UNIT – 2

Materials of Sewer, Sewer Appurtenance

A Sewer is a underground conduit or drain through which sewage is conveyed to the point of
discharge or disposal

According to the place of use, the sewer is classified as follows:

• Main Sewer.
• Branch or sub-main Sewer.
• Lateral Sewer.
• Combined Sewer.
• Depressed Sewer.
• Intercepting Sewer.
• Outfall Sewer.
• Trunk Sewer.
• Relief or Overflow Sewer.
Materials for Sewers
Asbestos Cement Sewers
• These are manufactured from a mixture of asbestos fibers, silica and cement. Asbestos
fibers are thoroughly mixed with cement to act as reinforcement.
• These pipes are available in size 10 to 100 cm internal diameter and length up to 4.0 m.
• These pipes can be easily assembled without skilled labour with the help of special
coupling, called ‘Ring Tie Coupling’ or Simplex joint.
• The pipe and joints are resistant to corrosion and the joints are flexible to permit 12o
deflection for curved laying.
• These pipes are used for vertical transport of water. For example, transport of rainwater
from roofs in multistoried buildings, for transport of sewage to grounds, and for transport
of less foul sullage i.e., wastewater from kitchen and bathroom.
Advantages
• These pipes are light in weight and hence, easy to carry and transport.
• Easy to cut and assemble without skilled labour.
• Interior is smooth (Manning n = 0.011) hence, can make excellent hydraulically efficient
sewer.
Disadvantages
• These pipes are structurally not very strong.
• These are susceptible to corrosion by sulphuric acid. When bacteria produces H2S, in
presence of water, H2SO4 can be formed.
Brick Sewer (Masonry Sewer)
This material is used for construction of large size combined sewer or particularly for storm
water drains. The pipes are plastered from outside to avoid entry of tree roots and ground water
through brick joints. These are lined from inside with stone ware or ceramic block to make
them smooth and hydraulically efficient. Lining also make the pipe resistant to corrosion.

Cement Concrete Sewer

Plain cement concrete (1: 1.5: 3) pipes are available up to 0.45 m diameter and reinforcement
cement pipes are available up to 1.8 m diameter. These pipes can be cast in situ or precast
pipes. Precast pipes are better in quality than the cast in situ pipes. The reinforcement in these
pipes can be different such as single cage reinforced pipes, used for internal pressure less than
0.8 m; double cage reinforced pipes used for both internal and external pressure greater than
0.8 m; elliptical cage reinforced pipes used for larger diameter sewers subjected to external
pressure; and hume pipes with steel shells coated with concrete from inside and outside.
Nominal longitudinal reinforcement of 0.25% is provided in these pipes.
Advantages of concrete pipes
• Strong in tension as well as compression.
• Resistant to erosion and abrasion.
• They can be made of any desired strength.
• Easily moulded, and can be in situ or precast pipes.
• Economical for medium and large sizes.
• These pipes are available in wide range of size and the trench can be opened and
backfilled rapidly during maintenance of sewers.
Disadvantages
• These pipes can get corroded and pitted by the action of H2SO4.
• The carrying capacity of the pipe reduces with time because of corrosion.
• The pipes are susceptible to erosion by sewage containing silt and grit.
The concrete sewers can be protected internally by vitrified clay linings. With protection lining
they are used for almost all the branch and main sewers. Only high alumina cement concrete
should be used when pipes are exposed to corrosive liquid like sewage.

Vitrified Clay or Stoneware Sewers

These pipes are used for house connections as well as lateral sewers. The size of the pipe
available is 5 cm to 30 cm internal diameter with length 0.9 to 1.2 m. These pipes are rarely
manufactured for diameter greater than 90 cm. These are jointed by bell and spigot flexible
compression joints.
Advantages
• Resistant to corrosion, hence fit for carrying polluted water such as sewage.
• Interior surface is smooth and is hydraulically efficient.
• The pipes are highly impervious.
• Strong in compression.
• These pipes are durable and economical for small diameters.
• The pipe material does not absorb water more than 5% of their own weight, when
immersed in water for 24 h.
Disadvantages
• Heavy, bulky and brittle and hence, difficult to transport.
• These pipes cannot be used as pressure pipes, because they are weak in tension.
• These require large number of joints as the individual pipe length is small.

