel shortage.
* Heavy rainfall causes leaching, ruining the soil.
* This represents considerable environmental loss.
* Solution: Supply irrigation to deforested areas and enforce regeneration
programmes with fast-growing commercial species.
* Solution: Reserve land specifically for fuel wood plantation to save valuable
species.
* Solution: Create public awareness about deforestation hazards via government,
NGOs, and community workers.
* Solution: Supply natural gas to northern areas to reduce reliance on firewood.
* This would end the ordeal of women foraging for firewood.
* Solution: Improve growing and planting techniques to regenerate areas quickly.
* Solution: Make forestry more sustainable by: a) ensuring selective cutting, b)
restricting heavy machinery, c) strict enforcement of forest laws, d) enforcing
village/farm forestry, e) urban forestry programmes.
* Selective cutting means harvesting selected single trees and groups of trees.
* Advantage of selective cutting: Reduces crowding, promotes growth of younger
trees, allows natural regeneration. More environmentally friendly.
* Disadvantage of selective cutting: Expensive. Removal of some trees by
machines usually damages others.

### **Page 18: Soil Regeneration Techniques & Afforestation Projects**

* Protection of soil is needed in the Northern Mountains due to wetter climate

and steeper relief.
* Terraces are large steps cut into steep hillsides, edged with mud or stone walls
(bunds).
* Bunds hold back water and soil.
* Contour ploughing is done on more gentle slopes, with crops planted parallel
to contours.
* Resistant bushes are planted as windbreaks and shelter belts.
* Strip cultivation involves planting a smaller crop next to a taller one for
shelter.
* Hedgerows are replanted.
* Crops are alternated with grass to prevent overcultivation and soil exhaustion.
* Overgrazing is reduced by having smaller, better-quality herds.
* Gullies are filled in with soil and replanted.

50
* Stone lines are laid to trap surface water runoff in soil.
* Regeneration of soil is easier in deforested wetter areas (e.g., Northern
Mountains) than in dry areas (e.g., Western Mountains, Balochistan Plateau).
* Planting fruit trees on slopes provides food and protects soil from erosion.
* Techniques like terracing, replanting, contour ploughing, and strip cultivation
can reduce soil erosion.
* Encouraging reuse and recycling of timber, paper, and card reduces demand
for wood.
* Developing renewable energy (wind, solar) reduces demand for wood as fuel
and improves air quality.
* The main objective of Afforestation Projects is afforestation of ecologically
critical areas under threat of land degradation.
* Projects may consist of selecting areas, managing plantations, and developing
ways to use forest products.
* Small nurseries are spread throughout project areas.
* Project officers supply seedlings, protect afforested areas, and carry out
planting.
* Officers motivate local people by providing knowledge and assistance.
* The Tarbela/Mangla Watershed Management Project aims at afforestation of
privately owned badlands in the dams' catchment areas.
* Other components: Soil conservation, establishment of orchards, sustainable
agriculture.
* The project has reduced the siltation rate in the Mangla Dam.
* The Government’s Rs34 million “Rachna Doab Afforestation Project” planted
trees between the Chenab and Ravi rivers.
* The Billion Tree Tsunami project focussed on reafforestation of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa.
* KP has suffered from overgrazing, intensive logging, and destruction of trees
for fuel wood.

### **Page 19: Sustainable Forestry**

* The WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development) gave a

widely accepted definition of sustainable development in its 1987 report.
* Sustainable development 'meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs'.
* Resources should be used to benefit both present and future generations.
* Sustainable Forestry means managing forest resources to ensure regular
benefits while conserving the natural environment.
* It implies continuous production of wood, water, wildlife habitat, recreational
opportunities, etc.
* The forest industry is important to Pakistan and must be managed properly
to remain so.
* Trees vary in growth rate to maturity due to climate.
* Trees must not be cut down faster than they can be replaced.
* In an area where trees take 30 years to mature, no more than 1/30th should

51
be cut down yearly.
* Every tree cut down must be replaced with a sapling.
* When forests are cut for essential needs (housing, schools, roads), new areas
must be planted.
* Afforestation is necessary for industry expansion and to achieve a higher forest
percentage than the current 1.85%.
* WWF volunteers plant trees in Punjab.
* The Billion Tree Tsunami project (2015) aimed to increase KP’s forest area by
2% by 2021.
* It planted a billion trees in its first two years.
* The project created 500,000 jobs in nurseries and linked businesses.
* The project aims to slow the effects of global warming in Pakistan.

### **Page 21: Mineral Resources - Introduction & Formation**

* Minerals are inorganic natural substances obtained from under the earth's
surface.
* They are among the natural resources of a country.
* This unit covers mineral formation, mining processes, metallic/non-metallic
minerals, Pakistan's mining industry, economic development, environmental
effects, sustainable development, and the plight of coal miners.
* Most minerals are formed underground when heat and pressure transform rock.
* Some are formed from hot magma containing minerals; crystals appear when
magma cools.
* Some form near the surface when mineral-rich fluids (e.g., silica-bearing water)
evaporate.
* Some form when volcanic rocks are broken down by water and wind.
* Many minerals form crystals.
* Crystal shape is determined by the arrangement of its atoms.
* Slowly formed crystals may become gemstones.
* Note: Formation of mineral fuels is covered in Unit 8.

### **Page 23: Mining Industry & Mineral Data**

* Pakistan has few metallic mineral deposits but substantial non-metallic

deposits.
* Large deposits exist of marble, chromite, fuller’s earth, limestone, magnesite,
and natural gas.
* The presence of minerals does not mean the country is utilizing all of them.
* Exploration is done by the Geological Survey of Pakistan, foreign oil companies,
and other agencies.
* Mineral production contributes only about 2.8% of GDP (Gross Domestic
Product).
* Coal extraction (2020-21): 5,718 (000 tons). Reserves: 185 billion tons.
* Natural gas extraction: 27.26 (600 million Cu metres). Reserves: 492 billion
cubic metres.

52
* Crude Oil extraction: 20.77 (million barrels). Reserves: 184 million US barrels.
* Limestone extraction: 46,486 (000 tons). Reserves: Very large deposits.
* Rock salt extraction: 2,685 (000 tons). Reserves: Over 100 million tons.
* Chromite extraction: 86 (000 tons). Reserves: Fairly large deposits.
* Marble extraction: 2,146 (000 tons). Reserves: Very large deposits.
* China Clay extraction: 8 (000 tons). Reserves: 4.9 million tons.
* Celestite extraction: - . Reserves: Moderate deposits.
* Fire-clay extraction: 800 (000 tons). Reserves: Over 100 million tons.
* Fuller’s Earth extraction: 1 (000 tons). Reserves: Fairly large deposits.
* Gypsum extraction: 1,208 (000 tons). Reserves: 350 million tons.
* Magnesite extraction: 15,380 (000 tons). Reserves: Large deposits.
* Sulphur extraction: 14,920 (000 tons). Reserves: 0.8 million tons.
* Bauxite extraction: 848,934 (000 tons). Reserves: Over 74 million tons.
* Iron Ore extraction: 543,641 (000 tons). Reserves: Over 430 million tons.
* Metallic minerals are made up of a metal compound or resemble a metal (e.g.,
iron ore, copper, chromite, bauxite).
* Non-metallic minerals include gypsum, rock salt, marble, clay, limestone.
* Metallic minerals are economically more valuable.
* Non-metallic are less valuable except for power resources (oil, coal, natural
gas).
* Metallic minerals are generally hard, tough, and shiny.
* Non-metallic are softer, rough, and may not shine.
* Metallic minerals can change shape without breaking.
* Non-metallic break when shape is changed (except oil and natural gas).
* Metallic minerals can be stretched and compressed.
* Non-metallic cannot be stretched or compressed (natural gas can be compressed
by cooling).
* Many metallic minerals are good thermal and electrical conductors.
* Non-metallic are poor conductors.
* Metallic minerals are more reactive with water and acid.
* Non-metallic are less reactive (except limestone and salt).
* The Khewra Salt mine is close to the Potwar Plateau.
* Rock salt is extracted there using adit mining.

### **Page 24: Mining & Economic Development (Benefits)**

* Development of the mining sector is essential for economic development.

* Benefit a) Industrial Uses: Metallic minerals are used as raw materials in
high-value industries.
* Non-metallic minerals (limestone, gypsum, clays) are used in the construction
industry.
* Domestic production of minerals can ensure sound industrial development,
higher revenue, and a sound economy.
* Chromite gives hardness and electrical resistance to steel.
* Chromite is used for bridges, railway carriages, furnace linings, engineering
tools, and stainless steel.

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* Iron Ore is used in steel-making, construction, and transport.
* Copper is used for electrical wires, switches, alloys, water pipes, and tanks.
* Manganese is used in dry batteries, paints, steel-making, flares, and flash
bulbs.
* Bauxite is the chief source of aluminium, used in utensils, cans, and many
products.
* Celestite is found in cavities in sedimentary rocks.
* Celestite is used in tracer bullets, fireworks, ceramics, paints, plastics.
* Benefit b) Agricultural Uses: Minerals promote agriculture.
* Cement is used to line canals, build dykes, and build irrigation reservoirs.
* Metallic minerals are used for agricultural implements, tractors, and barrage
gates.
* Substantial mineral reserves can help develop modern agriculture, boosting
the economy.
* Benefit c) Improving Balance of Payment: Export of metallic minerals and
products has high value, increasing foreign exchange.
* Domestic production reduces the need to import valuable minerals, saving
foreign exchange.
* Import of mineral oil is a major part of Pakistan’s import bill, causing a
negative balance of payment.
* Benefit d) Employment: Development of the mining sector can provide
employment.
* Benefit e) Generation of Electricity: Non-metallic minerals like coal, oil, and
natural gas help produce thermal electricity.
* Maximum use of these can avoid an electricity crisis.
* The Thar Coal Fields could help solve Pakistan’s electricity problem.
* Benefit f) Development of Remote Areas: Mineral extraction promotes
economic development in remote areas (e.g., Balochistan Plateau, Western
Mountains).
* Other activities like farming are difficult there due to climate and topography.
* Benefit g) Increase in GDP: Mineral production will increase domestic income
and improve the country’s financial position.

### **Page 25: Non-Metallic Minerals Table**

* Rock Salt: Seams are 20 to 100 metres thick, white or pink, overlain by
gypsum and clay.
* Rock Salt is used for cooking, preservation, and manufacture of soda ash,
bicarbonate of soda, caustic soda, etc., for laundries, textiles, and tanning.
* Brine is used in the chemical and fertiliser industry.
* Limestone is a major, widespread sedimentary deposit.
* Limestone is the main raw material for cement.
* Limestone is used in bleaching powder, glass, soap, paper, paints, and lime.
* It treats sugarcane waste to produce alcohol fuel.
* It is painted on tree barks to counter pests and termites.
* It is used to aerate soil and treat salinity.

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* Pakistan has low-quality coal.
* Coal is mainly used in brick kilns, some for coke and briquettes, a small
percentage for power generation.
* A new thermal power station uses coal from Thar District.
* Natural Gas uses are detailed in Unit 8.
* Mineral Oil (petroleum) is used as a power source, lubricant, and motor fuel
(detailed in Unit 8).
* Gypsum is found in grey, white, and pink.
* Gypsum is used in paints, fertilisers, and prefabricated construction boards.
* White gypsum is used for cement and plaster of Paris.
* It is spread on saline soil to help land reclamation.
* Marble is found in white, grey, yellow, and brown bands.
* Marble is used in buildings and for chips for flooring and decorative pieces.
* Clays are fine-grained minerals.
* China Clay is used in the ceramic industry and for a special cement.
* Fire Clay endures high temperatures for fire bricks, insulating bricks, pottery,
and chemicals.
* Fuller's Earth is used to manufacture steel, oil drilling machines, and in oil
refining.
* Magnesite has about 50% magnesia.
* Magnesite is used in cement, fertiliser, rayon, paper pulp, chemicals, and
pharmaceuticals.
* Sulphur is used to manufacture sulphuric acid, paints, explosives, dyes, rayon,
and fertilisers.
* A Q-box presents two statements for debate: one on using only local minerals
for industries, the other on importing metallic minerals to boost industrialisation.

### **Page 26: Problems of the Mining Industry**

* Problem 1: Lack of financial resources for mineral exploration.

* Problem 2: Lack of technical experts (geologists, computerised mining
operators).
* Few technical institutions in Pakistan produce such professionals.
* Pakistan has to hire technical experts from other countries.
* Most mining is done traditionally, resulting in low production and health
hazards.
* Problem 3: Inaccessible mineral deposits in areas with poor transport (e.g.,
Balochistan).
* Poor infrastructure and low population density in Balochistan hinder
exploitation.
* Problem 4: Security concerns for mining companies since 9/11 due to terrorist
activities.
* Many foreign companies are reluctant to operate in Pakistan.
* Problem 5: Low priority given to mineral excavation compared to agriculture.
* Mining development requires infrastructure, high-cost machinery, hi-tech
knowledge, a large industrial market, and trained miners.

55
* Agriculture is easier to develop and is thus prioritized.
* Problem 6: Institutional mismanagement, corruption, and low standards in
mineral offices.
* This results in low productivity (e.g., Thar coal discovered in 1998, electricity
generation began ~20 years later due to conflicts and administrative problems).
* CPEC DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVES: In the Thar Desert, Pakistan is
digging up low-grade, brown, dirty coal to fuel new power stations with Chinese
investments.

### **Page 28: Case Studies - Saindak & Chromite**

* The Saindak Copper and Gold Mining Project is in Chagai district, Balochistan.
* Two Australian companies explored proven deposits of copper, gold, and silver.
* The Chinese Metallurgical Construction Company and two others will extract
metals on a six-year lease.
* The Chinese built the Saindak Plant and arranged the water supply for the
next 200 years.
* German and French companies provided the power supply system, generating
40 megawatts.
* The Federal government picked up the entire international credit for payments.
* The project will provide job opportunities for skilled and unskilled labourers.
* Estimated turnover is around $80 million a year.
* The project was closed from 1996 to 2000 for want of working capital and
mismanagement.
* It was restarted in 2001.
* Chromite mining: There are small deposits in various parts of Pakistan.
* Commercial production is almost entirely restricted to Balochistan.
* The most significant area was the Zhob Valley, the only chrome-ore producing
centre.
* Other occurrences: Muslimbagh, Ras Koh Range (western Balochistan), Wad
deposits (Khuzdar district, southern Balochistan).
* Chromite is mostly mined by open-pit method; underground methods are used
in some areas.
* Deposits vary in size and form.
* In the Wad area, chromite is lumpy and high quality.
* Zhob Valley deposits are the best known nationally and internationally.
* Total estimated reserves are not exactly known; previously, one million tons
were reported.
* Chromite mining started in 1903 on a small scale.
* Current extraction rate is 32,000–45,000 tons per year.

