THE BIOLOGICAL

APPROACH
 Biological Approach
1. Introduction
Main Assumptions of Biological Approach:
 Behaviour, cognition and emotions can be explained in terms of the working of
the brain and the effect of hormones, genetics and evolution.
 Similarities and differences between people can be understood regarding
biological factors and their interaction with other factors.

2. Dement and Kleitman (Sleep and Dreams)

Title: The Relation of Eye Movements During Sleep to Dream Activity: An Objective
Method for the Study of Dreaming
Year: 1957
Psychology being investigated:
 Our body follows two types of sleep: REM (rapid eye movement) sleep and
nREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep.
 nREM can be divided into 4 sleep stages.
 In REM sleep, our eyes move rapidly under the lids.
 REM sleep is known as paradoxical sleep. It resembles wakefulness as our eyes
move; we often experience vivid (bizarre) thoughts in dreams, and our brains
are active. However, it is different from wakefulness as it is difficult to wake up;
we are relatively insensitive to stimuli and paralyzed.
 Ultradian rhythms- Basic Rest-Activity cycles that occur almost every 90 minutes
and are responsible for the different stages of sleep we experience.
 Dreams- Vivid and generally visual sequences of imagery that occur during sleep
in the REM stage.
Background:
 Aserinsky and Kleitman’s (1955) study observed periods of rapid, conjugate eye
movements during sleep and found a high incidence of dream recall in
awakening participants and a low incidence when awakened at other times.
 Sleep and dreaming are hard to investigate because the participant is
necessarily asleep, and so cannot communicate with the researcher. Even when
awake, only self-report data can be obtained about dream content, which alone
may be invalid as it is subjective.
 The electroencephalograph (EEG) monitors the electrical activity of the brain.
 The electrooculogram (EOG) allowed the electrical recording of eye movement
patterns, their presence or absence, and their size and direction (vertical or
horizontal).
 The EEG detects and records tiny electrical charges associated with nerve and
muscle activity.
 In REM sleep, EEG is relatively low voltage/amplitude and high frequency.
 In nREM sleep, EEG has either high voltage/amplitude and slow (low frequency)
waves or frequent ‘sleep spindles’, short-lived high voltage, high-frequency
waves.

Aims:
 Overall aim: To investigate dreaming objectively by looking for the relationship
between eye movements in sleep and the dreamer’s recall.
 Specific aims:
o To test whether dream recall differs between REM and nREM sleep.
o To investigate whether there is a positive correlation between subjective
estimates of dream duration and the length of REM period.
 o To test whether eye movement patterns are related to dream content.
(Whether these patterns represent the visual experience of dream content
or whether they are simply random movements arising from the activation
of the CNS)

Procedure:
 Research Method: Laboratory Experiment, Observations, Self-reports and
correlation
 Experimental design: Repeated Measures Design
 Three approaches were used to test the three specific aims. (scroll above to find
the three aims)
 Sample: seven adult males and two adult females. Five of them were studied
intensively, while the data gathered from the other four were minimal to
confirm the results.
 Sampling technique: Opportunity sampling
 Participants studied in detail spent between 6-17 nights with 50-77 awakenings.
The four others spent only one or two nights with 4-10 awakenings.
 Participants were identified by their initials to maintain confidentiality.
 Participants reported to the lab a little before their usual bedtime.
 They were instructed to eat normally but to abstain from alcoholic or caffeine-
containing beverages on the day of the experiment.
 Participants were fitted with electrodes on their scalps and around their eyes.
 Once they were in bed in a quiet, dark room, the wires were gathered into a
“ponytail” to allow freedom of movement.
 The EEG ran continuously to monitor the participant's sleep stages and to inform
the researchers when they should be woken up.
 Participants were woken by a doorbell that was loud enough to rouse them
from any sleep stage.
 The doorbell rang at various times during the night, and the participants
indicated whether they had been dreaming and described their dreams in a
voice recorder.
 Analysis of dream narrative: This was only considered a dream if a coherent,
fairly detailed description of the content existed. Vague, fragmentary
impressions were not scored as dreams.

