Lists (cont.

) Dictionaries
Beginner's Python List comprehensions
Dictionaries store connections between pieces of
information. Each item in a dictionary is a key-value pair.

Cheat Sheet squares = [x**2 for x in range(1, 11)]

Slicing a list
A simple dictionary
alien = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5}
finishers = ['sam', 'bob', 'ada', 'bea']
Accessing a value
first_two = finishers[:2]
Variables and Strings print(f"The alien's color is {alien['color']}")
Variables are used to store values. A string is a series of Copying a list
characters, surrounded by single or double quotes. Adding a new key-value pair
copy_of_bikes = bikes[:]
Hello world alien['x_position'] = 0
print("Hello world!") Looping through all key-value pairs
Tuples
Hello world with a variable Tuples are similar to lists, but the items in a tuple can't be fav_numbers = {'eric': 17, 'ever': 4}
modified. for name, number in fav_numbers.items():
msg = "Hello world!"
print(f"{name} loves {number}")
print(msg) Making a tuple
f-strings (using variables in strings) Looping through all keys
dimensions = (1920, 1080)
fav_numbers = {'eric': 17, 'ever': 4}
first_name = 'albert'
for name in fav_numbers.keys():
last_name = 'einstein' If statements
full_name = f"{first_name} {last_name}" print(f"{name} loves a number")
If statements are used to test for particular conditions and
print(full_name) respond appropriately. Looping through all the values
Conditional tests fav_numbers = {'eric': 17, 'ever': 4}
Lists for number in fav_numbers.values():
equals x == 42 print(f"{number} is a favorite")
A list stores a series of items in a particular order. You
not equal x != 42
access items using an index, or within a loop.
greater than x > 42
Make a list or equal to x >= 42 User input
less than x < 42
bikes = ['trek', 'redline', 'giant'] Your programs can prompt the user for input. All input is
or equal to x <= 42 stored as a string.
Get the first item in a list Conditional test with lists Prompting for a value
first_bike = bikes[0] 'trek' in bikes name = input("What's your name? ")
Get the last item in a list 'surly' not in bikes print(f"Hello, {name}!")
last_bike = bikes[-1] Assigning boolean values Prompting for numerical input
Looping through a list game_active = True age = input("How old are you? ")
can_edit = False age = int(age)
for bike in bikes:
print(bike) A simple if test
pi = input("What's the value of pi? ")
Adding items to a list if age >= 18: pi = float(pi)
print("You can vote!")
bikes = []
[Link]('trek') If-elif-else statements
[Link]('redline')
[Link]('giant')
if age < 4:
ticket_price = 0
Python Crash Course
Making numerical lists elif age < 18: A Hands-On, Project-Based
ticket_price = 10 Introduction to Programming
squares = [] else:
for x in range(1, 11): ticket_price = 15 [Link]
[Link](x**2)
While loops Classes Working with files
A while loop repeats a block of code as long as a certain A class defines the behavior of an object and the kind of Your programs can read from files and write to files. Files
condition is true. information an object can store. The information in a class are opened in read mode ('r') by default, but can also be
is stored in attributes, and functions that belong to a class opened in write mode ('w') and append mode ('a').
A simple while loop are called methods. A child class inherits the attributes and
methods from its parent class. Reading a file and storing its lines
current_value = 1
while current_value <= 5: filename = '[Link]'
Creating a dog class
print(current_value) with open(filename) as file_object:
current_value += 1 class Dog(): lines = file_object.readlines()
"""Represent a dog."""
Letting the user choose when to quit for line in lines:
msg = '' def init (self, name): print(line)
while msg != 'quit': """Initialize dog object."""
[Link] = name Writing to a file
msg = input("What's your message? ")
print(msg) filename = '[Link]'
def sit(self): with open(filename, 'w') as file_object:
"""Simulate sitting.""" file_object.write("I love programming.")
Functions print(f"{[Link]} is sitting.")
Functions are named blocks of code, designed to do one Appending to a file
specific job. Information passed to a function is called an my_dog = Dog('Peso')
argument, and information received by a function is called a filename = '[Link]'
parameter. with open(filename, 'a') as file_object:
print(f"{my_dog.name} is a great dog!")
file_object.write("\nI love making games.")
A simple function my_dog.sit()