### **Page 29: Effects of Mining on the Environment**

* Minerals are part of the physical environment.

* Extracting and using them changes the physical environment.
* Unplanned activities can cause gradual environmental degradation.

56
* If environmental losses are minimized, economic benefits can be enormous.
* Mining affects the physical environment in several ways.
* Effect: Vegetation is cut down, resulting in soil exposure and deformed
landscape.
* Effect: Roads and houses are constructed for infrastructure.
* Effect: Rock blasting causes vibration and noise pollution.
* Effect: Underground mining digs the earth; unfilled depressions may become
flooded.
* Effect: Traditional mining is hazardous to miners' health due to a lack of
hygienic/safety standards.
* Effect: Heaps of mineral waste pollute the land.
* Effect: Waste entering rivers or lakes pollutes the water supply.
* Effect: Smoke and dust from mining pollute the air.
* Solution: Set up water-treatment plants to supply clean water to people near
mines.
* Solution: Provide health, education, and recreational facilities for miners and
families.
* Solution: Compulsory afforestation programmes near mining centres.
* Solution: Proper disposal of mining waste.
* Solution: Better safety measures in mines.
* Solution: Improved working conditions for miners.

### **Page 30: Sustainable Development & Environmental Protection**

* Sustainable development in mining means meeting society's mineral needs

without compromising future societies or the environment.
* It involves exploring, extracting, producing, adding value, using, re-using, recy-
cling, and disposing of minerals in an efficient, competitive, and environmentally
responsible manner.
* For sustainable development, the government should consider sustainability in
policies affecting the minerals industry.
* Application of science and technology should enhance competitiveness and
environmental protection.
* Discharge of toxic substances and release of heat in harmful quantities should
be strictly checked to avoid irreversible ecosystem damage.
* To minimize environmental degradation, mining should be done on scientific
lines.
* Special precautions must be taken to prevent environmental damage.
* Land should be levelled and depressions filled after mining to avoid deformation.
* All waste, gases, fumes, and semi-solid waste should be properly treated before
final disposal.
* Workers should be given protective clothing and masks against gases and dust.
* The area around a mine should be planted with trees to provide fresh air.

### **Page 31: The Plight of Coal Miners**

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* Coal miners work in small pits just four feet deep.
* They cut coal in a sitting position using picks.
* Oil burners are used for lighting.
* Smoke from burners, coal dust from donkeys, and lack of ventilation cause
lung diseases.
* 30 to 40 per cent of miners are drug addicts; half started after joining the
mines.
* Mine workers are of two types: coal cutters and katcha workers.
* Coal cutters’ wages: Rs 200-250 per day.
* Katcha workers (mostly children) wages: Rs 100-150 per day.
* Workers in donkey-mines get higher salaries than in mechanised mines, where
conditions are better.
* Profit margin for owners is higher in mechanised mines.
* Katcha workers work as donkey boys, pickers, loaders, and cooks.
* Living areas are unsafe, with no bathrooms or separate kitchens.
* 90% of residential areas have no electricity.
* Roofs often collapse when it rains, causing many deaths yearly.
* People take mining jobs due to a lack of other economic activities and skills.
* A news article from DAWN, 17 March 2021, is cited.
* Seven coal-miners burned to death from a methane gas blast in a mine in
Harnai district, Balochistan.
* On March 12, six coalminers were killed in a similar incident in Bolan district.
* Miners lead a miserable life with chronic diseases, unhygienic conditions, poor
diet, water shortage, drug addiction, and constant threat to life.
* Miners inhale polluted air and share oxygen with donkeys.
* A healthy man becomes disabled after 10-15 years of work.
* The worst human rights violation occurs in 5-10% of mines in Punjab where
workers carry 40kg sacks on their backs.
* 80% of mines in Punjab are donkey-mines (using donkeys for transportation).
* 60-80 miners die every year in Punjab from roof-falls and toxic gases.

### **Page 34: Fishing Industry - Introduction**

* Fishing is one of the oldest occupations for people near lakes, rivers, and the
sea.
* Fish farming or aquaculture is the breeding of fish by communities.
* Pakistan has inland fish farms using man-made ponds and protected areas in
rivers and lakes.
* Marine fishing includes modern developments in processing and exporting.
* This unit covers fishing areas/methods, government efforts, marketing,
feasibility in Gwadar, fish farming, problems, and sustainable fisheries.
* The fishing industry has potential for further development.
* Its share of GDP is 0.39% in 2020 (negligible).
* It contributes to national income through export earnings.
* Foreign exchange earnings come from exporting fish, shrimps, and fish
products.

58
* Fishing is the main occupation in coastal settlements of Sindh (except Karachi)
and Balochistan.
* Total people employed in fishing: 379,500.
* Marine fishing: 202,000 people.
* Inland fishing: 177,500 people.
* Fish waste is used to make fertiliser and poultry feed.
* Fish provide a delicious, nutritious white meat, preferred as a low-cholesterol
diet.
* Oil extracted from fish provides nutrition (contains vitamins A & D).

### **Page 35: Marine Fishing**

* Karachi is the main fishing centre in Sindh.

* On the Makran coast, fishing ports are small.
* Karachi is Pakistan’s biggest fishing port.
* Karachi handles 90% of the country’s catch and 95% of exports.
* Gwadar is being developed as a fishing centre with an ice factory, refrigeration
plants, and modern fish-curing yards.
* Improvements are also being made at Ormara and Pasni.
* Type A: Subsistence Fishing is when the fisherman and family consume the
catch.
* Fish is the main component of the diet for some coastal communities.
* Subsistence fishing uses conventional techniques (traditional nets, small
wooden sailboats).
* Boats do not travel far out to sea.
* The catch is small and not a permanent source of income.
* Type B: In Commercial Fishing, fish is sold in the market.
* Many coastal communities depend on fishing as their sole income source.
* Main centres: Karachi and Gwadar.
* The Sindh coast accounts for most of the total marine catch.
* Factors for Sindh coast development: Numerous creeks, sheltered harbours,
wide shallow sea.
* It has a wider continental shelf than the Makran coast.
* The Indus Delta is rich in fish food brought by the river.
* It has better export and processing facilities.
* In commercial fishing, new techniques (gill-netters, mechanised boats) are used
alongside traditional ones.
* Mechanised boats can fish 50-60 km from the coast.
* Traditional sailboats can only go 5 km out but are still widely used.
* The Government developed the Korangi fish harbour in Karachi with storage
and packing facilities.
* Types of marine fish: Sharks, Croakers, Skates, Drums, Catfish, Rays.
* The Makran coast is being developed with improved docking, handling,
preservation, and storage facilities.
* Almost all communities on the Balochistan coast depend on fishing for their
livelihood.

59
* Children learn skills early, and everyone helps.
* Balochistan sea-water is rich in fish, but conventional methods limit the catch.
* Improved facilities at Gwadar, Ormara, and Pasni will help increase the catch.

### **Page 36: Inland Fishing & Fish Farms**

* A Q-box presents two statements for debate: one on more fish farms using
canal water, the other on using the Indus Plain for crop cultivation.
* Inland fishing is practised in rivers, lakes, dam reservoirs, Sindh's dhands
(lakes), and abandoned channels.
* Specially dug ponds are also used.
* Fish farms are spread throughout Punjab, Sindh, and a few areas of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa.
* Types of inland fish: Manaseer, Palla, Thalla, Rahu, Trout, Grass, Silver –
Chinese species of Carp.
* Fish farms are rectangular man-made ponds.
* They have a concrete/cemented impervious base to prevent leakage.
* Sides are edged with solidified mud.
* Trees are planted around to provide oxygen, minimise evaporation, and keep
water cool.
* This facilitates fish growth and fertilisation.
* Main inland fishing centres: Manchar Lake (Dadu District), Kalri (Keenjhar)
Lake (north of Thatta), Haleji Lake (west of Thatta), Reservoirs of Mangla and
Tarbela Dams, River Indus at Sukkur, Kotri, and Thatta.

### **Page 1: Fish Marketing & Industry**

* Pakistan has a domestic market for fish, shrimps, and fish products.
* Pakistan has an international market for fish, shrimps, and fish products.
* At the domestic level, marine fisheries catch is supplied to local fish markets.
* Supply to local markets is done through wholesale dealers.
* Karachi is the main fishing centre in Pakistan.
* In Karachi, street hawkers buy some of the catch.
* Street hawkers sell fish from door to door.
* Frozen or processed fish is supplied only to a few large stores in urban areas.
* People prefer to buy fresh fish and prawns over processed ones.
* Local demand for fish is less than the catch.
* Per capita fish consumption in Pakistan is 2 kg per annum.
* The world average per capita fish consumption is 16 kg per annum.
* Fish exports increased by 9.98% in June 2020 compared to June 2019.
* About 30% of the total fish catch is exported.
* Fish and fish products are exported worldwide.
* Export destinations include China, the European Union, Thailand, Malaysia,
the Middle East, Sri Lanka, and Japan.
* Pakistan exports dried and salted fish to SE Asia.
* The chief destination for dried and salted fish in SE Asia is China.

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* Pakistan exports dried and salted fish to the Middle East.
* Fish and fish product exports earn more than 6% of Pakistan's total foreign
exchange.
* Fish farming has greater scope for Pakistan due to several factors.
* One factor is greater returns for fishermen.
* A second factor is increased employment.
* A third factor is the use of technology and upgrading of skills ensuring
increased fish production.
* A fourth factor is a favourable impact on foreign exchange earnings.
* A fifth factor is a reduced burden on crops and livestock.
* Figure 6.7 shows an artificial pool for raising fish.
* A fish farmer must take care of food, medicine, and breeding requirements of
the fish.
* Fish farming can be combined with livestock or poultry farming.
* Animal waste can be used to fertilise fishponds.
* Using animal waste as fertiliser leads to greater fish yield.
* The manure from animals provides active nutrients for the fish.
* Poultry droppings serve as an excellent fertiliser for fish ponds.
* Poultry droppings are rich in highly soluble inorganic salts.
* Poultry droppings promote the growth of plankton.
* Plankton is natural food for fish.
* Cattle, poultry, and ducks can be raised on the embankments of ponds.
* Cattle, poultry, and ducks can be raised in the vicinity of the ponds.
* Fish waste is used for making poultry feed.
* Joint farming operation requires little space.
* Joint farming operation requires low capital investment.
* Joint farming operation gives quick returns.
* The government is taking steps to improve the fisheries sector.
* One step is the introduction of new fishing methods.
* A second step is the development of value-added products.
* Examples of value-added products are canned or frozen fish.
* Development is done by providing fish-processing facilities.
* A third step is providing guidance and weather information for fishermen.
* Guidance and information are provided through broadcasting services.
* Guidance and information are provided through government meteorological
departments.
* A fourth step is the execution of development projects by the Marine Fisheries
Department (MFD).
* An example of an MFD project is 'Monitoring of Deep-Sea Fishing Vessels'.
* Another example is 'Strengthening of Quality Control Laboratories'.
* A third example is additional improvement in MFD Labs.
* These lab improvements are in view of WTO (World Trade Organisation)
requirements.

### **Page 2: Fish Farming and the Environment & Problems**

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* Fish farming affects the environment in a variety of ways.
* One effect is on the ecosystem.
* An ecosystem is a community of plants and animals within a physical
environment, or habitat.
* The components of the ecosystem are soil, plants, climate, and animals.
* Ecosystem components are interrelated to maintain a balance in the
environment.
* Figure 6.8 is related to recycling waste, fish farming and the environment,
effects on ecosystem, and chemical pollution.
* Inland fish farms have brought ecological changes to their surroundings.
* Ground water is frequently pumped out to supply these farms.
* Pumping ground water may lower the local water-table.
* When water evaporates from fish farms, salt remains in the soil.
* This salt renders the soil unsuitable for general vegetation and crops.
* Coastal wetlands are considered productive areas.
* Coastal wetlands provide nutrients to organisms living in marshy lands.
* These areas act as a nursery for many commercially important fish varieties.
* These areas act as a nursery for other seafood.
* Conversion of coastal wetlands into fish farms has disturbed the general marine
ecosystem.
* Chemical pollution is another effect of fish farming.
* Effluent from fish farms may contain chemicals used for disinfecting.
* Effluent may contain chemicals for controlling diseases, pests, and predators.
* Effluent may contain hormones.
* Hormones are used for inducing breeding and transfer of fish.
* These chemicals and hormones may have an adverse effect on other organisms.
* Aquaculture has many positive effects on the environment.
* One positive effect is recycling waste.
* Aquaculture helps to recycle domestic waste.
* Aquaculture helps to recycle farm waste.
* Animal waste is considered a good organic fertiliser.
* Domestic waste and human sewage can be used for fish farming.
* The use of domestic waste is very restricted.
* The restriction is due to the danger of transmission of human diseases.
* Combining fish culture with waste treatment gives good results.
* The main problem facing the fishing industry is water pollution.
* Pollution on the coast of Pakistan is mostly limited to the Karachi area.
* Karachi’s fish harbour is severely affected by a variety of pollutants.
* Pollutants include oil spillage from ships.
* Pollutants include domestic waste.
* Pollutants include industrial waste.
* These pollutants are causing great harm to the fishing industry.
* Studies have shown numerous chemicals found in marine life.
* Marine life includes fish, prawns, crabs, shrimps, and lobsters.
* Some of these chemicals have carcinogenic qualities.
* Toxic materials have been found in marine life.

62
* Heavy metals have been found in marine life.
* Heavy metals found include cadmium, aluminium, and nickel.
* These dangerous substances enter the food chain when people consume
seafood.
* Water pollution is not limited to the Karachi coast.
* Water pollution is also affecting the rivers of Pakistan.
* Growing population contributes to increasing waste dumped into rivers.
* Industrialisation contributes to increasing waste dumped into rivers.
* Urbanisation contributes to increasing waste dumped into rivers.
* Extensive use of chemical fertilisers in agriculture is a source of water pollution.
* Extensive use of pesticides in agriculture is a source of water pollution.
* Fertilizers and pesticides leach into the river system.
* An efficient system of waste treatment and disposal needs to be developed.
* This is needed so that pollutants do not enter the rivers and the sea.
* This is needed to protect fish resources.
* Another problem is overfishing of shrimps throughout the year.
* Overfishing occurs even in the breeding season.
* This problem is due mainly to foreign trawlers.
* Overfishing limits the production of shrimps.
* A third problem is the threat to mangroves.
* Mangroves act as a barrier that protects the coast from extreme tides.
* Mangroves are important as a breeding ground for fish and shrimps.
* Mangroves cannot thrive in polluted water.
* A fourth problem is a lack of financial resources.
* Pakistan cannot afford to develop its fishing industry on modern lines.
* Most fishing uses traditional methods.
* Traditional methods produce low output.
* Modern technology will increase fish production.
* Modern technology requires capital.
* Modern technology requires skilled labour.
* Due to traditional ways of handling fish, Pakistan has faced export restrictions
to developed countries.
* Unreliable income from exports decreases investment.
* Low profits from the fishing industry decrease investment.
* Low investment keeps production low.