METHOD DESIGN

Aim 1 Participants were woken either Natural experiment in a

from REM or nREM sleep, but laboratory setting
were not told which stage they
were in.
They confirmed whether they IV: REM or nREM sleep stage
had a dream and if so, reported
the content into a recorder.
DV: whether the participants
reported a dream, and if so, the
details
Aim 2 Participants were woken The data was used in both
following 5 or 15 minutes of experimental and correlational
REM sleep. designs.
They were asked if they Experimental analysis: IV -
thought they had been waking after 5 or 15 minutes of
dreaming for 5 or 15 minutes. REM sleep. DV - participant’s
choice
Their dream narrative was Correlational analysis: two
recorded, and the number of variables were the participant’s
words was counted.
 time estimate and number of
words in the dream narrative
Aim 3 Participants were woken after Natural experiment in a
exhibiting a single eye- laboratory setting.
movement pattern for longer
than a minute.
This was measured using IV: eye-movement pattern type
electrodes and an EOG. (mainly horizontal, mainly
vertical, vertical & horizontal,
little or none) This could not be
manipulated.
The dream content was DV: report of dream content
recorded.

Results:
General Results
 Uninterrupted dream stages lasted for a range of 3 to 50 minutes with an
estimate average of 20 minutes.
 Dream Stages are usually longer later in the night.
 Dream stages had irregular bursts of 2-100 rapid eye movements.

Results for Question 1: Does dream recall differ in REM and nREM stages of sleep?
 Yes, dream recall significantly differs. In 79.6% of the REM awakenings (152/191)
participants could recall a dream, whereas in only 6.9% of nREM awakenings
(11/160), participants could recall their dreams.
 Therefore, participants are likelier to describe dreams when woken from REM
than nREM frequently.
Results for Question 2: Is there a positive correlation between subjective dream
duration estimate and the length of the REM period before waking?
 Participants had 88% accuracy in estimating they were woken up after 5 minutes
of dreaming.
 Participants had 78% accuracy in estimating they were woken up after 15
minutes of dreaming.
 The correlation between the two variables was positive, within the range of 0.4
to 0.71, as the r values showed a significant correlation.

Results for Question 3: Are eye movement patterns related to dream content?
 Eye movements, as recorded on EEG, were related to dreams' visual content.
 With only vertical (climbing up a ladder and looking down) or only horizontal
(watching two people throwing tomatoes at each other) eye movements were
rare, with only 3 dreams and 1 dream, respectively.
 10 dreams were reported to have little to no eye movement (watching
something in the distance)
 21 dreams had mixed movements (talking to a group of people)

Conclusions:
 Dreams are experienced in REM but not NREM sleep.
 Dreaming is more likely at night's end, as the REM stages are longer.

Strength:
 High internal validity: definition of dream clearly operationalized, demand
characteristics minimized by not telling participants about their EEG patterns,
laboratory experiment with limited effect of uncontrolled variables.
 High reliability: EEG shows quantitative data and is not affected by the
experimenter’s subjective view; quantitative and qualitative data are collected.

Weaknesses:
 Low generalisability: only 9 participants may not represent the dream frequency
of the general population.
 Low ecological validity: People used to caffeinated drinks could experience
changes in sleep and dream patterns due to lack of those drinks; sleeping in a
laboratory connected to electrodes could be uncomfortable.

Ethics:
 Deception: Participant WD was misled about whether he was woken in the
NREM or REM stage.

Issues and Debates:

Application:
 EEG, which is used to detect dreaming, has useful applications for assessing
people with sleep and dream issues (for example- insomnia and nightmares).
 The EEG can be used to monitor the different stages of sleep individuals with
insomnia (trouble falling asleep or not sleeping enough) face and see patterns in
their dream stages (example- shorted REM sleep stages)- this helps get a better
understanding of the problem they are facing and according come up with a
solution.
  Parasomnias is a sleeping disorder involving unusual behavior and dreams. EEG
monitoring can be used to observe REM sleep stages for this disorder as well to
understand how the unusaul dreams are related to sleep stages and dream
sleep.
Nature versus Nurture:
 Mainly focuses on nature, making obtaining evidence through EEG possible.

3. Hassett et al. (Monkey Toy Preferences)

Title: Sex differences in rhesus monkey toy preferences parallel those of children
Year: 2008
Psychology being investigated:
 There is a difference in male and female brain structure and hormones, resulting
in sex differences.
 Socialization is the method of learning behaviours that are socially accepted.
These behaviours differ for the two genders.
 It has been difficult to determine if differences in behaviour between females
and males are more due to biological factors or social differences due to
socialization.
 Gender stereotype- bias of assigning particular traits to a particular gender, for
example- assigning aggression as a male-typed trait.
 Play- Childhood behaviours are usually done for fun, which may or may not
involve social interaction and objects called ‘toys’.

