UNIT II

MACHINES AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Machines: Construction, principle and operation of (i) DC Motor, (ii) DC Generator, (iii)
Single Phase Transformer, (iv) Three Phase Induction Motor and (v) Alternator, Applications
of electrical machines.
Measuring Instruments: Construction and working principle of Permanent Magnet Moving
Coil (PMMC), Moving Iron (MI) Instruments and Wheat Stone bridge.

Principle of operation and working of a DC generator

Generator: Generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Principle of operation of Generator:
An electric generator works based on the principle that whenever flux is cut by an armature conductor,
an EMF is induced which will cause a current to flow if the circuit is closed.
The direction of induced EMF (and hence current) is given by Fleming‟s right hand rule. Therefore,
the essential components of a generator are:
(a) A magnetic field
(b) Conductor or a group of conductors
(c) Motion of conductor w.r.t. magnetic field.
Simple Loop Generator
Consider a single turn loop ABCD rotating clockwise in a uniform magnetic field with a constant speed
as shown in Figure. As the loop rotates, the flux linking the coil sides AB and CD changes
continuously. Hence the e.m.f. induced in these coil sides also changes but the e.m.f. induced in one

coil side adds to that induced in the other.

(i) When the loop is in position no. 1 [See Fig. 1.1], the generated e.m.f. is zero because the coil sides
(AB and CD) are cutting no flux but are moving parallel to it.
(ii) When the loop is in position no. 2, the coil sides are moving at an angle to the flux and,
therefore, a low e.m.f. is generated as indicated by point 2 in Fig. (1.2).
 (iii) When the loop is in position no. 3, the coil sides (AB and CD) are at right angle to the flux
and are, therefore, cutting the flux at a maximum rate. Hence at this instant, the generated e.m.f. is
maximum as indicated by point 3 in Fig. (1.2).
(iv) At position 4, the generated e.m.f. is less because the coil sides are cutting the flux at an
angle.
(v) At position 5, no magnetic lines are cut and hence induced e.m.f. is zero as indicated by point 5 in
Fig. (1.2).
(vi) At position 6, the coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity and hence the direction of
generated e.m.f. is reversed. The maximum e.m.f. in this direction (i.e., reverse direction, See Fig.

1.2) will be when the loop is at position 7 and zero when at position 1. This cycle repeats with each
revolution of the coil.

Fig. (1.1)
Note that EMF generated in the loop is alternating one. It is because any coil side; say AB has EMF
in one direction when under the influence of N-pole and in the other direction when under the
influence of S-pole. If a load is connected across the ends of the loop, then alternating current
will flow through the load. The alternating voltage generated in the loop can be converted into
direct voltage by a device called commutator. We then have the D.C. generator. In fact, a
commutator is a mechanical rectifier.
Constructional details of the DC Machine:
A DC machine is a device that deals with the conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy
and vice versa and which consist of following
essential parts.
1) Magnetic frame or YOKE
2) Pole cores and pole shoes
3) Field coils or pole coils or field winding
4) Armature core
5) Armature winding
6) Commutator
7) Brushes and bearings
Yoke:
1. The magnetic frame or the yoke of DC machine made up of cast iron or cast steel.
2. Its main function is to form a protective covering over the inner sophisticated parts of the motor
and provide support to the poles.
Pole cores and pole shoes:
1. The construction of magnetic poles basically comprises of two parts namely, the pole core
and the pole shoe stacked together under hydraulic pressure and then attached to the yoke.
2. Field winding is placed on the pole core. The pole core function is to just hold the pole shoe
over the yoke.
3. Whereas the pole shoe spreads the flux produced over the air gap between the stator and
rotor. Pole shoes made with either cast-iron or cast-steel.