### **Page 3: Sustainable Fisheries & CPEC**

* Sustainable development means fisheries should be developed to increase food

production for the present age.
* Balanced and effective measures should be taken to ensure fish populations
can grow.
* Measures should ensure fish populations are accessible to future generations.
* In Pakistan, few efforts have been made for sustainable development of
fisheries.
* Factor a) for low performance is overfishing by foreign trawlers and local

63
fishermen.
* Factor b) is catching baby fish.
* Factor c) is the use of illegal nets.
* Factor d) is the destruction of mangroves.
* Factor e) is water pollution caused by industrial and domestic waste.
* Water pollution results in the extinction of fish species.
* For sustainable development, the Government should not allow foreign deep-sea
trawlers to operate in the Pakistani area of the Arabian Sea.
* This is to avoid overfishing.
* This is to maintain a sustainable fish population.
* The Government should implement laws banning the use of illegal nets.
* Illegal nets have small holes which catch baby fish.
* The Government should maintain ecological balance by strict enforcement of
laws against cutting mangrove forests.
* The Government should maintain ecological balance by strict enforcement of
laws against water pollution.
* Advantages of sustainable fisheries development include:
* a) Provision of more food in the form of white meat.
* White meat contains low cholesterol, vitamin D, and other nutrients.
* b) More employment opportunities in the fishing industry.
* c) An increase in foreign exchange earnings from exports of fresh and processed
fish and shrimps.
* d) Training and education of fishermen.
* Training includes modern technological skills like use of gill-netters, satellite
navigation, and use of shoals for locating fish.
* e) Development of related industries like boat-building and net-making.
* Development of fish-processing industries like salting, canning, refrigerating,
and packing.
* f) Improvement in infrastructure like better roads and electricity supply.
* The fisheries sector is expected to benefit from CPEC (China-Pakistan
Economic Corridor).
* A report was issued by the Shahid Javed Burki Institute of Public Policy at
NetSol.
* Pakistan has an export market for fish and fish products.
* Around 30% of the total fish catch is exported to 30 countries.
* The report proposed Pakistan should follow Thailand’s lead in developing a
modern fish-processing industry.
* Modern facilities should be developed as part of CPEC with China’s help.

### **Page 4: Fisheries in Gwadar**

* Fishing is the most important economic activity in Gwadar district.

* The Balochistan coast is 600km long.
* The coast provides employment and food for a large number of people.
* More than half the population of Gwadar district is directly or indirectly
involved in fisheries.

64
* About 25% of Pakistan's total catch is produced in Gwadar district.
* Fishing in big boats is done throughout the year.
* Part-time fishermen use small boats.
* Part-time fishermen do not fish from May to September.
* May to September is the time of the south-west monsoon.
* During the monsoon, the sea is very rough.
* The monsoon is the fish-breeding season.
* The fish catch along the coast of Gwadar district is varied.
* Species include mackerel, herring, sardines, drums, catfish, croaker, shrimps,
cuttlefish, octopus, and squid.
* There are many fishing techniques.
* Equipment consists of nets, nylon ropes, floats, and winches.
* Winches are mechanical lifting devices.
* Fishermen usually use small nets with small boats.
* Small boat trips last up to one day only.
* A big boat can stay at sea for up to 15 days.
* The initial standard process for preserving fish in Gwadar was salting and
drying.
* In 1970, the Department of Coastal Development and Fisheries established an
ice factory at Pasni.
* The first private ice factory started production in 1976.
* Now there are several ice factories in the region.
* Fresh fish packed in ice is sent to Karachi.
* The advanced process of fish canning is done at Karachi.
* There is great potential for a canning industry in Gwadar district.
* This potential is conditional on road links being available.
* In 2007, Pakistan was one of 80 countries whose canned fish was banned for
import to Europe and other developed countries.
* The ban was mainly because of unhygienic canning factories.
* The ban was lifted in 2013.
* The lifting of the ban allowed canned fish to be exported to Europe again.
* The lifting of the ban increased Pakistan’s export revenue.
* Fresh fish is packed in ice for transportation to Karachi.
* From Karachi, it is exported to Japan, China, Malaysia, South Korea, Sri
Lanka, Singapore, and the USA.
* Figure 6.9 shows fishermen from Gwadar catching fish from a small boat using
a gill-net.
* Fish is marketed in three ways:
1. Some businessmen from Karachi or foreign countries buy fish in the open sea.
2. This allows them to avoid paying port charges.
3. Most fish is auctioned at harbours like Gwadar and Pasni.
4. Businessmen then send it to Karachi and neighbouring districts.
5. Sometimes fish is sold directly from here to foreign buyers.
6. A proportion of the total catch is sold to local people not involved in fishing.

### **Page 5: Government Efforts & Future Projects in Gwadar**

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* Both federal and provincial governments are involved in coastal and fisheries
developments.
* In 1992, the Government of Pakistan completed the Gwadar Fish Harbour
cum Mini Port.
* This harbour was built to provide fisheries with facilities like ice factories and
cold storage.
* It was built to provide essential facilities for a fishing port.
* It was built to improve loading and unloading facilities for commodities.
* Fisheries have long been an important economic activity in Gwadar district.
* About 15% of workers are directly involved in fishing.
* Others work in related activities like boat-building, net-making and repairing,
and fish-processing.
* Fishing is a family skill at Gwadar, passed from father to son.
* The new Belt and Road initiative has disrupted small fishermen’s access to the
east bay.
* The east bay is where they normally fish.
* Small fishermen are worried they will lose their livelihood.
* Boat-building is an advancing industry of the district.
* Craftsmen are trained as apprentices.
* Craftsmen then spend their entire lives as contractual workers.
* Craftsmen are never able to manufacture a boat for sale with their own capital.
* There is a need for a cooperative bank to provide interest-free loans to these
craftsmen.
* There is a need for training and credit to be made available for women.
* This is to stimulate net-making and repairing work.
* Fish processing, if started at Gwadar, could provide employment to local
educated but unemployed youth.
* There is a need to attract private sector investment by providing different
incentives.
* If Gwadar deep-sea port is a success, it may become a base for strategic
linkages to Central Asian States.
* It would provide them with port facilities.
* Figure 6.10 shows fishermen loading blocks of ice to keep their catch fresh.
* Figure 6.11 shows making repairs to a fishing boat.
* Figure 6.12 shows that making and repairing nets is a job which could be done
by women.
* This could bring extra income for the family.

### **Page 6: Questions (Fishing Industry)**

* Question 1a)i asks to describe traditional fishing methods and give examples
of fish species caught.
* Question 1a)ii asks to describe recent developments in fishing methods and
range of operations.
* Question 1b) provides three groups of fish and three fishing areas.

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* Group 1 fish: crab, lobster, prawns (jhinga), sardines, shark.
* Group 2 fish: hila, mahseer, palla, trout.
* Group 3 fish: herring, mackerel, sardines, shark.
* Fishing Area A is inland fisheries (freshwater).
* Fishing Area B is Makran (Balochistan) Coast.
* Fishing Area C is Indus Delta (Sindh) Coast.
* Question 1b)i asks in which areas Group 1 fish are caught.
* Question 1b)ii asks in which areas Group 2 fish are caught.
* Question 1b)iii asks to describe the fishing industry of the Makran Coast.
* Question 1b)iv asks to describe the method of producing fish from fish farms.
* Question 1b)v asks why fish are plentiful in the mangroves of the Indus delta
coast.
* Question 2 refers to Figure 6-A with factors: employment, communications,
education, food, technology, pollution, trade.
* Question 2 asks to explain the advantages and disadvantages of developing the
fishing industry with reference to Figure 6-A.

### **Page 7: Questions (Fish Farming & Protein)**

* Question 5a) refers to photograph 6-B of a fish farm at Faiz, south of Multan.
* Question 5a)i asks to describe the layout and features of the fish farm.
* Question 5a)ii asks how the physical topography made it easy to construct the
ponds.
* Question 5a)iii asks where the material for the pond banks came from.
* Question 5b) asks why fish farming is of growing importance in Pakistan.
* Question 5b) states credit will be given for naming a species of fresh water fish
reared on fish farms.
* Question 6 presents two views on increasing protein in Pakistani diets.
* View A: Developing fish farms is the best way.
* View B: Developing livestock farming is the best way.
* The question asks which view you agree with more and to support your answer
with reasons and examples.

### **Page 8: Agricultural Systems**

* Agriculture is a primary industry.

* It is concerned with obtaining raw materials from the ground for immediate
consumption.
* It is concerned with obtaining raw materials for further processing.
* The unit covers: small-scale subsistence farming, cash-crop farming, agricul-
tural products, livestock farming, factors affecting production, land reforms,
farming and the environment, government efforts, sustainable development.
* All types of agriculture can be viewed as a system with inputs, processes, and
outputs.
* Inputs fall into two groups: Natural (Physical) and Human (Economic).
* Natural inputs are the factors that affect the growth of different crops and

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animals.
* Human inputs are the cost of investing, equipment, machinery, etc.
* Human inputs also include the number, skills, and attitude of the workers.
* Inputs determine the type of processes on farms.
* The result of what farmers do is the output.
* There are three main types of farming in Pakistan: A. Small-scale subsistence,
B. Cash-crop, C. Livestock.
* Figure 7.1 shows agriculture as a system.
* Natural inputs listed: Land, Soil, Climate, Water.
* Human inputs listed: Capital, Machines, Fertilisers, Labour, Knowledge, Land
ownership, Traditions, Imitation, Prestigious.
* Processes listed: Ploughing, Sowing, Irrigating, Fertilising, Weeding, Harvest-
ing, Threshing, Milking, Breeding, etc.
* Outputs include Crops, Food and Raw Material, Animals & Products.
* Example crop outputs: Wheat, Rice, Cotton, Vegetables, Flowers.
* Example animal outputs: Milk, Meat, Eggs.
* Waste Products are used for preparation of animal feed and manure.
* Examples of waste: husk, cotton seed, molasses.
* Profit is invested back into the farm.

### **Page 9: Small-scale Subsistence Farming**

* Small-scale subsistence farms produce food and raw materials for the people
who work on them.
* Any surplus for sale is a bonus, not an expectation.
* Around a third of all farms are smaller than 5 hectares.
* 5 hectares is taken to be the normal subsistence holding.
* This indicates most small farmers have difficulty earning a living from small
holdings.
* They have to supplement their income from other sources.
* Examples of other work: carpenter, blacksmith, cobbler.
* A small-scale subsistence farm depends on nature.
* Some human inputs are obtained during farming, e.g., natural manure, seeds.
* Other inputs like animals or tools are transferred from one generation to the
next.
* Land is also transferred between generations.
* Processes are completed with manual labour of family members.
* Men work on the farm.
* Women may fetch water from the well for irrigation.
* Women prepare meals.
* At harvest time the whole family works in the fields.
* Figure 7.3 shows pairs of bullocks used for ploughing on many small-scale
subsistence farms.
* Sometimes unskilled labourers are employed on low wages.
* Women and children take care of the animals.
* They prepare feed for animals by mixing chopped fodder, pulses, and wheat.

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* They milk buffaloes, cows, and goats.
* They collect eggs.
* Farm output varies from year to year.
* A good yield is expected if rainfall is timely and pests/diseases do not attack.
* Surplus produce is normally sold to small shops in the village.
* Profit is used to pay off loans taken in bad times.
* Profit is used for buying necessities.
* When possible, some profit is invested back into the farm.
* Investment is for maintaining tools and buying seeds and fertilisers.
* After harvesting wheat in early summer, other crops like maize and vegetables
are cultivated for family consumption.
* Draught animals like cattle, buffaloes, and mules are also kept on the farm.
* When wheat is grown on a subsistence farm, traditional methods are used.
* Inputs are traditional.
* Crops mainly depend on rainwater in areas like the Potwar Plateau.
* Lift irrigation from a well may also be used.
* Animals provide draught power.
* Traditional implements are used for ploughing.
* The farm is owned by two or three families.
* These families consume the wheat their farm produces.
* Figure 7.2 shows small-scale subsistence farming as a system.
* Figure 7.4 is referenced (not described in text).

### **Page 11: Major Crops & Wheat**

* The two main cropping seasons are Rabi and Kharif.

* Rabi crops are sown in winter (October–December) and harvested in spring
(March–May).
* Kharif crops are sown with the onset of the monsoon (April–June) and
harvested in autumn (September–November).
* Major Rabi crops are wheat, barley, gram, and oilseeds.
* Major Kharif crops are rice, sugarcane, millets, maize, and cotton.
* Figure 7.6 shows area and production of major crops (2000-01).
* Cotton area: 2,517,000 hectares.
* Cotton production: 9,148,000 bales.
* Sugarcane area: 1,040,000 hectares.
* Sugarcane production: 66,380,000 tonnes.
* Rice area: 3,034,000 hectares.
* Rice production: 7,414,000 tonnes.
* Maize area: 1,404,000 hectares.
* Maize production: 7,883,000 tonnes.
* Wheat area: 8,805,000 hectares.
* Wheat production: 25,248,000 tonnes.
* Source: Pakistan Economic Survey 2020-21.
* Pakistan may harvest over 28.75 million tonnes of wheat this year (Geo TV,
13 April 2021).

69
* This is two million tonnes more than the previous high recorded in 2016-17.
* If expected, Pakistan may not require further imports in considerable
quantities.
* Wheat is the most important and most extensively grown crop in Pakistan.
* The acreage of wheat varies from place to place.
* Variation depends on type of soil, availability of water, and climatic conditions.
* Wheat is a staple food used to make bread (roti) and baked products.
* Low grades of wheat and by-products of flour-milling are used as livestock feed.
* A question asks which crop cultivation is most dispersed: wheat, cotton, or
rice.
* Figure 7.8 shows a wheat field in Punjab in early ripening stages.
* Canal-irrigated areas of Punjab and Sindh meet most wheat requirements.
* Temperature is favourable from October to May.
* The soil is rich in alluvium.
* The land is flat or undulating.
* Waterlogged areas of the Indus Plain are not suitable for wheat cultivation.
* Figure 7.9 shows ripe wheat ready for harvesting.
* In some parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the Potwar Plateau, wheat is
grown on barani (rain-fed) land.
* This is where winter rainfall is sufficient.
* This is where the dissected landscape makes irrigation difficult.
* Wheat is grown in very few areas of Balochistan and on a limited scale.
* Infertile soil, rugged topography, and limited water supply do not support its
cultivation in Balochistan.