def greet_user(): Inheritance

Exceptions
"""Display a simple greeting.""" class SARDog(Dog): Exceptions help you respond appropriately to errors that
print("Hello!") """Represent a search dog.""" are likely to occur. You place code that might cause an
error in the try block. Code that should run in response to
greet_user() def init (self, name): an error goes in the except block. Code that should run only
"""Initialize the sardog.""" if the try block was successful goes in the else block.
Passing an argument
super(). init (name)
def greet_user(username): Catching an exception
"""Display a personalized greeting.""" def search(self): prompt = "How many tickets do you need? "
print(f"Hello, {username}!") """Simulate searching.""" num_tickets = input(prompt)
print(f"{[Link]} is searching.")
greet_user('jesse') try:
my_dog = SARDog('Willie') num_tickets = int(num_tickets)
Default values for parameters
except ValueError:
def make_pizza(topping='bacon'): print(f"{my_dog.name} is a search dog.") print("Please try again.")
"""Make a single-topping pizza.""" my_dog.sit() else:
print(f"Have a {topping} pizza!") my_dog.search() print("Your tickets are printing.")

make_pizza()
make_pizza('pepperoni') Infinite Skills Zen of Python
If you had infinite programming skills, what would you Simple is better than complex
Returning a value build?
If you have a choice between a simple and a complex
def add_numbers(x, y): As you're learning to program, it's helpful to think solution, and both work, use the simple solution. Your
"""Add two numbers and return the sum.""" about the real-world projects you'd like to create. It's
return x + y code will be easier to maintain, and it will be easier
a good habit to keep an "ideas" notebook that you for you and others to build on that code later on.
can refer to whenever you want to start a new project.
sum = add_numbers(3, 5)
print(sum)
If you haven't done so already, take a few minutes
and describe three projects you'd like to create. cheat sheets by
[Link]
 Adding elements Sorting a list
Beginner's Python You can add elements to the end of a list, or you can insert The sort() method changes the order of a list
them wherever you like in a list. permanently. The sorted() function returns a copy of the
Cheat Sheet - Lists Adding an element to the end of the list
list, leaving the original list unchanged. You can sort the
items in a list in alphabetical order, or reverse alphabetical
[Link]('amy') order. You can also reverse the original order of the list.
Keep in mind that lowercase and uppercase letters may
Starting with an empty list affect the sort order.
What are lists?
users = [] Sorting a list permanently
A list stores a series of items in a particular order. [Link]('val')
Lists allow you to store sets of information in one [Link]('bob') [Link]()
place, whether you have just a few items or millions [Link]('mia')
Sorting a list permanently in reverse alphabetical
of items. Lists are one of Python's most powerful Inserting elements at a particular position order
features readily accessible to new programmers, and
they tie together many important concepts in [Link](0, 'joe') [Link](reverse=True)
programming. [Link](3, 'bea')
Sorting a list temporarily
Removing elements print(sorted(users))
Defining a list You can remove elements by their position in a list, or by print(sorted(users, reverse=True))
Use square brackets to define a list, and use commas to the value of the item. If you remove an item by its value,
separate individual items in the list. Use plural names for Reversing the order of a list
Python removes only the first item that has that value.
lists, to make your code easier to read. [Link]()
Deleting an element by its position
Making a list
users = ['val', 'bob', 'mia', 'ron', 'ned']
del users[-1] Looping through a list
Removing an item by its value Lists can contain millions of items, so Python provides an
efficient way to loop through all the items in a list. When
Accessing elements [Link]('mia') you set up a loop, Python pulls each item from the list one
Individual elements in a list are accessed according to their at a time and stores it in a temporary variable, which you
provide a name for. This name should be the singular
position, called the index. The index of the first element is Popping elements version of the list name.
0, the index of the second element is 1, and so forth. If you want to work with an element that you're removing
Negative indices refer to items at the end of the list. To get The indented block of code makes up the body of the
from the list, you can "pop" the element. If you think of the loop, where you can work with each individual item. Any
a particular element, write the name of the list and then the list as a stack of items, pop() takes an item off the top of
index of the element in square brackets. lines that are not indented run after the loop is completed.
the stack. By default pop() returns the last element in the
Getting the first element list, but you can also pop elements from any position in the Printing all items in a list
list.
first_user = users[0] for user in users:
Pop the last item from a list print(user)
Getting the second element
most_recent_user = [Link]() Printing a message for each item, and a separate
second_user = users[1] print(most_recent_user) message afterwards
Getting the last element Pop the first item in a list for user in users:
newest_user = users[-1]
print(f"Welcome, {user}!")
first_user = [Link](0)
print(first_user)
print("Welcome, we're glad to see you all!")
Modifying individual items
Once you've defined a list, you can change individual List length
elements in the list. You do this by referring to the index of The len() function returns the number of items in a list.
the item you want to modify.
Find the length of a list
Changing an element num_users = len(users)
users[0] = 'valerie' print(f"We have {num_users} users.")
users[-2] = 'ronald'
The range() function Copying a list Tuples
You can use the range() function to work with a set of To copy a list make a slice that starts at the first item and A tuple is like a list, except you can't change the values in a
numbers efficiently. The range() function starts at 0 by ends at the last item. If you try to copy a list without using tuple once it's defined. Tuples are good for storing
default, and stops one number below the number passed to this approach, whatever you do to the copied list will affect information that shouldn't be changed throughout the life of
it. You can use the list() function to efficiently generate a the original list as well. a program. Tuples are usually designated by parentheses.
large list of numbers. (You can overwrite an entire tuple, but you can't change the
Making a copy of a list individual elements in a tuple.)
Printing the numbers 0 to 1000 finishers = ['kai', 'abe', 'ada', 'gus', 'zoe'] Defining a tuple
for number in range(1001): copy_of_finishers = finishers[:]
print(number) dimensions = (800, 600)