Field Winding:
1. The field winding of DC machine is made up of copper wire.
2. When the field current flows through these coils, they electro magnetize the poles which
produce the necessary flux.
Armature core:
1. It houses the armature conductors or coils and causes them to rotate and hence cut the
magnetic flux of the field magnets.
2. It consists of slotted soft-iron laminations that are stacked to form a cylindrical core.
3. The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy-current losses.
Armature Winding:
1. The winding in which the EMF is induced is known as armature winding.
2. The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are connected in a suitable
manner. This is known as “Armature winding”.
3. The construction of armature winding of DC machine can be of two types:-
a. Lap winding b. Wave winding.
Commutator:
1. The Commutator of DC machine is a cylindrical structure made up of copper segments
stacked together, but insulated from each other by mica.
2. Commutator reverses the current direction between the rotor and the external circuit.
3. Its main function as far as the DC motor is concerned it produces unidirectional torque.
4. In DC Generators commutator is a mechanical rectifier. This converts the alternating voltage
generated in the armature winding into direct voltage across the brushes.
 Brushes of DC Machine:
1. The brushes of DC machine are made with carbon or graphite structures, making sliding
contact over the rotating commutator.
2. The brushes are used to transfer the current from external circuit to the rotating commutator
from where it flows into the armature winding.

Principle of operation and working of a DC Motor

Principle of Operation of DC Motor: A machine that converts electrical power into mechanical
power is known as a DC motor
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-carrying conductor
generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it will experience a
force.
This force is proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic
field. F = BIL [Link] direction of force is given by FLEMINGS‟S LEFT HAND RULE.
Working of D.C. Motor:

Consider a part of a multipolar D.C. motor as shown in Figure

below when the terminals of the motor are connected to an
external source of D.C. supply:
(i) The field magnets are excited developing alternate N and S
poles;
(ii) The armature conductors carry currents.

All conductors under N-pole carry currents in one direction while all the conductors under S
pole carry currents in the opposite direction. Suppose the conductors under N-pole carry
currents into the plane of the paper and those under S-pole carry currents out of the plane of
the paper as shown in Figure. Since each armature conductor is carrying current and is
placed in the magnetic field, mechanical force acts on it. Referring to Figure and applying
Fleming‟s left hand rule, it is clear that force on each conductor is tending to rotate the
armature in anticlockwise direction. All these forces add together to produce a driving torque
which sets the armature rotating. When the conductor moves from one side of a brush to the
other, the current in that conductor is reversed and at the same time it comes under the influence
of next pole which is of opposite polarity. Consequently, the direction of force on the conductor
remains the same.
Principle of operation and working of a single phase transformer:
A transformer is a static piece of equipment used either for raising or lowering the voltage
of an AC supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current.
Principle of operation
Transformers mainly work under the principle of “Mutual Induction”, according to
“Faraday‟s Laws of Electro Magnetic Induction” EMF is induced in the transformer.

Mutual Induction Principle: The change of current in one coil produces EMF in the other
coil when the two coils are placed mutually such that there is having same magnetic
medium.

When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding, an alternating flux ϕ is

set up in the core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.f.s E1 and
E2 in them according to “Faraday‟s Laws of Electro Magnetic Induction”.

Working
When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding, an alternating flux ϕ is
set up in the core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces EMFS E1 and
E2 in them according to Faraday‟s laws of electromagnetic induction. The EMF E1 is
termed as primary EMF and EMF E2 is termed as secondary EMF.
E1 = -N1 (dϕ/dt)
E2 = -N2 (dϕ/dt)
Note that magnitudes of E1 and E2 depend upon the number of turns on the secondary and
primary respectively. If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1 (or V2 > V1) and we get a step-up transformer.
On the other hand, if N2 < N1, then E2 < E1 (or V2 <V1)

and we get a step-down transformer. If load is connected across the secondary winding, the
secondary EMF E2 will cause a current I2 to flow through the load. Thus, a transformer enables
us to transfer A.C power from one circuit to another with a change in voltage level.
Constructional details of the single phase transformer.

Construction of Transformer:

The various parts of transformer are

1. Core: It is made up of high grade silicon steel
laminations. Its function is to carry the flux, providing low
reluctance to it. Generally „L‟ shaped or „T‟ and „I‟ shaped
laminations are used as shown in figure.
2. Limb: It is vertical portion of the core and its function is
to carry the windings.
3. Yoke: The top and bottom horizontal portion of the core is called yoke. Its function is to
carry the flux produced by one winding to reach to the other winding and provide the low
reluctance path to the flux.