### **Page 12: Wheat Cultivation**

* Figure 7.12 states many landlords prefer manual wheat harvesting due to
cheap labour availability in the Indus Plain.
* Manual harvesting is cost-effective compared to using machines.
* Figure 7.10 shows wheat regions.
* Wheat seeds are sown directly into the ground in October–December after
ploughing.
* Wheat does not need a lot of water, unlike rice.
* Most farmers irrigate the land twice.
* First irrigation is one month after sowing.
* Second irrigation is one month before harvesting.
* Wheat is harvested after three months.
* A lot of labour is required at harvesting time.
* Chaff is separated from the grain.
* Farmers store the grain for their own use or transport it to market.
* Wheat yield has gradually increased in Pakistan.
* Increase is due to new varieties and improved farming methods.
* Improvement in water-management has reduced water losses from canals to
fields.
* Chemical fertilisers are becoming more widely used.

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* The government provides loans on easy terms for buying machinery like
tractors.
* The government sets a support price to increase wheat production.
* Despite efforts, Pakistan is rarely self-sufficient in wheat.
* Reasons for lack of self-sufficiency: ever-increasing population, gradual decrease
in cultivable area due to waterlogging and salinity.
* Wheat is cultivated on barani, small-scale subsistence farms of the Potwar
Plateau and Upper Indus Plain.
* Irrigation facilities are not used.
* The cultivation process is adjusted to suit seasonal rainfall and temperature.
* Sowing begins in the dry season of October–December.
* Average temperature at sowing is 15°C.
* Rainfall at sowing is 13-32 mm.
* Seeds get little moisture when the growing period starts.
* Figure 7.11 shows traditional separation of wheat from chaff by crushing and
throwing it into the air.
* The temperature drops to 8°C in January.
* Rainfall increases to 34 mm in January and 60mm in March.
* The wheat crop grows in rain from western depressions.
* This rain falls in light showers that are absorbed into the soil.
* The harvesting period is April–May.
* Temperature rises from 25°C to 31°C during harvesting, which helps ripen the
wheat.
* A little rainfall in April (37 mm) helps to swell the wheat grains.

### **Page 13: Wheat Requirements & Farming Comparison**

* Figure 7.13 shows mean monthly temperature and precipitation graphs with
growth, harvesting, and sowing periods marked.
* Geographical Requirements for WHEAT:
* Temperature: Mild 10°–20°C for growing, warm 25°–30°C for ripening.
* Needs at least 90 days growing period, preferably 120 days with mild, moist
weather.
* Rainfall: Moderate. A little rain before harvest swells the grain for better
yield.
* Mostly depends on irrigation.
* Only Potwar Plateau and some parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa are rain-fed
regions.
* Soil: Moderately stiff, loamy or clayey soil. Does not thrive with stagnant
water.
* Land: Flat or undulating ground to facilitate machinery. Must be well drained.
* Methods of cultivation differ between small-scale subsistence and cash-crop
farms.
* Small-scale subsistence farm: Land ploughed with traditional wooden plough
and bullocks.
* Cash-crop farm: Tractor may be used for ploughing.

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* Small-scale: Well irrigation (Charsa/Persian Wheel) or rainwater is used.
* Cash-crop: Normally, canal water is arranged.
* Small-scale: Crops cut by hand. Grain separated using traditional method.
* Cash-crop: Reapers, threshing machines, or combine harvesters may be used.
* Small-scale: Cow-dung is used as manure.
* Cash-crop: Chemical fertilisers may be used.
* Figure 7.14 shows a bullock cart used to transport harvest on a subsistence
farm.
* Figure 7.15 shows a tractor operating a combine harvester on a commercial
farm in Sindh/Punjab.
* Many commercial farmers get government loans to buy tractors.

### **Page 14: High-Yield Varieties & Rice**

* At present, 90% of the area under wheat cultivation uses high-yielding varieties
(HYVs).
* HYV yield per hectare is about twice that of local or Desi varieties.
* Maxi Pak is one of the most widely used wheat varieties in Pakistan.
* The government has set up research centres to study high-yielding wheat
varieties.
* Figure 7.16 shows wheat varieties being tested in a research laboratory.
* Rice is grown almost exclusively on irrigated land.
* Improvements in irrigation have increased the area under cultivation.
* Increased area has resulted in more production.
* The use of the Irri Pak variety has doubled production.
* Export of high-quality basmati rice has increased over the years.
* Rice is important as foreign exchange is earned from its export.
* Rice is normally grown on a large scale for commercial purposes in Punjab
and Sindh.
* Farmers in northern hilly regions practise small-scale subsistence rice farming
on terraced fields.
* Rice seeds are initially sown into beds or nurseries.
* When plants are about 23 cm high, they are transplanted.
* They are transplanted into prepared fields (ploughed, weeded).
* The fields have been flooded to a depth of 30–37 cm.
* Fields are kept full of water until the rice is ripe.
* Water is then drained off for harvesting to begin.
* Threshing may be done by people, draught animals, or machine.
* The method depends on farm size and farmer wealth.
* After threshing, rice is taken to rice mills for polishing and packing.
* Rice husks may be used for making cardboard.
* Rice husks may be mixed with mud and water to cover house roofs.
* Figure 7.17 shows paddy rice seeds.
* Figure 7.18 shows transplanting rice plants into the prepared field.

### **Page 15: Rice & Cotton Requirements**

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* Geographical Requirements for RICE:
* Temperature: Mean temperature of 20°–30°C with no cold season. Warm dry
period for harvesting.
* Rainfall: Heavy rainfall of at least 1270 mm, over 2000 mm is ideal. Irrigation
bridges the gap. Requires plenty of rain during the 4–6 months growing period
and sunny harvest time.
* Land and soil: Level ground for easy irrigation. Soil should be loamy or clayey.
An impervious sub-soil is essential to retain water.
* Human inputs: Cheap and abundant labour or adequate machinery for field
preparation, sowing, transplanting, and harvesting. Irrigation.
* Figure 7.19 shows rice threshing on a traditional farm in Sindh.
* Figure 7.20 shows rice regions.
* Cotton is the most widely used textile fibre in Pakistan, "the king of fibres".
* It is made into clothes, furnishing fabrics, bed linen, and industrial fabrics.
* Cotton is a kharif crop, sown April-May and harvested October-November.
* Cotton seeds are sown 30 cm-45 cm apart in April-May.
* One month later the fields are irrigated.
* A second irrigation takes place after a further two months.
* Cotton bolls ripen in the dry months of October and November.
* The plant reaches a height of 135–150 cm.
* The size of the cotton ball depends on the seed variety and fertiliser application.
* After picking, cotton balls are loaded onto trucks and transported to ginning
mills.
* At ginning mills, seeds are separated from the lint.
* Lint is the fluffy mass of fibres inside the cotton balls.
* Cotton seeds are used as animal feed and for oil extraction.
* Cotton lint is tied up in bales for further processing.
* Yields up to 700 kg per hectare can be expected with fertilisers and no locust
attacks.
* Pakistan is the world's fifth-largest producer of cotton.
* Pakistan is the world's third-largest exporter of raw cotton.
* About 30% of Pakistan's 5 million farmers are involved in growing cotton.
* Almost all cotton farmers are on small farms of less than 5 hectares.

### **Page 16: Cotton Requirements & Production**

* Geographical Requirements for COTTON:

* Temperature: Ideal 25°–35°C. Mild night temperatures better for boll
development. For harvesting, 25°–35°C with dry, sunny days. Sensitive to frost.
* Rainfall: Ample rainfall best, about 1000 mm in frequent showers with
sunny periods. When rainfall <500 mm, irrigation is necessary. (In Pakistan,
cultivated on irrigated land.) Rain at picking spoils the boll.
* Soil: Medium loam is best. Needs manure or fertiliser to maintain fertility,
otherwise crop rotation must be practised.
* Land: Level land is required.

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* Human Inputs: Use of agricultural machinery speeds up the process. In
Pakistan, most picking is done by cheap labour, mainly women. Pesticides and
insecticides are used, causing health problems for pickers. Irrigation. Fertilisers.
* Figure 7.21 shows cotton regions.
* Punjab is the main cotton-growing region (79% of production).
* Sindh produces 20% of cotton.
* Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan have begun growing cotton recently.
* Irrigation is a challenge in KPK and Balochistan.
* Figure 7.22 shows cotton being picked by women who receive low wages.
* A news excerpt states 30,000 to 40,000 bales of cotton were produced in
Laskela district, Balochistan.
* This broke the two-province monopoly over cotton.
* The Karachi Cotton Association (KCA) suggested using Balochistan's lands to
increase cotton crop size.
* The cotton boll is sensitive as it nears harvesting.
* It is greatly affected by a rise in day and night temperatures.
* It is susceptible to leaf-curl virus and fruit shedding.
* In 1999, the Agricultural Department, Punjab, started a cotton-breeding
programme.
* The programme emphasised medium to tall plants resistant to leaf-curl virus.
* Leaf-curl virus has been the major cotton disease over the past few years.
* Old cotton varieties: Pak Upland, Desi.
* High-yielding varieties: Nayyah 78, B-557, 149-F.
* HYVs produce bigger crops and bigger bolls.
* PARC (Pakistan Agricultural Research Council) is trying to develop varieties
resistant to leaf-curl virus and less sensitive to temperature.
* Sugarcane is an important crop for making sugar, brown sugar, and jaggery
(gur).
* Sugarcane stalks 30 cm tall are planted in April-May, 30 cm apart.
* Plant quality and size depend on irrigation frequency and fertiliser application,
especially potash.
* If well irrigated, plants grow to 2 metres or more.
* The crop can be ratooned and harvested for 2-3 successive years.
* After harvest, new shoots called ratoons are left in the ground for next year’s
crop.
* Cutting sugarcane requires manual labour.
* After cutting, it is immediately transported to sugar mills close to the field.
* Any delay reduces sugar content and causes weight loss.
* Figure 7.24 shows a truck carrying woven cotton fabric for dyeing.
* Figure 7.25 shows sugarcane regions.

### **Page 18: Sugarcane Processing & Other Crops**

* At the sugar mill, cane is scrubbed with chalk to remove smell and dirt.
* Juice is extracted by crushing the cane between heavy rollers.
* The juice is boiled to evaporate water.

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* The thick juice is left to cool and crystallise into brown sugar.
* Brown sugar is sent to refineries for further processing into white sugar.
* Molasses is a by-product of sugar production.
* Molasses is used for making alcohol and rum.
* Molasses is used for making animal feed.
* Bagasse is the fibrous residue left after crushing.
* Bagasse is used as fuel in sugar mills.
* Bagasse is used for making paper and cardboard.
* Figure 7.26 shows a sugar mill in Sindh.
* Figure 7.27 shows sugarcane being transported to a sugar mill.
* Maize is a kharif crop.
* It is grown in the Potwar Plateau and northern irrigated areas.
* It is grown in the KPK province.
* It is grown in the canal-irrigated areas of Punjab and Sindh.
* Maize is used for human consumption.
* Maize is used as animal feed.
* Maize is used for making corn oil.
* Maize is used for making starch.
* Maize is used for making glucose.
* Maize is used for making dextrose.
* Maize is used for making plastics.
* Maize is used for making adhesives.
* Maize is used for making textiles.
* Maize is used for making paper.
* Maize is used for making explosives.
* Figure 7.28 shows maize regions.
* Pulses are grown on a small scale.
* Pulses are grown on barani land.
* Pulses are grown on marginal land.
* Pulses are grown as a rotation crop.
* Pulses are important as a source of protein.
* Pulses are used as animal feed.
* Pulses are used for making vegetable oil.
* Pulses include gram, mung, masoor, and mash.
* Gram is the most important pulse.
* Gram is grown in Thal and the Potwar Plateau.
* Gram is grown in the canal colonies of Punjab.
* Gram is grown in the northern districts of Sindh.
* Figure 7.29 shows pulses regions.
* Figure 7.30 shows a farmer harvesting gram in the Potwar Plateau.

### **Page 19: Oilseeds & Fruits**

* Oilseeds are grown on a small scale.

* Oilseeds are grown on barani land.
* Oilseeds are grown on marginal land.

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* Oilseeds are grown as a rotation crop.
* Oilseeds are important for producing vegetable oil.
* Oilseeds are used as animal feed.
* Oilseeds include rapeseed, mustard, groundnuts, and sesame.
* Rapeseed and mustard are the most important oilseeds.
* Rapeseed and mustard are grown in the Thal area.
* Rapeseed and mustard are grown in the Potwar Plateau.
* Rapeseed and mustard are grown in the canal colonies of Punjab.
* Rapeseed and mustard are grown in the northern districts of Sindh.
* Groundnuts are grown in the Thal area.
* Groundnuts are grown in the Potwar Plateau.
* Groundnuts are grown in the canal colonies of Punjab.
* Groundnuts are grown in the northern districts of Sindh.
* Sesame is grown in the Thal area.
* Sesame is grown in the Potwar Plateau.
* Sesame is grown in the canal colonies of Punjab.
* Sesame is grown in the northern districts of Sindh.
* Figure 7.31 shows oilseeds regions.
* Figure 7.32 shows a farmer harvesting rapeseed in the Potwar Plateau.
* Fruits are grown on a small scale.
* Fruits are grown on barani land.
* Fruits are grown on marginal land.
* Fruits are grown as a rotation crop.
* Fruits are important for producing vitamins and minerals.
* Fruits are used as animal feed.
* Fruits include mangoes, oranges, bananas, apples, and grapes.
* Mangoes are the most important fruit.
* Mangoes are grown in the Thal area.
* Mangoes are grown in the Potwar Plateau.
* Mangoes are grown in the canal colonies of Punjab.
* Mangoes are grown in the northern districts of Sindh.
* Oranges are grown in the Thal area.
* Oranges are grown in the Potwar Plateau.
* Oranges are grown in the canal colonies of Punjab.
* Oranges are grown in the northern districts of Sindh.
* Bananas are grown in the Thal area.
* Bananas are grown in the Potwar Plateau.
* Bananas are grown in the canal colonies of Punjab.
* Bananas are grown in the northern districts of Sindh.
* Apples are grown in the Thal area.
* Apples are grown in the Potwar Plateau.
* Apples are grown in the canal colonies of Punjab.
* Apples are grown in the northern districts of Sindh.
* Grapes are grown in the Thal area.
* Grapes are grown in the Potwar Plateau.
* Grapes are grown in the canal colonies of Punjab.

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* Grapes are grown in the northern districts of Sindh.
* Figure 7.33 shows fruits regions.
### **Page 1: Coal in Pakistan**

* Lignite is found near the surface.