Printing the numbers 1 to 1000 List comprehensions Looping through a tuple

for number in range(1, 1001): You can use a loop to generate a list based on a range of for dimension in dimensions:
numbers or on another list. This is a common operation, so print(dimension)
print(number)
Python offers a more efficient way to do it. List
Making a list of numbers from 1 to a million comprehensions may look complicated at first; if so, use the Overwriting a tuple
for loop approach until you're ready to start using dimensions = (800, 600)
numbers = list(range(1, 1000001)) comprehensions. print(dimensions)
To write a comprehension, define an expression for the
Simple statistics values you want to store in the list. Then write a for loop to
dimensions = (1200, 900)
generate input values needed to make the list.
There are a number of simple statistical operations you can
run on a list containing numerical data. Using a loop to generate a list of square numbers
Visualizing your code
Finding the minimum value in a list squares = [] When you're first learning about data structures such as
ages = [93, 99, 66, 17, 85, 1, 35, 82, 2, 77] for x in range(1, 11): lists, it helps to visualize how Python is working with the
youngest = min(ages) square = x**2 information in your program. [Link] is a great tool
[Link](square) for seeing how Python keeps track of the information in a
Finding the maximum value list. Try running the following code on [Link], and
Using a comprehension to generate a list of square
ages = [93, 99, 66, 17, 85, 1, 35, 82, 2, 77] then run your own code.
numbers
oldest = max(ages) Build a list and print the items in the list
squares = [x**2 for x in range(1, 11)]
Finding the sum of all values dogs = []
Using a loop to convert a list of names to upper case [Link]('willie')
ages = [93, 99, 66, 17, 85, 1, 35, 82, 2, 77]
names = ['kai', 'abe', 'ada', 'gus', 'zoe'] [Link]('hootz')
total_years = sum(ages)
[Link]('peso')
upper_names = [] [Link]('goblin')
Slicing a list for name in names:
You can work with any set of elements from a list. A portion upper_names.append([Link]()) for dog in dogs:
of a list is called a slice. To slice a list start with the index of print(f"Hello {dog}!")
Using a comprehension to convert a list of names to print("I love these dogs!")
the first item you want, then add a colon and the index after
the last item you want. Leave off the first index to start at upper case
the beginning of the list, and leave off the last index to slice print("\nThese were my first two dogs:")
names = ['kai', 'abe', 'ada', 'gus', 'zoe']
through the end of the list. old_dogs = dogs[:2]
for old_dog in old_dogs:
upper_names = [[Link]() for name in names]
Getting the first three items print(old_dog)
finishers = ['kai', 'abe', 'ada', 'gus', 'zoe']
first_three = finishers[:3] Styling your code del dogs[0]
Readability counts [Link]('peso')
Getting the middle three items print(dogs)
 Use four spaces per indentation level.
middle_three = finishers[1:4]
 Keep your lines to 79 characters or fewer.
Getting the last three items  Use single blank lines to group parts of your
cheat sheets by
last_three = finishers[-3:] program visually.
[Link]
 Adding new key-value pairs Looping through a dictionary
Beginner's Python You can store as many key-value pairs as you want in a
dictionary, until your computer runs out of memory. To add
You can loop through a dictionary in three ways: you can
loop through all the key-value pairs, all the keys, or all the