Background
 Infants are exposed to hormones during the prenatal stages of gestation, which
impacts top preferences in children.
 A few females have experienced a genetic condition which increases male
hormones during foetal development- these girls are seen to prefer more ‘male’
'-type toys in comparison to other girls.
 Primates are similar to humans genetically and, therefore, can be used as a
model to show if gender differences in behaviour are due to biological or social
factors.
 Female and male primates have differences in hormones, just like humans.

Aims
 To investigate whether toy preference in monkeys is similar to those in children
to test for a biological explanation for sex differences in toy choice.

Procedure
 Research method: A field experiment
 Experimental design: Independent Measures Design
 Independent Variable (IV): Gender, Monkey’s rank on social hierarchy
 Dependent Variable (DV): Frequency and duration of play with each toy type
 Sample: 21 males and 61 female rhesus monkeys living in natal groups at the
Yerkes primate research station in the USA.
 Sampling technique: Opportunity sampling
 The natal group was housed in a 25*25-meter outdoor area with admission into
a temperature-controlled indoor area.
 Toys were divided into two categories based on their properties: 'wheeled toys',
which matched with toys typically for boys, and 'plush toys' to match girl toys.
 Six-wheeled toys- wagon, truck, car, shopping cart
 Seven Plush toys- teddy bear, Koala hand puppet
 For every group formed from the natal group, 7 trials occurred, all lasting for 25
minutes.
 The rhesus monkeys were observed using two video cameras.
 For each of the 7 trials, all monkeys were initially indoors while one plush toy
and one wheeled toy were placed 10 metres apart in the outdoor area.
 Each video camera was focused on one of the toys, with the positions of
wheeled and plush toys being counterbalanced between right and left locations.
 After the 25-minute trial, the toys were removed, and two observers analyzed
the videotape to achieve a consensus that resulted in high inter-observer
reliability.
 Specific behavioural categories were formed after watching the animal interact
with toys.
 The exact time of each activity was also recorded, along with the frequency of
each behaviour.
 A few behavioural categories include extended touch, sitting on the toy,
dragging, carrying in hand, turning the entire toy, and sniffing.
 For data analysis, each monkey's behaviour was converted into an average
frequency and duration.

Results
 Females did not have a preference for plush toys over wheeled toys.
 Females interacted with plush toys more than males did.
 Male monkeys prefer 'masculine' wheeled toys for 'feminine' plush toys.
 Rank on social hierarchy was positively correlated to the total frequency of
interactions.
 When compared to data from Berenbaum and Hines (1992), it was seen that
rhesus monkeys and children both showed higher preference marks in males
than females.

Strengths
 High internal validity: use of animals to eliminate the effect of socialization and
another confounding variable, behavioural categories were accurately defined,
counterbalancing of wheeled toy and plush toy position.
 High standardisation: The observation process was the same for all monkeys,
with a standard length of 25-minute sessions.

Weaknesses
 Methodological differences: Differences in the children and rhesus monkeys
were compared; the toys offered were chosen for object properties rather than
female or male-typed toys, and children were assessed using different toys and
only measuring the duration of play, not frequency.

Issues and Debates

 Application: Help cause awareness regarding gender-neutral socialization. This
would minimize the divide between males and females early in childhood.
 Individual versus Situational: illustrates a role of biology that supports the
individual side of the debate; however, exposure to gender stereotyping in
society counts for a situational explanation.
 Nature versus Nurture: sex differences due to biological aspects of brain
structure and hormones count for nature, but socialization in society is mainly
due to nurture.
4. Hölzel et al. (Mindfulness and Brain Scans)
Title: Mindfulness practice to increase regional brain grey matter density
Year: 2011
Psychology being investigated:
 Mindfulness- State achieved through meditation that aims to increase
awareness of the present-moment experience.
 Localization of function- Particular brain areas are responsible for different
activities.

Background:
 Mindfulness involves cognitive processes and sensory experiences that impact
brain function.
 Early studies used EEG, but now MRI provides more detailed information by
measuring brain structures and changes in grey and white matter.
 Comparative studies suggest differences in brain grey matter between
individuals practising mindfulness meditation and those who don’t. However,
caution is needed due to potential pre-existing individual differences that could
affect results.