* Lignite is easier to mine.
* Bituminous coal is darker in colour.
* Bituminous coal is formed deep underground.
* Anthracite is the blackest coal of all.
* Anthracite is formed in thin layers very deep underground.
* Figure 8.3 shows images of Lignite, Bituminous, and Anthracite.
* After coal is extracted from the coalface, it is loaded onto trolleys.
* The trolleys run on tracks to the surface.
* In some small mines, donkeys are used to pull the trolleys.
* Once coal leaves the mine, it is graded into different qualities.
* Graded coal is sold to dealers.
* Dealers supply coal to brick kilns and cement factories.
* Coal is used as fuel in brick kilns and cement factories.
* Traditionally, brick kilns have used a large proportion of Pakistan’s coal
production.
* Environmental agencies are working with brick-klin owners.
* They are working to introduce more environmentally-friendly technology.
* The goal is to replace heavily polluting coal-fired kilns.
* Figure 8.4 is a table on "Coal extraction by province and how the coal is used".
* In Balochistan, coal is located in the Quetta coalfields.
* The type of coal in Balochistan is coking coal, locally called Sharing coal.
* A washing plant set up by PMDC converts coking coal into metallurgical coal.
* Conversion is done by mixing high-grade imported coal.
* This metallurgical coal is supplied to Pakistan Steel mills.
* Sub-bituminous coal in Balochistan is used in brick kilns and for briquetting.
* In Sindh, coal is located in the Lower Sindh coalfields.
* The type of coal in Sindh is Lignite.
* The quality in Sindh is Low quality.
* Coal in Sindh is used for heating boilers in thermal power stations.
* In Punjab, coal is located in the Salt Range coalfields.
* The type of coal in Punjab is Sub-bituminous to lignite.
* The coal in Punjab is highly volatile.
* The coal deteriorates badly during storage.
* The quality in Punjab is poor quality.
* Coal in Punjab is used in brick kilns.
* In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, coal is located in the Makerwal coalfields in trans
Salt Range.
* Some sporadic mining is reported from Charat in KPK.
* The type of coal in KPK is Sub-bituminous.
* Seams in KPK are slightly thicker.

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* Coal in KPK is of slightly better quality than in the Salt Range coalfield.
* Coal in KPK is used in the ceramics industry.
* Figure 8.5 shows a traditional brick kiln in Pakistan.
* Figure 8.6 shows coal being carried out of mines in trolleys.

### **Page 2: Coal's Future & Environmental Impact**

* Until the late 1990s, coal was the least popular energy fuel.
* Its unpopularity was due to poor quality and dangerous mining conditions.
* Recently the government has been considering the use of coal in the industrial
sector.
* The government is considering coal for power generation.
* Pakistan has over 3000 million tonnes of coal reserves.
* Balochistan used to be the most important coal mining region.
* More recently, huge reserves have been discovered in Sindh (Thar Desert).
* According to one study, Pakistan’s coal reserves are many times greater than
its reserves of natural gas and oil.
* There is uncertainty surrounding the price of oil.
* A huge amount of foreign exchange is involved in importing oil.
* The authorities have considered using indigenous coal as an alternative fuel.
* Now coal is used in much of the cement industry.
* Coal is even cheaper than natural gas for the cement industry.
* Figure 8.7 is an advertisement about coal.
* The ad states lignite deposits in Sindh are suitable for electric power generation.
* Estimated lignite deposits in Sindh are around 218 billion tonnes.
* A quarter of the country's coal deposits are in southern Pakistan and Sindh
province.
* The Thar coal field covers more than 9000 sq km.
* The Thar field comprises around 200 billion tonnes of good quality lignite.
* Thar coal is sufficient to meet the country’s fuel requirements for centuries.
* Development of coal will help achieve the objective of self-reliance.
* It will save on the cost of foreign exchange required for importing fuel.
* It helps to reduce production costs of manufacturing/processing industries.
* It generates massive economic activity in the country.
* It augments and generates direct and indirect employment.
* It creates business opportunities to contain poverty in less developed areas of
Sindh.
* The Sindh Coal Authority is located at F-58 A-14, Block 5, Clifton, Karachi
72500.
* Their tel is 92-21-5833549, 5833550.
* Their fax is 5874709.
* Their email is sindcoal@[Link].
* The steel industry uses coal by heating it and converting it into coke.
* Coke is a hard substance consisting of nearly pure carbon.
* Coke is combined with iron ore and limestone.
* The mixture is heated to extract iron from the iron ore.

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* Gases emitted during the process are used to make fertilisers, pharmaceuticals,
solvents, pesticides and other products.
* It is not advisable to build coal-fired power plants close to the River Indus.
* Coal-fired power plants are the largest source of fly ash.
* They are a source of mercury pollution.
* Mercury pollution falls into nearby rivers.
* Mercury builds up in fish.
* People who routinely eat these fish can suffer brain and nervous system
damage.
* Young children are particularly affected.
* Fly ash causes reduced crop yields.
* Fly ash causes respiratory disorders in humans and livestock.
* Fly ash causes contamination of groundwater with toxic salts and metallic
content.
* Some experts claim Pakistan must develop its indigenous energy resources to
satisfy its energy need.
* Pakistan's coalfields have huge lignite reserves that could last for 500 years.
* General consumers could get electricity at much cheaper rates.
* Reliance on indigenous fuel will help save billions of dollars in foreign exchange.
* This foreign exchange is currently spent on expensive oil imports.

### **Page 3: Coal Policy, Oil & Gas**

* Figure 8.8 shows an open-cast mine in the Thar coalfield.

* Figure 8.9 is a map of Pakistan showing coal, petroleum, and natural gas
resources and coalfields.
* The focus of the government’s policy is on aggressive coal-mining.
* The focus is on modern usage of coal using latest technologies.
* Technologies are from the USA, Europe, and China.
* The focus of the coal policy is on power generation through coal.
* The focus is on gasification of coal so it can be used as a cheap fuel.
* Through gasification, fuel companies convert coal into easily transportable
coal gas or liquid fuels.
* Coal is heated in the presence of steam and oxygen to produce coal gas.
* Coal gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and methane.
* It is used directly as fuel or refined into cleaner-burning gas.
* Coal-based vapour fuels are produced through this process.
* To increase coal use in industries (cement, fertilisers, sugar), coal-mining
operations require improvement and modernisation.
* Figure 8.10 shows loading coal onto a lorry in Karachi.
* Mineral oil (Petroleum) is the most important fossil fuel today.
* It occurs in porous spaces of sedimentary rocks.
* It is derived mainly from the decomposition of marine animal and vegetable
matter over several million years.
* It can be found many hundreds of metres underground or under the seabed.
* It mainly occurs in dome-shaped anticlines between two layers of non-porous

79
rocks.
* The oil is trapped in the anticline with gas above and water below.
* Figure 8.11 shows an anticline oil trap.

### **Page 4: Oil Prospecting & Refining**

* Oil is liquid and is normally trapped deep underground.

* It has been known to leak up to the surface, which is how people first
discovered it.
* Wells are drilled to pump this liquid fuel out of the ground.
* Modern oil prospecting is a technical job requiring modern scientific equipment.
* Once a drilling site is selected, a derrick or drilling rig is set up.
* A derrick is a large steel structure that holds drilling pipes and other
equipment.
* Figure 8.12 shows a derrick and explains that once oil is found, it is replaced
by pipes with valves.
* Crude oil cannot be used in its raw state.
* It must be processed and refined into products like petrol, heating oil, kerosene,
and diesel oil.
* Oil refineries are located in or near the oilfields.
* Attack Oil Refinery is located on the Potwar Plateau at Morga.
* Oil refineries are located at the port of import.
* Pakistan Refinery and National Refinery are located in Karachi.
* It is cheaper to import crude oil and refine it locally than to import refined
products.
* These two refineries also refine crude oil drilled in the lower Sindh oilfields.
* Figure 8.13 shows part of an oil refinery in Karachi.
* Crude oil production accounted for around 30% of total requirements in
2017-18.
* Imports accounted for around 70% of total requirements in 2017-18.
* Petroleum products in Pakistan met 87.8% of total requirements in 2017-18.
* Imported petroleum products accounted for 12.2% of total requirements in
2017-18.
* A large proportion of Pakistan’s import bill is spent on petroleum products.
* This places a great burden on Pakistan’s foreign exchange reserves.
* Figure 8.14 identifies the uses of oil.
* The greatest use of oil is as a motor fuel.
* It drives nearly all the motor vehicles and aircraft of the world.
* It drives a large proportion of trains and ships.
* The modern complex world would crumble if oil reserves were exhausted.

### **Page 5: Oil Uses & Transport**

* Oil is used as a lubricant to reduce friction in machines.

* It is important as a source of power to generate electricity.
* By-products of oil refining have many domestic and industrial uses.

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* Figure 8.14 is a diagram showing "Uses of Oil".
* Categories include: Uses of by-products, Source of Power, As a lubricant, As a
motor fuel.
* Specific by-products listed: Paraffin, Wax, Plastics, Synthetic rubber,
Intermediate, Pharmaceutical Products, Chemical Products, Bitumen for
roofing/road surfacing/waterproofing.
* Specific power uses: Thermal electricity, For heating, Furnace oil.
* Specific motor fuels: Jet Petrol-1, Jet Petrol-4, Cars, Aircraft, Buses/rail
engines/trucks.
* On land, oil is transported in three ways: by pipeline, by road tanker, by rail
tanker.
* Transportation by road and rail is relatively costly, time-consuming, and
inefficient.
* Pipeline transportation is the most efficient, convenient, and cheapest mode.
* Pipeline transportation is more environmentally friendly.
* Movement by road is dangerous for traffic.
* Road tankers can damage the road surface due to their weight.
* Road tankers can be a danger to human lives.
* Crude oil is pumped through pipes from tankers at oil terminals to refineries
nearby.
* The Pak Arab Refinery Company (PARCO) plays an important role in inland
transportation of crude oil from Karachi.
* A pipeline has been constructed to transport crude oil from Karachi port to
PARCO’s refinery at Mahmood Kot.
* After refining, the oil is supplied to other parts of the country.
* Refined petroleum products are transported from Karachi up country by road
and rail tankers.
* They are supplied to petrol stations and other customers.
* Within Karachi, oil is transported through pipelines to storage tanks of oil
companies.
* Consumers buy petroleum products directly from petrol pumps.
* Pakistan’s imported petroleum (crude and refined) is transported by sea.
* It comes from oil-producing countries, especially Saudi Arabia and the United
Arab Emirates (UAE).
* It is transported in special ships called oil tankers.
* At Keamari (Karachi) Port or Port Qasim, tankers are berthed at the
designated oil pier.
* Through the pier, the ship is connected to the oil-handling system.
* Oil products are pumped from the tanker ship to storage tanks of oil-marketing
companies/refineries.
* The products may be further transported up country.
* In 2002 PARCO launched a White Oil Pipeline Project (WOPP).
* WOPP will carry refined oil from Karachi to the north.
* After conversion of PARCO’s existing pipeline network for crude oil, the White
Oil Pipeline will transport refined products to central and northern regions.

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### **Page 6: Oil Projects & Production**

* Central and northern regions account for almost 60% of the country’s total
petroleum consumption.
* Bin Qasim Port will be the initiation point of the White Oil Pipeline Project.
* Refined products will be unloaded from ships into the pipeline for onward
transportation.
* The new underground pipeline costs $480 million.
* It will carry refined oil from Pakistan Oil Refinery at Port Qasim to Mahmood
Kot in Muzaffargarh district.
* The pipeline covers a distance of 817 km.
* Demand for petroleum products is rising at a rate of 10% per annum up
country.
* Figure 8.15 shows PARCO oil-refining and transportation projects.
* The Project will create employment opportunities.
* It will contribute to the economic welfare of the people and the country.
* Figure 8.16 is a graph showing "Production of crude oil in Pakistan (million
barrels)".
* Source: Pakistan Economic Survey 2020-21.
* Pakistan is deficient in mineral oil resources.
* According to some geologists, favourable structural traps exist in large areas of
Pakistan.
* Since 1947, major discoveries have been made in Punjab and Sindh.
* Drilling activities were enhanced in the 1980s and 1990s.
* Oil is still Pakistan’s biggest import.
* Figure 8.17 is a table of "Production of crude oil in selected countries (2019)".
* Data is in thousand barrels per day.
* Saudi Arabia: 11,832
* China: 3,836
* Iran: 3,535
* Pakistan: 85
* UAE: 3,998
* Canada: 5,651
* Source: British Petroleum.
* Figure 8.18 shows a drilling rig in Pakistan.

### **Page 7: Oil History, Gas & Nuclear**

* Drilling started in 1966.

* Until 1978 the Potwar Plateau was the most productive region.
* Lower Sindh emerged as an oil region in 1981.
* Union Texas Pakistan made the first discovery in Lower Sindh.
* The southern oilfields produced more oil in 1997-8 than the northern oilfields.
* Many potential oilfields are still unexplored due to lack of technology and a
weak institutional framework.
* The government has carried out exploration and development in collaboration

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with foreign companies.
* In the public sector, the Oil & Gas Development Corporation, established in
1961, is involved.
* Figure 8.19 is a pie chart on "Sectoral consumption of oil and oil products".
* Transport: 57%
* Power: 33%
* Other: 10%
* Source: Pakistan Energy Year Book 2019-20.
* Natural gas has no smell; its smell is added for safety.
* Natural gas is an important fuel found above the oil in oil-bearing rocks.
* The rocks contain millions of tiny holes that act like a sponge and soak up the
gas.
* A layer of non-porous rock above traps the gas underground.
* Natural gas is made up of many gases, especially methane, ethane, propane,
and butanes.
* Natural gas was discovered in 1952 at Sui, Balochistan, by Pakistan Petroleum
Limited (PPL).
* This gasfield is considered one of the largest in the world.
* Soon after, a pipeline was completed to provide cheap fuel to Karachi.
* Another pipeline to Multan was completed in 1958.
* The Multan pipeline supplied gas to a thermal power station and fertiliser
plant.
* This pipeline has been extended to Faisalabad, which has a gas-fired power
station.
* There are now gas pipelines to Lahore, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, and Peshawar.
* A pipeline also goes to Quetta from Sui.
* More gasfields have been discovered since then.
* Figure 8.20 is a map showing natural gas fields and pipelines.
* When natural gas is cooled to a very low temperature it becomes a liquid
called LPG (liquified petroleum gas).
* LPG can be shipped in special cylinders.
* In mountainous areas like Murree, Gilgit, and Abbotabad, where there are no
pipelines, people use LPG for heating and cooking.
* Figure 8.21 is an article titled "ISLAMABAD: Minister for Petroleum Division
Omar Ayub Khan has acknowledged that the country is going to face a serious
natural gas shortage in upcoming winter months due to a gap between the
demand and supply of gas."
* He highlighted that domestic consumption increases manifold in winter due to
room and water heaters.
* Sui Northern Gas Pipelines Limited (SNGPL) will face a shortfall.
* Sui Southern Gas Company (SSGC) network has already started to face a
short supply.
* The shortage is expected to go up in winters.
* Source: DAWN, 21 October 2020.
* Figure 8.22 is a pie chart on "Sector-wise share of consumption of natural gas".
* Power: 35.17%

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* Domestic: 21.46%
* Industry: 16.97%
* Fertiliser (Feedstock): 13.52%
* Transport (CNG): 4.48%
* SSGC: 3.66%
* Fertiliser (Fuel): 2.56%
* Commercial: 2.15%
* Cement: 0.03%
* Source: Pakistan Energy Year Book 2019-20.
* Figure 8.23 shows repair work on a gas pipeline linking Pishin Bogi gas wells
to Sui gas purification plant.
* Nuclear energy is power released from atoms.
* It is the most powerful source of energy; it powers the sun.
* In atomic fission, energy is released when atoms split into their constituent
parts (neutron, proton, electron).
* In atomic fusion, energy is released when atoms are joined together.
* At present, nuclear power is based on atomic fission.
* Nuclear power stations use heat energy to make steam, which turns turbines
to make electricity, similar to fossil fuel plants.
* Figure 8.24 diagrams atomic fission and fusion.