Cheat Sheet – a new key-value pair to an existing dictionary give the name
of the dictionary and the new key in square brackets, and
set it equal to the new value.
values.
Dictionaries keep track of the order in which key-value
pairs are added. If you want to process the information in a

Dictionaries This also allows you to start with an empty dictionary and
add key-value pairs as they become relevant.
different order, you can sort the keys in your loop.
Looping through all key-value pairs
Adding a key-value pair # Store people's favorite languages.
alien_0 = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5} fav_languages = {
What are dictionaries? 'jen': 'python',
alien_0['x'] = 0 'sarah': 'c',
Python's dictionaries allow you to connect pieces of
alien_0['y'] = 25 'edward': 'ruby',
related information. Each piece of information in a 'phil': 'python',
alien_0['speed'] = 1.5
dictionary is stored as a key-value pair. When you }
provide a key, Python returns the value associated Adding to an empty dictionary
with that key. You can loop through all the key-value alien_0 = {} # Show each person's favorite language.
pairs, all the keys, or all the values. alien_0['color'] = 'green' for name, language in fav_languages.items():
alien_0['points'] = 5 print(f"{name}: {language}")

Defining a dictionary Looping through all the keys

Use curly braces to define a dictionary. Use colons to Modifying values # Show everyone who's taken the survey.
connect keys and values, and use commas to separate You can modify the value associated with any key in a for name in fav_languages.keys():
individual key-value pairs. dictionary. To do so give the name of the dictionary and print(name)
enclose the key in square brackets, then provide the new
Making a dictionary Looping through all the values
value for that key.
alien_0 = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5} # Show all the languages that have been chosen.
Modifying values in a dictionary
for language in fav_languages.values():
alien_0 = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5} print(language)
Accessing values print(alien_0)
To access the value associated with an individual key give Looping through all the keys in reverse order
the name of the dictionary and then place the key in a set of # Change the alien's color and point value.
square brackets. If the key you're asking for is not in the # Show each person's favorite language,
alien_0['color'] = 'yellow' # in reverse order by the person's name.
dictionary, an error will occur. alien_0['points'] = 10
You can also use the get() method, which returns None for name in sorted(fav_languages.keys(),
print(alien_0) reverse=True):
instead of an error if the key doesn't exist. You can also
specify a default value to use if the key is not in the print(f"{name}: language")
dictionary. Removing key-value pairs
You can remove any key-value pair you want from a
Getting the value associated with a key
dictionary. To do so use the del keyword and the dictionary Dictionary length
alien_0 = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5} name, followed by the key in square brackets. This will You can find the number of key-value pairs in a dictionary.
delete the key and its associated value. Finding a dictionary's length
print(alien_0['color'])
print(alien_0['points']) Deleting a key-value pair num_responses = len(fav_languages)
alien_0 = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5}
Getting the value with get()
print(alien_0)
alien_0 = {'color': 'green'}
del alien_0['points']
alien_color = alien_0.get('color') print(alien_0)
alien_points = alien_0.get('points', 0)