4. Windings: The coils used are wound on the limbs and are insulated from each other. The
function of the windings is to carry the current and produce the flux necessary for the
functioning of the transformer.
5. Conservator: The oil in the transformer expands when temperature inside the the
transformer increases due to heat while it contracts when the temperature decreases the
function of the conservator is to take up the expansion and contraction of the oil without
allowing it to come in contact with the ambient air.
6. Breather: The breather is a device which extracts the moisture from the air when the air is
taken in and does not allow oil to come in contact with the moisture. The breather contains
silica gel crystals which releases the pressure and protects the transformer.
7. Buchholz relay: It is a safety gas operated relay connected to transformer, when the fault
gets developed inside the transformer, the gases are released. The buchholz relay is operated
with these gases and trips the circuit breaker to protect the device.
8. Transformer Oil: It is used as the coolant for cooling purpose and also used in the
Insulation purpose.
9. Bushings: The purpose of bushings is to provide proper insulation for the incoming and
outgoing leads.
10. Radiators: Radiators are used in transformers for cooling the transformer winding
General Construction of transformers:
A transformer consists of two inductive windings and a laminated steel core.
Transformer windings:
There are two windings present in the transformer. One is primary winding, and another
one is secondary winding. These windings are made by Copper.
Transformer Core:
The magnetic core is a stack of thin silicon steel laminations.
The core is made of silicon steel which has low hysteresis loss and high permeability.
And core is laminated in order to reduce eddy current loss.
On the basis of construction, transformers can be classified into two types as;
(i) Core type transformer and (ii) Shell type transformer
Core type transformer
 In core type T/F, the windings surround aconsiderable part of steel core.
 The core consists of two vertical legs (or limbs).
 In a core type T/F, half of primary winding and half
of secondary winding are placed on each limb in
order to reduce leakage flux.
 Usually LV winding placed adjacent to the core and
HV winding is placed outside, in order to minimize
the amount of insulation required.
Shell type transformers
In shell type T/F‟s Core is surrounded considerable partof winding of transformer.
 Core has three limbs.
 In this both the windings are placed round
thecentral limb.

 The windings are placed like a

sandwiched manner in order to reduce
leakage flux.
 Construction of 3 phase Induction motor
A 3-phase induction motor has two main parts (i) stator and (ii) rotor. The rotor is
separated from the stator by a small air-gap which ranges from 0.4 mm to 4 mm,
depending on the power of the motor.

1. Stator
It consists of a steel frame which encloses a hollow, cylindrical core made up of thin
laminations of silicon steel to reduce hysteresis and eddy current losses. A
number of evenly spaced slots are provided on the inner periphery of the laminations.
The insulated connected to form a balanced 3-phase star or delta connected
circuit. The 3-phase stator winding is wound for a definite number of poles as per
requirement of speed. Greater the number of poles, lesser is the speed of the motor and
vice-versa. When 3-phase supply is given to the stator winding, a rotating magnetic
field of constant magnitude is produced. This rotating field induces currents in the rotor
by electromagnetic induction.

2. Rotor
The rotor, mounted on a shaft, is a hollow laminated core having slots on its outer
periphery. The winding placed in these slots (called rotor winding) may be one of the
following two types:
(i) Squirrel cage type (ii) Wound type

Squirrel cage rotor. It consists of a laminated cylindrical core having parallel slots
on its outer periphery. One copper or aluminum bar is placed in each slot. All these
bars are joined at each end by metal rings called end rings. This forms a
permanently short-circuited winding which is indestructible. The entire construction
(bars and end rings) resembles a squirrel cage and hence the name. The rotor is not
connected electrically to the supply but has current induced in it by transformer action
from the stator.
 (ii) Wound rotor. It consists of a laminated cylindrical core and carries a 3- phase
winding, similar to the one on the stator. The rotor winding is uniformly distributed in
the slots and is usually star-connected. The open ends of the rotor winding are brought
out and joined to three insulated slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft with one
brush resting on each slip ring. The three brushes are connected to a 3-phase star-
connected rheostat as shown in Figure. At starting, the external resistances are
included in the rotor circuit to give a large starting torque. These resistances are
gradually reduced to zero as the motor runs up to speed.