### **Page 8: Nuclear Energy in Pakistan**

* Many advanced countries have developed nuclear energy resources.

* Pakistan is utilising nuclear energy for electricity generation.
* The Karachi Nuclear Power Plant was commissioned in 1971.
* It was Pakistan’s first nuclear power station.
* Its installed capacity was 137 MW.
* Since then, four more nuclear power stations have been built.
* More are planned.
* Figure 8.25 is an article titled "ISLAMABAD - Pakistan has connected its new
Chinese-built nuclear power plant to the national grid."
* The plant has an installed capacity of 1,100 megawatts.
* This marks a major advancement in nuclear energy cooperation between
Islamabad and Beijing.
* A spokesman for the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), Shahid
Riaz Khan, confirmed the plant went into operation.
* The plant is in the southern port city of Karachi.
* It generates "reliable and cost-effective" electricity.
* The facility is known as the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant Unit-2 (K-2).
* It will help improve the national economy.
* Source: [Link], 19 March 2021.
* Few debates have generated such strong emotions as that on nuclear power.
* Nuclear power stations are expensive to build but relatively cheap to run.
* They produce very low emissions of carbon dioxide.
* Arguments "Against" nuclear energy:

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* Fuel rods produce dangerous rays causing cancer and birth deformities.
* Nuclear waste remains radioactive for many years; there are problems with
reprocessing and storage.
* Pakistan does not have enough financial resources to build more; foreign loan
burden is already crushing.
* Pakistan has enough renewable resources (wind, water, sunlight) and should
rely on them instead.
* Arguments "In Favour" of nuclear energy:
* Pakistan is deficient in coal and oil, and gas reserves will be exhausted; nuclear
energy can solve this.
* A small quantity of uranium can generate a large amount of energy.
* Less than 500g of uranium contains 3 million more times energy than the same
weight of coal.
* The chances of accidents in nuclear power stations are very low.
* There have been fewer accidents amongst nuclear power workers than any
other kind.
* Pakistan is a developing country industrialising; nuclear energy can speed this
up.
* Nuclear power contributes less to the greenhouse effect and acid rain than
conventional fuels.

### **Page 9: Thermal & Alternative Energy**

* Electricity is a flexible form of energy convertible to heat, light, or sound.

* Electricity generated by non-renewable resources (oil, coal, gas, nuclear) is
called thermal electricity.
* Fossil fuels and nuclear power stations produce heat energy to turn water into
steam.
* Steam is used to turn turbines.
* Figure 8.26 is a diagram of a thermal power station process.
* Figure 8.27 shows an enterprising Karachi shopkeeper renting out lanterns
during power cuts.
* There is a rising need for alternative renewable energy sources in Pakistan.
* The country's progress and economic growth are linked to power availability
for industrial, agricultural, and domestic purposes.
* Pakistan is an energy deficient country.
* It spends a large amount of foreign exchange on importing oil each year.
* Developing alternative energy resources has become an emergency requirement.
* The Oxford Dictionary defines “alternative” as “from sources that do not
deplete natural resources or harm the environment”.
* Wind power is an example of alternative energy.
* The term “alternative” is used to contrast with fossil fuels.
* The most widely used alternative energy sources are solar and wind power.
* Other sources include tidal, wave, biomass, and geothermal.
* Hydroelectric power (HEP) uses the force of flowing water to spin hydrotur-
bines.

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* A shaft from the hydroturbine goes into a generator.
* The spinning shaft inside a magnetic field in the generator generates electricity.
* The electric current is regulated by a transformer and sent through power
lines.
* Figure 8.29 is a diagram of a hydroelectric power station cross-section.
* Figure 8.30 lists physical and human factors for HEP stations.
* Physical factors: Heavy precipitation over high mountains, Snow and glaciers
provide spring meltwater, Impervious rock prevents water seeping, Waterfall
can provide a head of water, Large drainage basin from snow water, Natural
glacial lake or reservoir, Deep water of reservoir provides a head, Strong rock
foundations help dam construction.
* Human factors: Water's energy used to generate HEP, Constant demand.
* Figure 8.31 is a cross-section of a hydroelectric power station.
* Figure 8.32 is an enlarged view of a turbine and generator.

### **Page 10: HEP vs Thermal & Solar Power**

* Figure 8.33 is a comparison table between Thermal Power Stations and HEP.
* Thermal: Fossil fuels will eventually be exhausted.
* HEP: Water is a renewable resource and will not be exhausted.
* Thermal: Fossil fuels cause pollution when burnt; not environmentally friendly.
* HEP: Produces power without burning anything; environmentally friendly.
* Thermal: Can be developed anywhere fossil fuels are available.
* HEP: Has certain physical and climatic requirements for development.
* Thermal: Less expensive to build, but running costs are high (except nuclear).
* HEP/Nuclear: Nuclear power stations are expensive to de-commission.
* Figure 8.34 is a map showing the location of HEP, thermal, and nuclear power
stations and transmission lines.
* A question on the page asks: "What helps to explain the pattern of transmission
lines on Figure 8.34?"
* Solar power is the energy of sunlight.
* It is used by collecting it in solar cells (photovoltaic cells).
* Solar cells can power radios and small cars.
* Solar furnaces use giant mirrors to focus the sun's rays on a boiler to make
steam for electricity.
* Solar panels collect heat energy from the sun.
* Figure 8.35 shows a solar panel with components: Copper, Glass, Aluminium
Case.
* The description says it collects heat to heat water, and steam is used to turn a
turbine.
* Pakistan has ample potential for solar energy.
* There are 250-300 sunny days a year in many parts of the country.
* Continuously cloudy days are rare.
* Solar energy can be used for rural electrification, water heating, pumping
water, and cooking.
* Advantages: safe, pollution free, efficient, limitless supply.

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* Disadvantages: expensive to construct solar power stations, requires further
advances in technology.
* Figure 8.36 shows a solar power system installed at the Women's Art Centre,
Okara, for remote power.

### **Page 11: Solar Tech & Wind Power**

* Currently, solar technology is used in rural telephone exchanges, highway

emergency phones, and refrigeration for medicines.
* The Public Health Department has installed solar pumps for drinking water in
many parts of the country.
* A number of companies are involved in trading and manufacturing photovoltaic
(PV) products.
* They sell PV modules, batteries, regulators, inverters, and low-power gadgets
like lamps, chargers, and garden lights.
* Humans use wind power for sailing, flying kites, and generating electricity.
* Wind energy has emerged as clean, abundant, affordable, inexhaustible, and
environmentally-friendly.
* Wind energy or wind power describes the process where wind is used to
generate mechanical power or electricity.
* Windmills and wind pumps convert wind's kinetic energy into mechanical
power.
* This mechanical power can be used for grinding grain or pumping water.
* A wind turbine has a generator that converts mechanical power into electricity.
* Large-scale wind farms, with many turbines, are connected to electrical grids.
* Individual turbines can provide electricity to isolated locations.
* Figure 8.37 is a diagram of a three-bladed wind turbine.
* This three-bladed design is the most common modern design.
* Each turbine has a generator.
* Wind energy is plentiful, renewable, widely available, clean, and
environmentally-friendly.
* It produces no emission of greenhouse gases.
* A list of "Advantages and disadvantages of developing wind power in Pakistan"
is given.
* Advantages:
* Wind is a renewable resource; it will never run out.
* It is environmentally friendly, unlike fossil fuels.
* It can be utilised independently and deployed locally in remote rural areas.
* Locations far from the main grid are suitable for wind electricity.
* It is expensive to connect small villages to the national grid due to huge
infrastructure costs.
* Wind farms are interesting landscape features, attracting tourism.
* Wind turbines are available in a range of sizes.
* Wind power can help solve Pakistan’s energy problems, leading to industrial
and agricultural expansion.
* Wind farms provide income for farmers and may attract small industries to

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rural areas.
* Disadvantages:
* Wind turbines are expensive to build, increasing the economic burden.
* Wind strength is not constant, varying from zero to storm force.
* This means turbines do not produce the same amount of electricity all the
time.
* They automatically stop working during a storm.
* Wind turbines can kill birds and bats, harming ecosystems.
* Large wind farms are needed to power entire cities, placing a burden on scarce
land.
* Wind farms can only be developed in coastal areas and mountainous regions
with high wind speeds.
* 7500 turbines are needed to produce the same electricity as one nuclear power
station.

### **Page 12: Wind, Geothermal & Wave Power**

* Presently, wind power contributes little to power production in Pakistan.

* Coastal areas and mountains with high wind potential are considered most
suitable.
* The coast of Pakistan is about 1000 kilometres long.
* The coastal population is about 10 million people.
* High wind is available nearly all year round in these areas.
* Wind speed in Balochistan (Ormara, Jivani, Pasni) and Karachi is suitable for
electricity generation.
* Figure 8.38 is an article: "First Pakistan-owned wind power project starts
operation".
* The 49.5MW facility was developed by Sachal Energy Development (Private)
Limited.
* It is over 680 acres of land in the Jhimpir Wind Corridor in Sindh.
* It was wholly financed by the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China.
* It started commercial operation under the CPEC framework.
* Source: THE EXPRESS TRIBUNE June 24, 2017.
* Geothermal power (geo=earth, thermal=heat) is energy derived from the heat
of the Earth’s core.
* It is produced from Earth’s heat absorbed in underground water (e.g., hot
springs).
* Holes are drilled to pump out hot water or steam.
* This hot water or steam is used to drive turbines to produce electricity.
* Advantages: renewable, constant supply, relatively pollution free.
* If developed properly, it can offer renewable and sustainable energy.
* Disadvantages: high construction and maintenance costs, limited to volcanic
areas, threat from eruptions and earthquakes.
* Figure 8.39 shows a geothermal power station in the USA.
* Geothermal resources are in areas of crustal weakness like plate margins and
volcanic activity centres.

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* Pakistan seems to have geothermal potential because a plate margin passes
through it and it lies in an earthquake zone.
* A survey by UN and Italian experts found potential in the Himalaya region
and Chagai area in Balochistan.
* The presence of a fairly large number of hot springs has been identified.
* Geothermal exploitation requires an integrated study based on:
* identifying geothermal sites
* estimating the resource size and exploitation cost
* determining the heat content of fluids from wells.
* After a positive feasibility study, geothermal projects may help solve Pakistan’s
energy problem.

### **Page 13: Tidal Power & Biomass**

* Waves have exceptionally high energy levels.

* Wave motion can be used to compress air to drive a turbine to generate
electricity.
* Figure 8.40 shows a wave-power turbine that uses changes in air pressure
caused by waves.
* Pakistan has about 1000 km of coastline.
* The Makran coastal areas have strong wave energy.
* This could be harnessed for electric power for coastal cities like Gwadar, Pasni,
Ormara, and Gadani.
* Wave power is an expensive option for Pakistan.
* Tidal power is a renewable method of producing electricity using the
movements of tides.
* The tide comes in and out once, usually twice, every 24 hours due to the
moon's gravitational pull.
* Advantages: renewable, constant, relatively non-polluting.
* Disadvantages: very expensive to build, would destroy wildlife habitats, could
disrupt local shipping.
* The power resource potential of the Indus Deltaic Creek System is a great
asset for future energy in Sindh.
* The National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) shows encouraging results in
its initial survey.
* Figure 8.41 shows an active tidal power generator in France, operational for
over 40 years.
* It uses a barrage across a river estuary; water is pushed through a turbine as
the tide comes in and out.
* Locks are built into the barrage to allow ships through.
* Benefits: the barrage can act as a road bridge, and it protects the coastline
from powerful waves.
* The creeks of the Indus Delta cover an area of 170 km2.
* Tidal water flows into these creeks very quickly, favouring energy extraction
from tidal currents.
* Biomass is organic material (plants, vegetable matter, living and decaying)

89
that can be used as fuel.
* Most commonly, it refers to plant matter grown to generate electricity or
produce biofuel.
* Examples: trees, grasses, agricultural residues (wheat straw, corn, sugar beets,
grains, sugarcane), waste paper, yard clippings, sawdust, wood chips, methane
from landfill, livestock and municipal waste.
* Processes like gasification and fermentation can tap this energy source.

### **Page 14: Biomass, Biogas & National Grid**

* The use of biomass as fuel is not new to Pakistan.

* Traditionally, village women make patties of cow-dung, straw, and clay to dry
and use as home cooking fuel.
* This is a relatively inefficient use of biomass.
* It causes severe indoor air pollution with adverse health effects like lung and
chest infections.
* Figure 8.42 is a diagram showing "Sources of Biomass".
* Biogas is produced from animal and plant waste.
* Fermenting cow-dung gives off methane gas.
* Methane gas can be used for cooking, heating, and other purposes.
* Although biogas is cheap, using cow-dung for it means it can no longer be
used as manure.
* This will lead to soil infertility as farmers need to add organic nutrients.
* It will increase air pollution because methane is a greenhouse gas.
* Figure 8.43 shows firewood being used as a cooking fuel in rural Pakistan.
* The Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) and Karachi
Electricity Supply Corporation (KESC) are the main organisations for power
generation, transmission, and distribution.
* The Karachi Nuclear Power Plant (KANUPP) is a public-sector organisation.
* Some independent private producers (IPP) are also involved.
* Pakistan’s power transmission system has power-generating stations and load
centres linked together.
* This creates one of the world’s largest National Grid Systems.
* The National Grid connects hydel generation in the north and thermal
generation in mid-country and the south.
* It is managed by WAPDA and KESC.
* It consists of a large network of transmission lines and grid stations.
* The purpose is to supply electricity to different areas according to their
requirements, not their own generation.
* Figure 8.44 shows the national grid system with long transmission lines linked
to grid stations.

### **Page 15: Grid Challenges & Rural Electrification**

* Some areas with heavy industries require more electricity than they can
generate.