Plastic sewers (PVC pipes)

Plastic is recent material used for sewer pipes. These are used for internal drainage works in
house. These are available in sizes 75 to 315 mm external diameter and used in drainage works.
They offer smooth internal surface. The additional advantages they offer are resistant to
corrosion, light weight of pipe, economical in laying, jointing and maintenance, the pipe is
tough and rigid, and ease in fabrication and transport of these pipes.
Cast Iron Sewers
These pipes are stronger and capable to withstand greater tensile, compressive, as well as
bending stresses. However, these are costly. Cast iron pipes are used for outfall sewers, rising
mains of pumping stations, and inverted siphons, where pipes are running under pressure.
These are also suitable for sewers under heavy traffic load, such as sewers below railways and
highways. They are used for carried over piers in case of low lying areas. They form 100%
leak proof sewer line to avoid ground water contamination. They are less resistant to corrosion;
hence, generally lined from inside with cement concrete, coal tar paint, epoxy, etc. These are
joined together by bell and spigot joint. IS:1536-1989 and IS:1537-1976 provides the
specifications for spun and vertically cast pipes, respectively.

Important Factors Considered for Selecting Material for Sewer

Following factors should be considered before selecting material for manufacturing sewer
pipes:
a. Resistance to corrosion
Sewer carries wastewater that releases gases such as H2S. This gas in contact with moisture
can be converted in to sulfuric acid. The formation of acids can lead to the corrosion of sewer
pipe. Hence, selection of corrosion resistance material is must for long life of pipe.
b. Resistance to abrasion
Sewage contain considerable amount of suspended solids, part of which are inorganic solids
such as sand or grit. These particles moving at high velocity can cause wear and tear of sewer
material. This abrasion can reduce thickness of pipe and reduces hydraulic efficiency of the
sewer by making the interior surface rough.
c. Strength and durability
The sewer pipe should have sufficient strength to withstand all the forces that are likely to come
on them. Sewers are subjected to considerable external loads of backfill material and traffic
load, if any. They are not subjected to internal pressure of water. To withstand external load
safely without failure, sufficient wall thickness of pipe or reinforcement is essential. In
addition, the material selected should be durable and should have sufficient resistance against
natural weathering action to provide longer life to the pipe.
d. Weight of the material
The material selected for sewer should have less specific weight, which will make pipe light in
weight. The lightweight pipes are easy for handling and transport.
e. Imperviousness
To eliminate chances of sewage seepage from sewer to surrounding, the material selected for
pipe should be impervious.
f. Economy and cost
Sewer should be less costly to make the sewerage scheme economical.
g. Hydraulically efficient
The sewer shall have smooth interior surface to have less frictional coefficient.

Shapes of Sewers
Sewers are generally circular pipes laid below ground level, slopping continuously towards the
outfall. These are designed to flow under gravity. Mostly sewers of circular shape are used in
all the sewerage schemes, because of the following facts:
(i) It affords least perimeter and hence construction material required is minimum.
(ii) They are easy to construct and handle.
(iii) Since it has no corners, there are less chances of deposition of organic matters.
(iv) They possess excellent hydraulic properties.
However, sewers of non circular shapes are used for the following reasons.
(i) To develop self cleansing velocity in the sewer, when the flow is minimum.
(ii) To effect economy in the construction.
(iii) To increase the headway so that a man can enter easily for repairs, and cleaning.
Following are the non-circular shapes of sewers which are commonly used for sewers:
1. Box or rectangular sewers
2. Egg-shaped or avoid sewers
3. Basket-handle sections
4. Horse shoe sewers
5. Parabolic sewers
6. Semi-circular sewers
7. Semi-elliptical sewers
8. U-shaped sewers

Circular Shaped Sewer

Circular sewer is mostly used sewer and is preferred for all types of sewage. This shape of
sewer is easy to construct, requires less construction materials and is economical.

Standard egg-shaped sewer

gives higher velocity as compared to a circular-shaped sewer. Therefore, it is suitable for low
flow conditions. The construction process of such types of sewers is difficult and requires more
amount of construction materials. Hence, it is costly. A Standard egg-shaped sewer is preferred
for combined sewer.