print(alien_color) Visualizing dictionaries

print(alien_points) Try running some of these examples on [Link].
Nesting ‒ A list of dictionaries Nesting ‒ Lists in a dictionary Dictionary Comprehensions
It's sometimes useful to store a set of dictionaries in a list; Storing a list inside a dictionary allows you to associate A comprehension is a compact way of generating a
this is called nesting. more than one value with each key. dictionary, similar to a list comprehension.
To make a dictionary comprehension, define an
Storing dictionaries in a list Storing lists in a dictionary expression for the key-value pairs you want to make. Then
# Start with an empty list. # Store multiple languages for each person. write a for loop to generate the values that will feed into this
users = [] fav_languages = { expression.
'jen': ['python', 'ruby'], The zip() function matches each item in one list to each
# Make a new user, and add them to the list. 'sarah': ['c'], item in a second list. It can be used to make a dictionary
new_user = { 'edward': ['ruby', 'go'], from two lists.
'last': 'fermi', 'phil': ['python', 'haskell'], Using loop to make a dictionary
'first': 'enrico', }
'username': 'efermi', squares = {}
} # Show all responses for each person. for x in range(5):
[Link](new_user) for name, langs in fav_languages.items(): squares[x] = x**2
print(f"{name}: ") Using a dictionary comprehension
# Make another new user, and add them as well. for lang in langs:
new_user = { print(f"- {lang}") squares = {x:x**2 for x in range(5)}
'last': 'curie',
'first': 'marie',
Using zip() to make a dictionary
'username': 'mcurie', Nesting ‒ A dictionary of dictionaries group_1 = ['kai', 'abe', 'ada', 'gus', 'zoe']
} You can store a dictionary inside another dictionary. In this group_2 = ['jen', 'eva', 'dan', 'isa', 'meg']
[Link](new_user) case each value associated with a key is itself a dictionary.
Storing dictionaries in a dictionary pairings = {name:name_2
# Show all information about each user. for name, name_2 in zip(group_1, group_2)}
for user_dict in users: users = {
for k, v in user_dict.items(): 'aeinstein': {
print(f"{k}: {v}") 'first': 'albert', Generating a million dictionaries
print("\n") 'last': 'einstein', You can use a loop to generate a large number of
'location': 'princeton', dictionaries efficiently, if all the dictionaries start out with
You can also define a list of dictionaries directly, }, similar data.
without using append(): 'mcurie': { A million aliens
# Define a list of users, where each user 'first': 'marie',
'last': 'curie', aliens = []
# is represented by a dictionary.
'location': 'paris',
users = [ # Make a million green aliens, worth 5 points
{ },
} # each. Have them all start in one row.
'last': 'fermi', for alien_num in range(1000000):
'first': 'enrico', new_alien = {}
'username': 'efermi', for username, user_dict in [Link]():
print("\nUsername: " + username) new_alien['color'] = 'green'
}, new_alien['points'] = 5
{ full_name = user_dict['first'] + " "
full_name += user_dict['last'] new_alien['x'] = 20 * alien_num
'last': 'curie', new_alien['y'] = 0
'first': 'marie', location = user_dict['location']
[Link](new_alien)
'username': 'mcurie',
print(f"\tFull name: {full_name.title()}")
}, # Prove the list contains a million aliens.
print(f"\tLocation: {[Link]()}")
] num_aliens = len(aliens)
# Show all information about each user. Levels of nesting print("Number of aliens created:")
for user_dict in users: print(num_aliens)
Nesting is extremely useful in certain situations. However,
for k, v in user_dict.items(): be aware of making your code overly complex. If you're
print(f"{k}: {v}") nesting items much deeper than what you see here there
print("\n") are probably simpler ways of managing your data, such as cheat sheets by
using classes.
[Link]
 Numerical comparisons If statements
Beginner's Python Testing numerical values is similar to testing string values. Several kinds of if statements exist. Your choice of which
to use depends on the number of conditions you need to
Testing equality and inequality
Cheat Sheet – >>> age = 18
>>> age == 18
test. You can have as many elif blocks as you need, and
the else block is always optional.
Simple if statement
If Statements True
>>> age != 18
False
age = 19