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* The National Grid System solves this problem by transferring surplus
electricity from other areas.
* However, there is a lot of wastage of electricity through transmission lines and
grid stations.
* Wastage is due to improper maintenance and long distances.
* Figure 8.45 is a pie chart on "Percentage Share in Electricity Generation July
2020".
* Thermal: 59.42%
* Hydel: 30.62%
* Nuclear: 7.82%
* Alternative: 2.23%
* Source: Pakistan Economic Survey 2020-21.
* WAPDA has installed both hydro and thermal power stations.
* The potential of hydropower has not been fully exploited.
* The hydel potential in the Northern Area and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa remains
largely untapped.
* In 2016-17, hydel generation accounted for 30% of electricity.
* Nuclear accounted for 6%.
* Thermal electricity accounted for 64%.
* Adequate and assured electricity supply is a prerequisite for sustained economic
growth.
* Despite enormous potential, an energy shortage severely affects domestic,
industrial, and commercial sectors.
* Factors responsible for the shortage:
* Many power plants are not working at full capacity due to financial constraints,
lack of technical expertise, and poor maintenance.
* During winter, hydel power generation decreases with reduced river flow.
* Long transmission lines in the National Grid cause losses of electricity.
* Siltation in dam reservoirs disrupts electricity generation by reducing water
flow.
* Power theft occurs on a large scale.
* Until recently, KESC had approximately 41% loss/theft (electricity not paid
for).
* WAPDA suffered about 21% losses in transmission and distribution.
* The high price of fossil fuels increases generation costs.
* Industrialisation, urbanisation, and rural electrification have increased demand.
* Figure 8.46 is an article titled "People endure long, frequent spells of power
failure" from KARACHI.
* It describes prolonged loadshedding and power breakdowns in hot, humid
weather.
* Some homes were without power for about seven hours.
* Complaint centres were not answering calls.
* Source: DAWN, 12 June (year not specified).
* 67.5% of Pakistan’s population lives in rural areas.
* Most rural areas lack basic modern facilities.
* Electricity can be a milestone in rural development.

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* Advantages of rural electrification:
* Tube wells can be installed for irrigation.
* Tube wells help control waterlogging and salinity.
* This leads to a marked increase in agricultural production.
* Small-scale industries can be developed, providing employment and meeting
demand for industrial goods.
* The standard of living increases as people can use electrical appliances.
* People can receive electronic media and access information technology.
* Rural development programmes include Village Aid, Basic Democracy, and
Rural Works Programme.
* Providing electricity to rural areas was one of their main targets.
* The number of villages electrified increased to 171,090 by March 2012.
* In 1991-92, the number was 40,784.
* Constraints to village electrification:
* Many small villages in KPK and Balochistan are far from transmission lines.
* The cost of laying and maintaining lines is high and a burden on meagre
economic resources.
* It is not economically feasible to provide electricity to very small villages.
* The government has set limits: in KPK and Sindh, villages with <1000 people
will not be supplied; in Balochistan, villages with <300 people will not be
supplied.
* To help solve these problems, electricity-generation programmes using biogas
and solar energy are being tested.
* Figure 8.47 is a table on "Electricity Consumption by Economic Groups".
* Data is for units sold (GWh) and % share for 2019-20 (July-March) and
2020-21 (July-March).
* Household: 39,461 -> 41,508 GWh (49.2% -> 49.1%)
* Commercial: 6,313 -> 6,246 GWh (7.9% -> 7.9%)
* Industry: 20,461 -> 22,280 GWh (25.5% -> 26.3%)
* Agriculture: 7,127 -> 7,558 GWh (8.9% -> 8.9%)
* Others: 6,825 -> 7,008 GWh (8.5% -> 8.3%)
* Grand Total: 80,187 -> 84,600 GWh (100% -> 100%)
* Source: Pakistan Economic Survey 2020-21.
* Figure 8.48 shows an elderly man in the Cholistan Desert carrying a solar
panel to charge his mobile phone.

### **Page 16: Economic Development & Sustainability**

* Power resources are important for Pakistan’s economic development.

* 1. All industrial plants (except cottage industries) use power to process raw
materials.
* Power shortages reduce industrial goods production and increase costs,
resulting in lower GDP.
* 2. Modernisation of agriculture is heavily dependent on power.
* Tube wells are run by electricity.
* Machinery like tractors, threshers, and combine harvesters use oil as fuel.

92
* 3. Power resources are used in mineral exploration and extraction.
* Mining and drilling equipment (derricks, bulldozers, drills, explosives, trucks)
need fuel/power.
* Minerals provide raw materials for industries and employment in the mining
sector, key for economic development.
* 4. If power resources are produced locally, dependence on imports is reduced.
* This saves foreign exchange and improves the balance of payment.
* 5. All electrical appliances and IT devices (computers, cell phones, TV, radio)
run on power/electricity.
* Economic development has become dependent on communication devices
which need an efficient power supply.
* Although power resource use is an indicator of development, mismanagement
can lead to a future energy crisis.
* For sustainable development of power resources, measures must be taken:
* Preserve and conserve Earth’s non-renewable resources against future
exhaustion.
* Develop renewable energy resources using advanced technology.
* Strictly check non-productive use and wastage of power resources.
* Introduce a public awareness programme through media and govern-
ment/private institutions.
* Protect the environment by enforcing strict laws through environment
protection agencies.
* Market power resources to avoid non-productive uses.
* Replace faulty and damaged transmission lines on an emergency basis to avoid
losses.
* An integrated and coordinated approach to development planning is required.
* This ensures power resources are conserved for future generations and the
environment is improved.
* New strategies are needed to deliver energy services to support sustainable
development.
* Figure 8.49 is a pie chart on "CPEC Power Projects by Fuel".
* Coal: 73%
* Hydel: 15%
* Solar: 10%
* Wind: 2%
* One of the most active focus areas of CPEC is fulfilling electricity demand.
* This is done by building renewable and non-renewable energy power stations.
* Projects have a wide scope: coal-powered stations, solar panels, wind farms,
hydropower stations, transmission lines.
* Projects are scattered over Balochistan, Sindh, Punjab, and Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa.
* Source: [Link]
* A vertical blue line indicates Extension material not in the 2059/2 syllabus.

### **Page 17: Industrial Sectors & Secondary Industry**

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* Industries are divided into three categories: primary, secondary, and tertiary.
* Primary industries produce primary resources (e.g., growing crops, catching
fish).
* Secondary industries process primary resources to make products for consumers
or other industries (e.g., processing fruit into juice).
* Tertiary industries provide a service people pay for (e.g., tourism, healthcare,
transport).
* This unit covers: secondary industry, principal factory industries, special
industrial zones, government industrial policy, formal and informal sectors,
cottage/craft and small-scale industries, industrialisation and environment,
tertiary industry, tourism, and call centres.
* Secondary industry changes raw materials from the primary sector or secondary
products into semi-finished or finished products.
* It is a system with inputs, processes, and outputs.
* Inputs can be grouped into:
* Capital: finance to establish and manage factories.
* Enterprise: business skills to develop, manufacture, and market products.
* Land: the place where the industry is located.
* Raw materials: basic commodities transformed by industrial processes.
* Power: every industry uses power; iron smelting uses a lot, stitching uses less.
* Labour: the number, skills, and characteristics of the workforce.
* Figure 9.1 shows "Secondary industry as a system".
* Inputs listed: Capital, Enterprise, Land, Raw Material, Power, Labour.
* Processes listed: e.g., smelting, weaving, spinning, dyeing, printing, knitting,
stitching, tanning, moulding.
* Outputs listed in four groups:
1. Processed goods like cement, cotton yarn, ghee, lime, sugar, wheat flour (for
other industries or public), and soft drinks, tea packets, tinned fruit (for public).
2. Manufactured goods like bottles, cotton cloth, nuts/bolts, steel sheets, wire
(for other industries or public), and axles, electric motors, fan guards, wheel
hubs (for other industries).
3. Manufactured goods like drugs, fans, garments, motor cycles, tractors (final
products for public).
4. Construction industry products like factories, office blocks, flats, hospitals,
schools.

### **Page 18: Industrial Location Factors**

* Industries are normally located where most location factors are available.
* It is unlikely all factors are available at a single location.
* A factory location is chosen to minimise costs of assembling inputs, production,
and distribution, allowing maximum profit.
* Figure 9.2 shows "Factors for Industrial Location".
* Physical factors: Natural routes, Site requirements, Raw material.
* Human factors: Access to market, Capital, Government policies, Skilled
Labour, Power supply, Industrial linkages.

94
* Figure 9.3 is a table on "The selection of a particular location".
* Physical factors:
* a) Site requirement: Is cheap, correctly sized, level, well-drained land available?
Can it be changed?
* b) Natural routes: Is there a natural land/sea route for speedy, cheap
transportation?
* Human factors:
* c) Access to market: Distance to market? Cheapest transport available?
* d) Availability of raw material: Sufficient, affordable, reliable supply?
* e) Skilled labour: Required number of workers with necessary skills available?
* f) Power supply: Sources available and cost?
* g) Industrial linkage: Beneficial industries in the area?
* h) Capital: Is capital available for development?
* i) Government policies: Does the government offer incentives?
* Raw materials are basic commodities from which goods are made.
* They can be primary resources or secondary products.
* Water and output from agriculture, fishing, forestry, and mining are primary
resources.
* Wheat is the main raw material in baking (bread, biscuits).
* The cotton textile industry processes raw cotton into yarn and then cloth.
* Oilseeds are processed into edible oil by the vegetable oil industry.
* Crude oil can only be used as a power source after refining.
* Sustainable primary resources include timber and water.
* Timber is a raw material for furniture, paper, and varnish industries.
* Water drives turbines for hydel production and is used in industries like soft
drinks.
* Metallic minerals (gold, silver, iron, copper) and non-metallic minerals
(gypsum, limestone, marble, china clay, sulphur, soapstone) serve as raw
materials.
* They are used in iron & steel, chemicals, cement, detergents, and electrical
appliances.
* Figure 9.4 is a table "Classification of Industries".
* Primary Industry: Collects/makes available natural materials (agriculture,
fishing, mining, quarrying).
* Secondary Industry (Processing & Manufacturing): Transforms primary
materials into useful products.
* 1) Small-scale cottage/Craft Industry: Traditional, often family-based, may
not use modern tech.
* 2) Small and medium-scale factory: Uses modern tech; organised into
firms/companies.
* 3) Large-scale factory: Converts raw materials (cotton, timber, etc.) into
manufactured goods (shirts, paper, etc.); uses automation and mass production.
* Industry varies in size from small-scale to multinationals (e.g., I.C.I.,
McDonald’s, Toyota).
* Tertiary Industry & Service Industries: Provide services (banking, insurance,
transport, hotels).

95
### **Page 19: Cotton Textile Industry**

* Cotton textiles is Pakistan’s largest industry.

* It employs 40% of the industrial labour force.
* Main centres are Karachi, Hyderabad, and Faisalabad.
* Raw cotton, cotton yarn, cotton cloth, and ready-made garments are exported
and consumed domestically.
* Figure 9.6 is a map showing "Location of cotton textile factories".
* Figure 9.7 is a table on "Factors affecting location of cotton textile factories in
Pakistan".
* For Karachi:
* Sufficient labour available from all over the country.
* Imported machinery saved from additional transportation cost as Karachi is a
port.
* No extra transport charges on export of cotton goods.
* Large domestic market due to hot and humid climate.
* Power supplied by Korangi Thermal Power Station, Karachi Nuclear Power
Plant, and Bin Qasim Thermal Power Station.
* Linked to rest of country by efficient transport system.
* Availability of capital and experienced entrepreneurs.
* For Faisalabad:
* Close to cotton belt of Punjab.
* Labour force available from adjoining areas.
* Large local market in thickly populated Punjab.
* Favourable government policies for infrastructure.
* For Hyderabad:
* Located in cotton-producing areas of lower Sindh.
* Large local market in Sindh.
* Not far from port of Karachi for importing machinery and exporting products.
* For Other Centres:
* Domestic market.
* Government policies like tax holidays and other incentives.
* Figure 9.8 is a diagram showing "The process of spinning".
* Steps: Teasing wires produce slivers -> Dividers -> Pressure rollers flatten
fibres -> Fast/slow rollers pull slivers -> Slivers stretched and spun into yarn ->
Bobbins -> Yarn bobbin.
* Fibres from plants (flax, cotton) or animals (wool) are first spun into thread.
* Threads are arranged lengthwise on a loom as the warp.
* Other threads, the weft, are woven crosswise through the warp to make cloth.
* Figure 9.9 is a diagram showing the warp and weft in weaving.

### **Page 20: Cotton Textile Importance & Problems**

* The textile industry is the largest and most important sector of the economy.
* It comprises cotton yarn, cotton fabrics, and finished goods (towels, hosiery,

96
knitwear, garments).
* Importance:
* It possesses great export potential: textiles form nearly 65% of total exports.
* It employs a large number of people.
* It contributes approximately 8.5% of GDP to the national exchequer as
indirect taxes.
* Cotton textiles are value-added products, earning more foreign exchange than
raw cotton.
* It uses local raw material, reducing import dependence.
* It promotes raw cotton production by increasing farmers' income.
* There is a good demand for its products in international markets.
* It has proved its credibility over time.
* Skilled and unskilled cheap labour is available.
* Large-scale production reduces the cost per unit.
* It meets domestic demand for cotton products.
* Problems/Disadvantages:
* Periodic shortages of raw material due to leaf-curl virus.
* Recession in the international market.
* Strong competition from South Korea, Egypt, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Thailand.
* Further modernisation is needed to sustain it internationally.
* More capital/investment is needed.
* International restrictions on exports due to child labour and environmental
issues.
* Outdated machinery needs replacement.
* High costs of imported machinery burden foreign exchange reserves.
* Shortage of water reduces raw material quantity.
* Frequent power breakdowns and electricity shortage increase production costs.
* Poor roads, rail delays, and frequent port closures due to political instability
affect production and sale.
* Frequent changes in government policies lower investor confidence.
* Terrorist activities and uncertain political conditions lead to factory closures
in Karachi.
* The government has introduced incentives to enhance raw cotton supply and
industry competitiveness.
* It has supported the industry through the Economic Review Programme 1997
and radical tax reforms.
* Figure 9.10 shows fabric being checked and mended after weaving.
* Figure 9.11 shows fabric being folded by machines after weaving and checking.

### **Page 21: Fertiliser & Cement Industries**

* Faisalabad and Daud Khel in Punjab, Haripur in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and

Dharki in Upper Sindh are main fertiliser plant locations.
* In 2018, Pakistan produced around 8 million tonnes of fertiliser a year in 21
factories.
* Most factories use natural gas as their main raw material and power source.