New Egg-shaped Sewer

The new egg-shaped sewer is also preferred for the combined sewer.
Horse Shoe Shaped Sewer
As the name suggests, its shape looks like a Horseshoe. Horse-shoe shaped sewer is a large
size of sewer mostly preferred for the location where heavy discharge is required. The invert
portion may be circular, parabolic or flat

Parabolic Shaped Sewer

Parabolic-shaped sewer is used for lower quantities of sewage discharge. This is small in size
and the upper edge of the sewer is made like a parabola. The invert section of this sewer may
be parabolic or elliptical in shape

Semi-Elliptical Shaped Sewer

Semi elliptical shape sewers are mostly preferred for carrying large amounts of sewage. The
upper arch of this sewer forms an elliptical shape. The invert of this sewer may be parabolic or
elliptical.
Rectangular Shaped Sewer
A rectangular-shaped sewer is a large sewer mostly used for carrying a large quantity of
sewage, it is also used for discharging stormwater. Construction and maintenance work is very
easy for this type of sewer

U-shaped Sewer
As the name suggests, its shape is similar to the English capital letter “U”. The U-shaped sewer
is used for heavy discharge of sewage. As it is large in size, it is also used for carrying
stormwater as well.

Basket Handle Shaped Sewer

Basket Handel shaped sewer is used for the small amount of sewage discharge. Its upper portion
is like a basket Handel and its lower portion got the shape of a narrow channel
Semi-circular Shaped Sewer
It is suitable for the location where a large sewer is required. The upper arch of the sewer forms
a semi-circular shape. It has a large section and is used for heavy sewage discharge. But, it is
old and outdated

Laying Of Sewer Pipes

Joints in sewers
Joints are used to join various lengths of pipes to develop a sewer line.
The type of joint to be adopted depends on the pipe material, internal pressure and external
loads, and many other factors.
The following are the requirements of a good sewer joint.
(i) It should be water tight.
(ii) It should be easy to construct.
(iii) It should be economical.
(iv) Tree roots should not be able to penetrate the joint.
(v) It should resist to acidic, alkaline or gaseous action of sewage.
(vi) It should be flexible so that due to slight settlements in sewer line, it
must not get damaged.
[Link] and spigot joint
Such joints are quite common in plain or reinforced concrete pipes of sewers.
Each pipe has a spigot end and a bell or socket end. Cement mortar of proportion 1:1 or 1:2
inserted between the space of the bell end and spigot end. Gasket or jute packing may placed
in the inner side, to maintain the alignment of the sewer. The mortar caulked joint thus finished
at about 45 degree on the outer face.

2. Collar joints
For such a joints in sewers, the plain ends of the consecutive lengths of pipe are kept near each
other. A collar of slightly bigger diameter is placed around. The annular space between the
collar and the ends of the pipe then filled with cement mortar of 1:1 proportion. Such joints
thus used for concrete pipes of larger diameters.
3. Simplex joints
Simplex joint, also referred as ring tie coupling, is similar to collar joints. These are used for
asbestos cement pipes. Thus the joint consists of a pipe sleeve or coupling of asbestos cement.
Also it has two rubber rings which then compressed between the exterior of the pipes and
interior of the sleeve. Such a joint is quite flexible.

5. Mechanical joints in sewers

Such joints use mechanical devices like flange rings, bolts, screwed ends etc. so that to keep
the two ends together. Therefore it, used for metallic sewers made of cast iron, steel etc.
Testing of sewers
Test for straightness of alignment and obstruction
At the high end of sewer or drain, a smooth ball of diameter 13 mm less that the pipe bore is
insert. If there is no obstruction in the form of yarn or mortar projecting through the joint,
then the ball will roll down the invert of the pipe. Thus emerge at the lower end. Alternatively
a double disc or solid closed cylinder 75 mm less than internal dimension of the sewer may
run. The run through the stretch of the sewer, ensures that it is free from any obstruction.
A mirror is placed at one end of the sewer line; lamp at other end. If the pipe line is straight,
the full circle of light will observed in mirror. If the pipe line is not straight, this would
apparent. The mirror will also indicate any obstruction in the pipe-barrel.
Water Test
This test is performed for underground sewer pipes before back filling is done. The test
should be carried out by suitably plugging the lower end of the drain and filling the system
with water. A knuckle band shall be temporarily jointed at the top end and a sufficient length
of vertical pipe is jointed so as to provide the required test head.