Aims:
 Use the MBSR course to compare grey matter concentration in specific brain
areas and the whole brain before and after the course (pre and post-stages)
*MBSR- Meditation-Based Stress Reduction

Procedure:
 Research Method: Laboratory Experient with longitudinal design
 Experimental Design: Independent Measures Design
 Independent Variable: Exposure to an eight-week mindfulness-based
intervention, the MBSR course
 Dependent Variable: Change in the grey matter assessed using MRI scans and
Response on questionnaires to measure five mindfulness scales (before and
after intervention)
 Sample:
o Experimental Group
 16 participants- 6 Males and 10 Females
 Mean age- 38 years
 There were 18 participants in the experimental group, but 2 males
withdrew due to discomfort.
o Control Group
 17 participants- 7 Males and 10 Females
 Mean age- 39 years
 The control group participants had the same eligibility criteria as the
experimental group for admission into the mindfulness course.
o Common points for both groups:
 Participants for this study were recruited from individuals already
enrolled in 4 MBSR courses at the University of Massachusetts
 Overall Age Range- 25 to 55 years
 All participants were physically and psychologically healthy
 All participants were not on any medication
 All participants had limited experience with meditation classes
 They all had the same educational level
 Incentive of discounted MBRS course fee was given to all
 o Sampling technique: Opportunity Sampling
 Both groups completed the FFMQ (Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire) with
39 questions and five subscales.
 The 5 subscales had statements that measured observing, describing, acting
with awareness, non-judging of inner experience, and non-reactivity to inner
experience.
 Each statement had to be answered on a five-point Likert-type scale, and the
scores were added.
 Some questions were reverse scored, and from each group, 14 participants gave
usable data at both time points.
 MRI brain scans of both group participants were taken at two-time points.
o For the experimental group: two weeks before MBSR and two weeks after
MBRS course (average gap of 56 days)
o For the control group: The two scans were taken with an average gap of 66
days between them.
 The data from MRI scans was utilized in two ways:
o To analyze the regions of interest- Hippocampus and Bilateral insulae
o To analyze the whole brain to explore other areas affected by the
mindfulness course.
 Lastly, participants reported the time they spent over 8 weeks’ time on formal
homework and the three assigned exercises (Body scans, yoga and sitting
meditation)

Results
 No significant correlation between time spent on body scans, yoga and sitting
meditation
 Participants in the MBSR group significantly increased mindfulness scores on the
3 subscales (acting with awareness, observing and non-judging) between pre
and post-testing
 Specific areas of interest:
o In the specific area of interest- Left Hippocampus there were positive
changes in grey area concentration for the MBSR group between the pre and
post-stages
o In the specific area of interest- the Left Hippocampus, there were no changes
in a grey area concentration for the control group between pre and post-
stages.
o No correlation between grey matter in specific areas and the amount of
homework or changes in FFMQ scores
 Whole-brain analysis:
o Four clusters of the brain showed a significant increase in grey matter
concentration for the MBSR group between the pre and post-stages
o These four clusters showed a significant increase in grey matter
concentration for the control group relative to other brain area
 (The four clusters were Posterior cingulate cortex, left temporoparietal
junction and two parts of the cerebellum)
o No correlation between other parts of the brain and the amount of
homework or changes in FFMQ scores

Conclusions:
 The concentration of grey matter increases in regions in the hippocampus,
posterior cingulate cortex (PPC), left temporoparietal junction (TJP) and
cerebellum in those who practice an 8-week mindfulness-based stress reduction
course (MBSR)
Ethical Issues:
 Risk of not protecting participants from harm by not assisting control group
participants until at least eight weeks

Strengths:
 The increased external validity of findings derived from longitudinal studies
stems from the extended duration, which helps stabilize fluctuating participant
variables such as mood, attentiveness, and health, among others, that could
influence mindfulness.
 High amounts of standardisation: for instance, a fixed number of exercises to be
performed and fixed total duration- make the study highly replicable, raising
reliability.

Weaknesses:
 Lack of generalisability of the sample as they were all similar due to already
being enrolled in MBSR courses and having the same level of education.
 The unknowns regarding the accuracy of the MRI and the lack of objectivity in
the interpretations of the data produced decrease the internal validity.
 The lack of correlation between grey matter and time spent on mindfulness
exercise homework shows that the exercises did not directly cause brain
changes, which also decreases internal validity.

Issues and Debates:

 Application to everyday life: Provides a method to help people with
temporoparietal junction (TPJ) impairment, and the two areas of the cerebellum
 where grey matter changes were observed can be used for emotion regulation
and healthy psychological functioning.
 Nature versus Nurture: The biological aspects are highly determined by the
processes of nature. However, the study showed that nurture through MBRS
can affect those structures and processes.