97
* Most fertiliser plants are located near a gasfield or supplied from gas pipelines.
* Example: The Mari gasfield in northern Sindh supplies 15 million cubic metres
of gas per day to three major fertiliser producers within a 60 km radius.
* Agriculture is so important that the government supports the fertiliser
industry.
* Support includes tax breaks and subsidies to farmers on each bag of fertiliser.
* In most years, 100% of production is used for home consumption.
* Imports make up about 20% of the fertiliser farmers use.
* One reason the industry cannot produce more is competition for gas supplies
with power stations and homes.
* As gas reserves are used up, the industry may need other raw material sources.
* In 2018, it was estimated Mari gas reserves would last a further 8–10 years.
* In recent years, cement prices have shown an upward trend due to rising
demand and government fiscal policies.
* Figure 9.16 shows an overview of the Pak-Arab Fertiliser Factory Multan.
* Favourable factors for cement industry development:
* Availability of raw material (limestone and gypsum).
* Good domestic market with high demand from the construction industry.
* Natural gas is a cheap fuel.
* Figure 9.17 is a map showing "Locations of the cement industry".
* The establishment of a steel industry is considered a milestone for industriali-
sation.
* In early years, emphasis was on consumer goods production.
* In the late 1950s, steel establishment was considered essential.
* The Pakistan Steel Mill Corporation was established in 1973 at Pipri, 40 km
east of Karachi near Port Qasim.
* It was established with technical and financial assistance from the USSR.
* It closed in 2015, partly because it was so expensive to run.
* Figure 9.18 shows Pipri, the site of Pakistan Steel Mills.

### **Page 22: Steel Industry & Industrial Estates**

* The Heavy Mechanical Complex Ltd. (HMC) was established at Taxila in

1979 with Chinese assistance.
* It is the major heavy engineering centre of Pakistan.
* It has capability for designing and manufacturing industrial plants and
machinery.
* The Heavy Forge Factory (HFF) at this complex is crucial for defence
production.
* HFF also manufactures equipment for hydroelectric, thermal, oil & gas, and
chemical plants.
* It regularly produces boilers, cranes, construction machinery, material-handling
equipment, steel structures, and railway equipment.
* Its capabilities include engineering and manufacturing machinery for sugar
mills.
* Figure 9.19 is a map showing "Locations of the steel industry".

98
* Steel is essential for infrastructure (bridges, power lines, dams) and general
construction.
* It is used in engineering and consumer industries (machinery, autos, electrical
goods).
* Steel is vital for a country’s economic development.
* Steel mill products: coke, pig iron/hot metal, rolled/cast billets, galvanised
products, raw steel.
* Figure 9.20 shows the inside of the heavy foundry and forge at the Heavy
Mechanical Complex, Taxila.
* Figure 9.21 is a table on "Factors considered for location of Pakistan Steel Mill
at Pipri near Karachi".
* Physical Factors:
* A. Site: Flat, cheap, unused land available next to Gharo Creek.
* B. Natural Routes: Port Qasim has a natural harbour facilitating im-
ports/exports.
* Human Factors:
* C. Capital: USSR provided economic assistance (technology and capital).
* D. Raw materials: Iron ore, manganese, coking coal imported via Port Qasim.
Limestone brought from Muni Hills near Thatta. Water brought from Lake
Haliji, 50 km east (creek salt water not suitable).
* E. Energy: Port Qasim/Karachi have highest electricity capacity. Pipri
thermal (21%), Korangi thermal (15%), Karachi Nuclear.
* F. Labour: Skilled and unskilled labour available locally from Karachi.
* G. Markets: Many steel-using industries in Karachi. Supplies products to
other parts of country; over half used in Punjab.
* H. Transport: Connected to Karachi-Korangi railway; metalled roads connect
to main road system.
* Industrial estates are areas reserved for industry only, to encourage en-
trepreneurs.
* The government provides infrastructure: installed roads, electricity, water, gas,
hospitals, sanitation.
* Pakistan’s first industrial estate was Sindh Industrial Trading Estate Limited
(SITE), Karachi, established in 1947.
* Sindh has the largest number of industrial estates due to proximity to Karachi
(largest city and port).
* Industrial estates can enjoy incentives like exemption from customs duty on
imported machinery.
* The private sector is encouraged to establish industrial estates and develop
infrastructure, especially power generation.
* Figure 9.22 shows a view of Pakistan Steel Mills, Pipri.
* Figure 9.23 shows molten iron being poured at Pakistan Steel Mill, Pipri.
* Figure 9.24 is a table on "Advantages and disadvantages of developing the
steel industry in Pakistan".
* Advantages:
* Provides raw material for tool-making, construction, agricultural implements,
etc.

99
* Locally manufactured steel is cheaper than imports (no customs duty).
* Reduces burden on foreign exchange resources.
* Reduction in imports helps correct balance of payments.
* Encourages industrialisation, leading to economic development.
* Larger GNP/GDP/national income.
* Provides employment for the industrial labour force.
* Disadvantages:
* Requires imported raw materials (iron ore, manganese, coking coal), burdening
foreign exchange.
* Requires expensive infrastructure, burdening the economy.
* Lack of technical experts and skilled labour.
* Environmental pollution from industrial waste.
* Requires ample electricity; lack of power affects production.
* Figure 9.25 is a table on "Provincial distribution of industrial estates".
* Sindh: 24
* Punjab: 20
* Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: 15
* Balochistan: 10
* Federal Capital: 3
* Total: 72

### **Page 23: Special Industrial Zones & CPEC**

* A scheme of Special Industrial Zones was planned to support the manufacture

and trade of export products.
* Figure 9.26 describes development concepts, incentives, and facilities offered to
attract investors.
* An article states: "Special economic zones under CPEC: 37 special zones to
boost production".
* The government plans to set up 37 special economic zones (SEZs) across four
provinces and special areas under CPEC.
* Pakistan agreed to provide gas, water, electricity, and other facilities to
factories in industrial parks.
* Pakistan will also consider providing a suitable policy package to attract
Chinese investors.
* Source: DAWN 12 February 2017.
* A Special Industrial Zone can be developed even where infrastructure (water,
electricity, phone, roads) is not available.
* Interested companies (local/foreign investors) would develop these facilities.
* They will be assisted by government agencies to provide utilities.
* Investors will be allowed to develop residential, commercial, and social facilities
near the industrial zone.
* Incentives offered: tax exemptions on machinery imports, relaxation of foreign
exchange control, simplified procedures, tax holidays, security.
* To attract investors, there needs to be consistency in government policies.
* Abrupt changes or shifting priorities weaken investor confidence and discourage

100
expansion.
* Unfortunately, this has often been the case, so investor confidence is low.
* CPEC development initiatives for Industry:
* The CPEC vision for Industry and Trade is to strengthen Pakistan's
manufacturing sector and increase export competitiveness.
* This is done by lowering production costs without compromising quality.
* CPEC plans to promote special economic zones in all provinces.
* It aims to increase industrial capacity in sectors like iron/steel, chemicals,
pharmaceuticals, engineering goods, home appliances, and construction
materials.
* It aims to use environmentally friendly processes.
* Goals: meet local demand and expand the international market for Pakistani
products.
* Source: The Nation 23 March 2018.

### **Page 24: Government Industrial Policy (1947-71)**

* Figure 9.27 is a cartoon dialogue between "Government 1947-71" and "Private

Sector".
* Government says: "You will earn much more profit in industry than any other
business. Come and join hands with me."
* Incentives offered 1947-71:
* Liberal tax concessions.
* Protection to selected new industries against foreign competition.
* Setting up of industrial estates with infrastructure.
* Technical training for people.
* Export bonus scheme.
* Concessions on import of raw materials and machinery.
* Loans for setting up industries.
* Private Sector says: "These ideas sound good."
* After 1947, the private sector was reluctant to invest in capital-intensive
industries.
* The Pakistan Industrial Development Corporation (PIDC) was established to
invest in these industries.
* PIDC established many large-scale industries (fertilisers, textiles, cement,
chemicals, paperboard, sugar).
* PIDC later transferred some projects to the private sector when risk was
reduced.
* This encouraged the private sector and stimulated industrial activity during
the 1960s.
* The performance of the private sector was encouraging.
* During the 1960s, the country became self-sufficient in most agro-based
industries.
* This period is known as the ‘Era of Industrialisation’.
* In 1972, adopting the principle of ‘nationalisation’, there was a major policy
change.

101
* The transfer of ten basic industries to the public sector was a heavy blow to
the private sector.
* Figure 9.28 is a table on "Industries Nationalised 1972-77".
* Industries nationalised: Iron and Steel, Basic metal, Heavy engineering, Heavy
electrical, Assembly & manufacture of motor vehicles, Heavy and basic chemical,
Petrochemical, Cement, Public utilities.
* Public Sector Corporations created: Board of Industrial Management, Federal
Chemical and Ceramic Ltd., Federal Light Engineering Corporation, National
Design and Industrial Services Corporation, National Fertiliser Corporation of
Pakistan Ltd., Pakistan Automobile Corporation Ltd., Pakistan Steel Mills
Corporation, Pakistan Industrial Development Corporation, State Cement
Corporation Ltd., State Heavy Engineering & Machine Tool Corporation Ltd.,
State Petroleum Refining & Petrochemical Corporation Ltd.
* Since the 1972 nationalisation, the pace of industrial development has remained
slow.
* Uncertain government policies reduced private sector investment.
* Foreign investors were reluctant to invest.
* The investment climate for the private sector was not favourable.

### **Page 25: Denationalisation & Privatisation**

* In 1977, the government reversed its industrial policy.

* The Martial Law Government gave assurances that no further industries would
be nationalised.
* Many nationalised industries were given back to their former owners.
* Figure 9.29 is a cartoon titled "Denationalisation 1977-88".
* Government says: "Denationalisation of agro-based industries", "More
incentives", "No further nationalisation", "Public sector’s activities limited to
ongoing projects".
* Text states: "Public sector’s share reduced to 19.5% and private sector’s
increased to 80.5%".
* This period is described as "First steps towards privatisation".
* Figure 9.30 is a cartoon titled "Privatisation 1988 onwards".
* Government says: "Now it is your turn to take up the job of industrialisation.
The government will help you to create economic opportunities."
* Private Sector says: "The World is ours".
* The privatisation of State Owned Enterprises (SOE) has been promoted since
1991.
* Policies of liberalisation and deregulation are followed worldwide.
* Objectives of Privatisation:
* To create better opportunities for the private sector for expansion and
modernisation.
* To improve productivity and profitability.
* To reduce the burden on the government’s economic resources.
* To facilitate economic activities for the private sector.
* To achieve more rapid industrialisation.

102
### **Page 26: Formal & Informal Sectors**

* The formal and informal sectors are important for Pakistan.

* They provide industrial goods for the domestic market.
* They generate employment opportunities in the industrial sector.
* The informal sector makes use of domestic raw materials, so no burden on
imports.
* Some products from both sectors are exported and earn foreign exchange.
* The informal sector does not require imported machinery/high technology,
saving foreign exchange.
* Figure 9.31 is a table comparing "Formal sector" and "Informal sector".
* Formal sector:
* Employed by institution.
* Capital intensive with few workers.
* Generally mechanised.
* Regular working hours and certain wages.
* Relatively guaranteed standard in quality of goods.
* Work located in offices or factories.
* Legal and registered.
* Normally males.
* Informal sector:
* Self employment.
* Labour intensive using mainly hand tools.
* Very few modern machines are used.
* Irregular working hours and uncertain wages.
* Often low standard in quality of goods.
* Work done at home (cottage) or on the streets.
* Often non-registered.
* Mostly females and children.
* Figure 9.32 shows a supermarket in Karachi as an example of the formal sector.
* Both sectors promote industrial growth.
* The Formal Sector includes local and multi-national companies registered with
the government.
* Examples: Pakistan Steel Mills, Cotton Textile Mills, Pharmaceutical
Companies, Engro Corporation, Unilever, Procter & Gamble, McDonald’s,
PARCO, KFC.
* These industries use modern technology, follow international standards, and
produce standardised goods.
* The Formal Sector plays a positive role in industrial expansion.
* It contributes goods/services for domestic and international markets, provides
employment, and contributes to GDP.
* The Informal Sector includes only local industrial units not registered with the
government.
* Examples: cottage industries (carpets, rugs, embroidery, pottery, ceramics,
traditional textiles), unregistered food-processing units.

103
* They also contribute to industrial expansion but often produce substandard
products.
* Lack of standardisation and quality control lowers consumer confidence and
reduces demand.
* This curtails profit and can negatively affect industrial growth.
* Despite a weak structure, the Informal Sector is constantly expanding because
it supplies low-priced goods.
* Figure 9.33 is a table on "Advantages and Disadvantages of the Informal
Sector".
* Advantages:
* Meets local demand with low-priced industrial goods.
* Provides employment to a large number of people.
* Uses local raw materials, no burden on imports.
* Utilises industrial waste to produce more goods.
* Provides door-to-door supply of everyday items by street vendors.
* Disadvantages:
* Not registered, so no tax revenue for the government.
* At times produces sub-standard goods.
* Little potential for growth due to limited capital and unskilled labour.
* Encourages child labour; children deprived of education.
* Health problems for workers as labour laws are not followed.
* Workers receive low wages.
* Uncertain and unreliable employment.
* Generally a poor-quality working environment.

### **Page 27: Cottage & Small-Scale Industries**

* Cottage or household industries hold an important position in the rural

economy.
* Most villages are self-sufficient in basic necessities.
* Villages have their own carpenters, blacksmiths, potters, craftsmen, and cotton
weavers.
* Many families depend on cottage industries for income.
* Cottage industries have also gained importance in cities and towns.
* There is great demand for hand-woven carpets, embroidered work, brassware,
rugs, and traditional bangles.
* These are important export items in demand internationally.
* There are meagre resources to develop large-scale industries.
* A programme for developing small-scale industries in rural and urban areas is
more feasible.
* Figure 9.34 lists advantages of establishing cottage and small-scale industries.
* 1. They are labour intensive and provide employment to 80% of the industrial
labour force.
* This reduces unemployment and offers self-employment opportunities.
* 2. Traditionally, women are not encouraged to work outside their homes.
* Cottage industries (carpet-weaving, candlemaking, handicrafts) can be

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established at home, employing women.
* This increases the active labour force.
* 3. These industries meet local demand for industrial goods and save foreign
exchange.
* 4. There is international demand for rugs, carpets, brassware, handicrafts, and
embroidered work.
* These goods provide 30% of the export receipts of the manufacturing sector.
* 5. When people are employed in villages, migration to urban areas is reduced.
* This reduces acute urban problems of housing, sanitation, education, transport,
and health.
* 6. With the expansion of such industries, regional income disparity can be
reduced in under-developed districts.
* 7. These industries make effective use of local raw materials, promoting
primary industries like agriculture and mining.
* A text box defines the difference:
* A small-scale industry employs fewer than ten people.
* Its fixed assets do not exceed Rs.10 million in Pakistan.
* In cottage industries, manufacturing is wholly or partially carried on in the
worker's home.
* No hired labour is employed in cottage industries.
* A Q-box presents two statements for debate:
* "We need to set up more large-scale industries to promote industrialization."
* "Setting up medium-scale and small-scale industries will generate more
employment opportunities."
* The question asks which statement you agree with more and to support your
answer with reasons and examples.
* Figure 7.34 shows a farmer harvesting mangoes in the Potwar Plateau.

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