Smoke test: -
This test is performed for soil pipes, vent pipes laid above ground.
The test is conducted under a pressure of 2.5m of water and maintained for 15 minutes after
all trap have been filled with water. The smoke is produced by burning oil waste or tar paper
in combustion chamber of a smoke machine.
Ventilation of Sewer
Sewage flowing in sewer has got lot of organic and inorganic matters present in it. Some
of the matters decompose and produce gases. These gases are foul smelling, corrosive and
explosive in nature. If these gases are not disposed of properly they may create a number of
difficulties. They may cause air locks in sewers and affect the flow of sewage. They may
prove to be dangerous for the maintenance squad working in sewers. They may also cause
explosions and put the sewer line out of commission.

Sewer Cleaning
Hydraulic cleaning - Where blockage in sewers is found, a nozzle is inserted into the access
point nearest to the blockage and water is released at high pressure that pushes the blockage
into the main sewer system. Sometimes, the blockage includes gravel, roots, sand and other
such debris pushed into the sewer system through storm drains during bad weather
conditions. In such cases, vacuum trucks are employed that suck up the stuck debris and dirt
and dispose them of in a landfill. Flushing operations can be carried out using flush tanks, fire
hose, etc., where a sudden flow of high velocity, deep water is allowed through the sewer,
cleaning it effectively.
Mechanical cleaning - Power rodders, hand rods, and hand-held drain augersare used in
this method that can cut, scrape, pull and push the debris out of the pipe. This can effectively
cut roots or shred large blocks of collected debris. This operation usually requires a follow up
with hydraulic cleaning as mechanical cleaning is more effective in clearing blockages than
cleaning.
Sewer Appurtenances
are those structures that are constructed at suitable intervals along with a sewerage system.
These structures help in effective operation and maintenance of the sewerage system.
Manhole
Drop Manhole
Lamp Holes
Clean-outs
Catch Basins
Flushing Tank
Grease and Oil Traps
Manholes:
The manholes are R.C.C or masonry chambers constructed on the sewer line to facilitate a
man to enter the sewer line and make the necessary inspection and repairs. These are fitted
with suitable cast iron covers. The manholes should be installed at every point where there is
a change in direction, change in pipe size, or considerable change in gradient. As far as
possible sewer line between two subsequent man holes should be straight. The centre distance
between manholes is less for sewers of smaller size while it may behave such a size that man
can easily enter in the working chamber. The minimum size is 50cm diameter.

Classification of Manhole:
Shallow Manholes (Inspection Manholes) are the one which are about 0.75 to 0.9 m in depth.
They are constructed at the start of a branch sewer.
Normal Manholes are those which are about 1.5 m in depth. They are constructed either in
square (1 m * 1m) or rectangular (0.8 m * 1.2 m) in cross section.
Deep Manholes are those which are deeper than 1.5 m. The size of such a manhole is larger at
the bottom, which is reduced at the top to reduce the size of manhole cover.
Drop Manhole: It is a measure of connecting high level branch sewer to low level main
sewer. They are connected through a vertical pipe. The installation of a drop manhole
becomes necessary when there is difference in levels is more than 60cm between branch
sewer and the main sewer, which can be avoided by increasing the sewer grade.
Components parts of a Deep Manhole are:
i) Access shaft ii) Working chamber iii) Bottom or Invert iv) Side walls v) Steps or ladder vi)
Top cover
Catch Basins Catch basins are the structures of pucca chamber and a stout cover. They are
meant for the retention of suspended grit, sludge and other heavy debris and floating rubbish
from rain water which otherwise might have entered and cause choking problems. The outlet
pipe from the catch basin may be submerged in order to prevent the escape of odours from
the sewer and provision that also causes retention of floating matter. Their use is not
recommended since they are more of a nuisance and a source of mosquito breeding apart
from posing substantial maintenance problems.

Flushing devices
Flushing tanks are provided to flush the sewers. They are seldom used. At such places where
self-cleansing velocity is not developed or when the ground is flat and it is not possible to lay
the sewer lines at designed gradients, flushing tanks required to flush the sewer line. They are
installed at suitable intervals to clean the sewers of choking and obstructions. It resembles a
manhole but it is equipped with a siphon at the bottom. This is called the automatic flushing
tank in which the water is automatically released from the tank at suitable intervals which may
be water supply pipe tap.
Grease and Oil traps
The sewage from kitchens of hotels and restaurants and industries contains oil and grease
and fats. If these oils and greases are not removed from the sewage they will stick to the interior
surface of the sewer and clogging. Sewage from garages, particularly from floor drains and
wash racks, contains oil, mud and sand. The principle, on which oil and grease trap work, is
since oil and grease being lighter than water float on the surface of sewage, and the outlet is
provided well below the surface so the water is excluded from oil and grease. If silt also has to
be excluded, it is done by providing outlet at top. The silt settles at bottom and silt free water
can be drained through outlet.