and While Loops Comparison operators

if age >= 18:
print("You're old enough to vote!")
>>> age = 19
>>> age < 21
If-else statements
True age = 17
>>> age <= 21
What are if statements? What are while loops? True if age >= 18:
If statements allow you to examine the current state >>> age > 21 print("You're old enough to vote!")
of a program and respond appropriately to that state. False else:
>>> age >= 21 print("You can't vote yet.")
You can write a simple if statement that checks one
False
condition, or you can create a complex series of if The if-elif-else chain
statements that identify the exact conditions you're
age = 12
looking for. Checking multiple conditions
You can check multiple conditions at the same time. The if age < 4:
While loops run as long as certain conditions remain and operator returns True if all the conditions listed are price = 0
true. You can use while loops to let your programs True. The or operator returns True if any condition is True. elif age < 18:
run as long as your users want them to. Using and to check multiple conditions price = 5
else:
>>> age_0 = 22 price = 10
Conditional Tests >>> age_1 = 18
A conditional test is an expression that can be evaluated as >>> age_0 >= 21 and age_1 >= 21 print(f"Your cost is ${price}.")
True or False. Python uses the values True and False to False
decide whether the code in an if statement should be >>> age_1 = 23
executed. >>> age_0 >= 21 and age_1 >= 21 Conditional tests with lists
True You can easily test whether a certain value is in a list. You
Checking for equality
A single equal sign assigns a value to a variable. A double equal
can also test whether a list is empty before trying to loop
Using or to check multiple conditions through the list.
sign (==) checks whether two values are equal.
>>> age_0 = 22 Testing if a value is in a list
>>> car = 'bmw'
>>> age_1 = 18
>>> car == 'bmw' >>> players = ['al', 'bea', 'cyn', 'dale']
>>> age_0 >= 21 or age_1 >= 21
True >>> 'al' in players
True
>>> car = 'audi' True
>>> age_0 = 18
>>> car == 'bmw' >>> 'eric' in players
>>> age_0 >= 21 or age_1 >= 21
False False
False
Ignoring case when making a comparison
>>> car = 'Audi' Boolean values
>>> [Link]() == 'audi' A boolean value is either True or False. Variables with
True boolean values are often used to keep track of certain
conditions within a program.
Checking for inequality
Simple boolean values
>>> topping = 'mushrooms'
>>> topping != 'anchovies' game_active = True
True can_edit = False
Conditional tests with lists (cont.) While loops (cont.) While loops (cont.)
Testing if a value is not in a list Letting the user choose when to quit Using continue in a loop
banned_users = ['ann', 'chad', 'dee'] prompt = "\nTell me something, and I'll " banned_users = ['eve', 'fred', 'gary', 'helen']
user = 'erin' prompt += "repeat it back to you."
prompt += "\nEnter 'quit' to end the program. " prompt = "\nAdd a player to your team."
if user not in banned_users: prompt += "\nEnter 'quit' when you're done. "
print("You can play!") message = ""
while message != 'quit': players = []
Checking if a list is empty message = input(prompt) while True:
players = [] player = input(prompt)
if message != 'quit': if player == 'quit':
if players: print(message) break
for player in players: elif player in banned_users:
Using a flag print(f"{player} is banned!")
print(f"Player: {[Link]()}")
else: prompt = "\nTell me something, and I'll " continue
print("We have no players yet!") prompt += "repeat it back to you." else:
prompt += "\nEnter 'quit' to end the program. " [Link](player)

Accepting input active = True print("\nYour team:")

You can allow your users to enter input using the input() while active: for player in players:
statement. All input is initially stored as a string. message = input(prompt) print(player)
If you want to accept numerical input, you'll need to
convert the input string value to a numerical type. if message == 'quit': Avoiding infinite loops
active = False
Simple input Every while loop needs a way to stop running so it won't
else: continue to run forever. If there's no way for the condition to
name = input("What's your name? ") print(message) become False, the loop will never stop running. You can
print(f"Hello, {name}.") usually press Ctrl-C to stop an infinite loop.
Using break to exit a loop
Accepting numerical input using int() An infinite loop
prompt = "\nWhat cities have you visited?"
age = input("How old are you? ") prompt += "\nEnter 'quit' when you're done. " while True:
age = int(age) name = input("\nWho are you? ")
while True: print(f"Nice to meet you, {name}!")
if age >= 18: city = input(prompt)
print("\nYou can vote!")
else: if city == 'quit': Removing all instances of a value from a list
print("\nYou can't vote yet.") break The remove() method removes a specific value from a list,
else: but it only removes the first instance of the value you
Accepting numerical input using float() provide. You can use a while loop to remove all instances
print(f"I've been to {city}!")
of a particular value.
tip = input("How much do you want to tip? ")
tip = float(tip) Removing all cats from a list of pets
Accepting input with Sublime Text
Sublime Text doesn't run programs that prompt the user for pets = ['dog', 'cat', 'dog', 'fish', 'cat',
While loops input. You can use Sublime Text to write programs that 'rabbit', 'cat']
A while loop repeats a block of code as long as a condition prompt for input, but you'll need to run these programs from print(pets)
is True. a terminal.
while 'cat' in pets:
Counting to 5 [Link]('cat')
Breaking out of loops
current_number = 1
You can use the break statement and the continue print(pets)
statement with any of Python's loops. For example you can
while current_number <= 5:
use break to quit a for loop that's working through a list or a
print(current_number)
current_number += 1
dictionary. You can use continue to skip over certain items cheat sheets by
when looping through a list or dictionary as well. [Link]
 Positional and keyword arguments Return values
Beginner's Python The two main kinds of arguments are positional and
keyword arguments. When you use positional arguments
A function can return a value or a set of values. When a
function returns a value, the calling line should provide a