The external resistances are used during starting period only. When the motor attains
normal speed, the three brushes are short-circuited so that the wound rotor runs
like a squirrel cage rotor.

The other parts, which are required to complete the induction motor, are:
1. Shaft for transmitting the torque to the load. This shaft is made up of steel.
2. Bearings for supporting the rotating shaft.
3. One of the problems with electrical motor is the production of heat during its
rotation. In order to overcome this problem we need fan for cooling.
4. For receiving external electrical connection Terminal box is needed.
5. There is a small distance between rotor and stator which usually varies from 0.4 mm
to 4 mm. Such a distance is called air gap
Working Principle of Three Phase Induction Motor

Consider a portion of 3-phase induction motor as shown in Figure. The operation of the motor can
be explained as under:
(i) When 3-phase stator winding is energized from a 3-phase supply, a rotating
magnetic field is set up which rotates round the stator at synchronous speed Ns (= 120 f/P).
(ii) The rotating field passes through the air gap and cuts the rotor conductors, which as
yet, are stationary. Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary rotor,
e.m.f.s is induced in the rotor conductors. Since the rotor circuit is short-circuited, currents start
flowing in the rotor conductors.
(iii) The current-carrying rotor conductors are placed in the magnetic field produced by
the stator. Consequently, mechanical force acts on the rotor conductors. The sum of the
mechanical forces on all the rotor conductors produces a torque which tends to move the rotor in
the same direction as the rotating field.
(iv) The fact that rotor is urged to follow the stator field (i.e., rotor moves in the direction
of stator field) can be explained by Lenz‟s law. According to this law, the direction of rotor
currents will be such that they tend to oppose the cause producing them. Now, the cause producing
the rotor currents is the relative speed between the rotating field and the stationary rotor
conductors. Hence to reduce this relative speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction as that
of stator field and tries to catch it.
Alternators:
The machine which produces 3-phase power from mechanical power is called an alternator or
synchronous generator
Construction of Alternator
An alternator has 3,-phase winding on the stator and a d.c. field winding on the rotor.

1. Stator
It is the stationary part of the machine and is built up of
sheet-steel laminations having slots on its inner periphery. A
3-phase winding is placed in these slots and serves as the
armature winding of the alternator. The armature winding is
always connected in star and the neutral is connected to
ground.

2. Rotor
The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with
direct current through two slip rings by a separate d.c. source.
This d.c. source (called exciter) is generally a small d.c. shunt
or compound generator mounted on the shaft of the alternator. Rotor construction is of two types,
namely;
(i) Salient (or projecting) pole type
(ii) Non-salient (or cylindrical) pole type

(i) Salient pole type

In this type, salient or projecting poles are mounted on a large circular steel frame which is
fixed to the shaft of the [Link] individual field pole windings are connected in series in
such a way that when the field winding is energized by the d.c. exciter, adjacent poles have
opposite polarities. Low-speed rotors always possess a large diameter to provide the necessary
space for the poles. Consequently, salient-pole type rotors have large diameters and short axial
lengths.
Low and medium-speed alternators (120-400 r.p.m.) such as those driven by diesel engines or
water turbines have salient pole type rotors

(ii) Non-salient pole type

In this type, the rotor is made of smooth solid forged-steel radial cylinder having a number of slots
along the outer periphery. The field windings are embedded in
these slots and are connected in series to the slip rings through which they are energized by the
d.c. exciter. The regions forming the poles are usually left unslotted . It is clear that the poles
formed are non-salient i.e., they do not project out from the rotor surface.
High-speed alternators (1500 or 3000 r.p.m.) are driven by steam turbines and use non-salient type
rotors. turbo alternators possess 2 or 4 poles and have small diameters and very long axial lengths.
 Salient Pole Non Salient Pole