Lamp Holes
Lamp holes consists of a vertical A.C. pipe of 22.5cm diameter and connected to the main
sewer with the help of a Tee lamp holes are provided for the following purposes
(1) Distance between the man holes is usually large and it is not possible to approach full length
from both the man holes. Lamp holes are provided between the man holes. Sewer line is
examined by lowering an electric lamp in the lamp hole and observing the light from the
adjacent man holes. If light is visible, that it indicates that the length of the sewer is
unobstructed.
(2) They may be used under certain circumstances for flushing the sewer line.
(3) By providing a perforated cover, the ventilation of the sewer can be achieved.
Various Types of Traps
1. Gully Trap:
These traps are constructed outside the building to carry waste water discharge from washbasin,
sinks, bathroom etc. and are connected to the nearest building drain/sewer so that foul gases from
sewer do not come to the house. These are deep seal traps, the depth of water seal should be 50 mm
minimum. It also prevents the entry of cockroach and other insects from sewer line to waste pipes
carrying waste water.

2. P. Trap:
This trap is used with Indian water closet (ORISSA Pattern). The traps are made from cast iron or
UPV sheet. This trap also has water seal and prevents entry of foul gases to the house.

3. S. Trap:
This trap is similar to P. trap and is used for fixing water closets in toilets. The only difference
between P trap and S trap is that P. trap is used for outlet through the wall whereas S. trap is
used for outlet through the floor.

4. Floor Trap or Nahini Trap:

This trap is provided in the floor to collect waste water from washbasin, shower, sink and
bathroom etc. These are available in cast iron or UPVC material and have removable grating
(JALI) on the top of the trap. The minimum depth of water seal should be 50 mm.
5. Intercepting Trap:
This trap is provided at the last main hole of building sewerage to prevent entry of foul gases from
public sewer to building sewer. It has a deep-water seal of 100 mm.

6. Grease Trap:
This trap is a device to collect the grease contents of waste and can be cleaned from the surface.
This is generally used in food processing unit.

7. Bottle Trap:
This trap is used below washbasin and sinks to prevent entry of foul gases.

8. Q Trap:
This trap is used in toilet under water closet. It is almost similar to S trap and is used in upper
storey other than ground floor.

Water Seal
Water seal in a trap is the depth of water which should be removed from a fully charge trap
before gases at atmospheric pressure may pass from the waste pipe through trap into a building.
The tape is useless unless they retain their seals at all times. The seal may be broken due to air
compressor, momentum and evaporation. The trap in fittings in range is liable to siphonic
action and each trap should be ventilated.
House Drainage System

Basic principles of good drainage system

1.) Material have adequate strength and durability.

2.) Diameter of drain to be as small as possible.
3.) Accessibility- every part of drain within reach for inspection and maintenance.
4.) Laid in straight runs as far as possible.
5.) Drains laid to a gradient.
6.) Inlet be trapped, to prevent entry of foul air into building.
7.) Access fittings - Inspection chamber, rodding eye, manhole - placed at changes of direction
and gradient.
8.) Inspection chambers placed at junctions.
9.) Junctions between drains arranged so that incoming drain joints at oblique angle in direction
of flow.
10.) Avoid drain under buildings if possible.
Maintenance of house drainage
For efficient working of the house drainage system it should be properly maintained and cleaned
at regular intervals. Following points should be carefully looked at:

1. Entry of undesired elements - should take extreme precautions to avoid entry of undesired
elements in the system such as grit, sand, decayed fruits, pieces of cloths, leaves, etc.
2. Flushing - advisable to flush the system once or twice in a day in order to maintain it in proper
working order.
3. Inspection - various unit should be inspected at regular intervals and the obstructions if any
should be removed. Damaged pipes should also be replaced.
4. Quality of materials - Better quality materials should be used