Principle of operation of Alternator:

The rotor winding is energized from the d.c. exciter and alternate N and S poles are developed on
the rotor. When the rotor is rotated in anti-clockwise direction by a prime mover, the stator or
armature conductors are cut by the magnetic flux of rotor poles. Consequently, e.m.f. is induced in the
armature conductors due to electromagnetic induction. The induced e.m.f. is alternating since N and
S poles of rotor alternately pass the armature conductors. The direction of induced e.m.f. can be found
by Fleming‟s right hand rule and frequency is given by;

where N = speed of rotor in r.p.m.

P = number of rotor poles

The magnitude of the voltage induced in each phase depends upon the rotor flux, the number and
position of the conductors in the phase and the speed of the rotor.

The above figure shows star-connected armature winding and d.c. field winding. When the rotor is
rotated, a 3-phase voltage is induced in the armature winding. The magnitude of induced e.m.f.
depends upon the speed of rotation and the d.c. exciting current. The magnitude of e.m.f. in each
phase of the armature winding is the same. However, they differ in phase by 120° electrical as
shown in the phasor diagram.
 Applications of Electrical Machines

DC Generators Applications:

Testing Purpose in laboratory, speed control of motors, Battery charging, lighting, excitation
to alternators, portable power supply, regenerative breaking, booster generators, arc lightning,
to drive a motor, power supply for hotels, offices, homes and lodges, arc wielding .

DC Motors Applications:

Cranes, Air compressor, Lifts, Elevators, Winching system, Electric traction, Hair drier,
Wiper, Automatic wind screen, Drills, Conveyors, Fans, Boring mills, Shapers, Blowers,
Spinning and weighing machine, Centrifugal pumps, Presses, Electric shovels, Reciprocating
machine, Stamping machine, Compressors, Rolling mills.

Transformer Applications:

Step up the voltage, Step down the voltage, Instrument transformers, to control input voltage
(auto transformer), testing purposes in laboratory, audio transformers.

3 phase Induction motors Applications:

Lifts, Cranes, Hoists, Large exhaust fans, Lathe machines, Crushers, Oil extracting mills,
Textiles, Commercial electric, Hybrid vehicles, Jaw mills.

Alternators Applications:

Automobiles, Electrical power generator plants, Marine applications, Diesel electrical multiple
units, Radiofrequency transmission, Emergency communication and lightning, Backup power
supply.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument
One of the most accurate type of instrument used for D.C. measurements is PMMC
instrument.

Construction: A permanent magnet is used in this type instrument. Aluminum former

is provided in the cylindrical in between two poles of the permanent magnet . Coils are
wound on the aluminum former which is connected with the spindle. This spindle is supported
with jeweled bearing. Two springs are attached on either end of the spindle. The terminals of
the moving coils are connected to the spring. Therefore the current flows through spring 1,
moving coil and spring 2.

Damping: Eddy current damping is used. This is produced by aluminum former.

Control: Spring control is used.

Principle of operation
When D.C. supply is given to the moving coil, D.C. current flows through it. When the
current carrying coil is kept in the magnetic field, it experiences a force. This force produces
a torque and the former rotates. The pointer is attached with the spindle. When the former
rotates, the pointer moves over the calibrated scale. When the polarity is reversed a torque is
produced in the opposite direction. The mechanical stopper does not allow the deflection in
the opposite direction. Therefore the polarity should be maintained with PMMC instrument.
 If A.C. is supplied, a reversing torque is produced. This cannot produce a continuous
deflection. Therefore this instrument cannot be used in A.C.

Torque developed by PMMC

Let Td =deflecting torque

TC = controlling torque
 = angle of deflection
K=spring constant b=width of
the coil
l=height of the coil or length of coil N=No. of turns
I=current B=Flux density
A=area of the coil
The force produced in the coil is given by
F  BIL sin 

When   90
For N turns,
F  NBIL
Torque produced Td  F r distance

Td  NBIL b  BINA

Td  BANI

Td  I

Advantages
 Torque/weight is high
 Power consumption is less
 Scale is uniform
 Damping is very effective
 Since operating field is very strong, the effect of stray field is negligible
 Range of instrument can be extended
Disadvantages
 Use only for D.C.
 Cost is high
 Error is produced due to ageing effect of PMMC
 Friction and temperature error are present
Moving Iron (MI) instruments
One of the most accurate instrument used for both AC and DC measurement is moving iron
instrument. There are two types of moving iron instrument.
 Attraction type
 Repulsion type
Attraction type M.I. instrument
Construction:The moving iron fixed to the spindle is kept near the hollow fixed coil. The
pointer and balance weight are attached to the spindle, which is supported with jeweled
bearing. Here air friction damping is used.

Principle of operation
The current to be measured is passed through the fixed coil. As the current is flow through
the fixed coil, a magnetic field is produced. By magnetic induction the moving iron gets
magnetized. The north pole of moving coil is attracted by the south pole of fixed coil. Thus
the deflecting force is produced due to force of attraction. Since the moving iron is attached
with the spindle, the spindle rotates and the pointer moves over the calibrated scale. But the
force of attraction depends on the current flowing through the coil.
 Torque developed by M.I
Let „ ‟ be the deflection corresponding to a current of „i‟ amp
Let the current increases by di, the corresponding deflection is „   d ‟
There is change in inductance since the position of moving iron change w.r.t the fixed
electromagnets.
Let the new inductance value be „L+dL‟. The current change by „di‟ is dt
seconds. Let the emf induced in the coil be „e‟ volt.

The energy is used in to two forms. Part of energy is stored in the inductance. Remaining
energy is converted in to mechanical energy which produces deflection.
Change in energy stored=Final energy-initial energy stored

Mechanical work to move the pointer by d

 Td d
By law of conservation of energy,
Electrical energy supplied=Increase in stored energy+ mechanical work done.
Input energy= Energy stored + Mechanical energy
 Advantages
 MI can be used in AC and DC
 It is cheap
 Supply is given to a fixed coil, not in moving coil.
 Simple construction
 Less friction error.
Disadvantages
 It suffers from eddy current and hysteresis error
 Scale is not uniform
 It consumed more power
 Calibration is different for AC and DC operation
Repulsion type moving iron instrument

Construction:The repulsion type instrument has a hollow fixed iron attached to it (Fig.
1.12). The moving iron is connected to the spindle. The pointer is also attached to the spindle
in supported with jeweled bearing.
Principle of operation: When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is
produced by it. So both fixed iron and moving iron are magnetized with the same polarity,
since they are kept in the same magnetic field. Similar poles of fixed and moving iron get
repelled. Thus the deflecting torque is produced due to magnetic repulsion. Since moving
iron is attached to spindle, the spindle will move. So that pointer moves over the calibrated
scale.
Damping: Air friction damping is used to reduce the
oscillation. Control: Spring control is used.
Wheat stone Bridge:

Wheatstone bridge is used to measure the unknown resistance of a resistor

The circuit diagram of Wheatstone Bridge is shown in figure. The four arms of the
bridge ac, ad, cb and db contains the four resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4
respectively. G is a galvanometer or the null detector. E is the source of
EMF.

I1, I2, I3 and I4 are the currents through the resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4,
respectively.

When the current through galvanometer is zero, at that time terminals c and d are
said to be at same potential with respect to point „a‟ i.e.,

Eac = Ead

Hence the currents I1 = I3 and I2 = I4. This is called the balance of thebridge. And
for this condition, we can write,

I1R1 = I2R2

Where and
Substituting the values of I1 and I2

( ) ( )

The above equation is called the balance equation(condition) of the bridge. Here, if R4 is an
unknown resistor, then its resistance Rx can be measured using the equation

Here resistor R3 is called the standard arm, whereas R2 and R1 are called the ratio arms.
Limitations of Wheatstone bridge:

 For high resistance measurement, the measurement presented by the bridge is so

large that the galvanometer is insensitive to imbalance.
 The other drawback is the resistance change due to the current's heating effect
through the resistance