Cheat Sheet – Python matches the first argument in the function call with
the first parameter in the function definition, and so forth.
With keyword arguments, you specify which parameter
variable which the return value can be assigned to. A
function stops running when it reaches a return statement.
Returning a single value
Functions each argument should be assigned to in the function call.
When you use keyword arguments, the order of the
arguments doesn't matter.
def get_full_name(first, last):
"""Return a neatly formatted full name."""
Using positional arguments full_name = f"{first} {last}"
return full_name.title()
What are functions? def describe_pet(animal, name):
Functions are named blocks of code designed to do """Display information about a pet.""" musician = get_full_name('jimi', 'hendrix')
print(f"\nI have a {animal}.") print(musician)
one specific job. Functions allow you to write code
print(f"Its name is {name}.")
once that can then be run whenever you need to Returning a dictionary
accomplish the same task. Functions can take in the describe_pet('hamster', 'harry') def build_person(first, last):
information they need, and return the information they describe_pet('dog', 'willie') """Return a dictionary of information
generate. Using functions effectively makes your about a person.
programs easier to write, read, test, and fix. Using keyword arguments
"""
def describe_pet(animal, name): person = {'first': first, 'last': last}
Defining a function """Display information about a pet.""" return person
The first line of a function is its definition, marked by the print(f"\nI have a {animal}.")
keyword def. The name of the function is followed by a set print(f"Its name is {name}.") musician = build_person('jimi', 'hendrix')
of parentheses and a colon. A docstring, in triple quotes, print(musician)
describes what the function does. The body of a function is describe_pet(animal='hamster', name='harry')
describe_pet(name='willie', animal='dog') Returning a dictionary with optional values
indented one level.
To call a function, give the name of the function followed def build_person(first, last, age=None):
by a set of parentheses. """Return a dictionary of information
Default values
about a person.
Making a function You can provide a default value for a parameter. When
function calls omit this argument the default value will be """
def greet_user(): used. Parameters with default values must be listed after person = {'first': first, 'last': last}
"""Display a simple greeting.""" parameters without default values in the function's definition if age:
print("Hello!") so positional arguments can still work correctly. person['age'] = age
return person
greet_user() Using a default value
musician = build_person('jimi', 'hendrix', 27)
def describe_pet(name, animal='dog'):
print(musician)
Passing information to a function """Display information about a pet."""
Information that's passed to a function is called an print(f"\nI have a {animal}.")
musician = build_person('janis', 'joplin')
argument; information that's received by a function is called print(f"Its name is {name}.")
print(musician)
a parameter. Arguments are included in parentheses after
the function's name, and parameters are listed in describe_pet('harry', 'hamster')
parentheses in the function's definition. describe_pet('willie') Visualizing functions
Try running some of these examples on [Link].
Passing a single argument Using None to make an argument optional
def greet_user(username): def describe_pet(animal, name=None):
"""Display a simple greeting.""" """Display information about a pet."""
print(f"Hello, {username}!") print(f"\nI have a {animal}.")
if name:
greet_user('jesse') print(f"Its name is {name}.")
greet_user('diana')
greet_user('brandon') describe_pet('hamster', 'harry')
describe_pet('snake')
Passing a list to a function Passing an arbitrary number of arguments Modules
You can pass a list as an argument to a function, and the Sometimes you won't know how many arguments a You can store your functions in a separate file called a
function can work with the values in the list. Any changes function will need to accept. Python allows you to collect an module, and then import the functions you need into the file
the function makes to the list will affect the original list. You arbitrary number of arguments into one parameter using the containing your main program. This allows for cleaner
can prevent a function from modifying a list by passing a * operator. A parameter that accepts an arbitrary number of program files. (Make sure your module is stored in the
copy of the list as an argument. arguments must come last in the function definition. same directory as your main program.)
The ** operator allows a parameter to collect an arbitrary
Passing a list as an argument number of keyword arguments. These arguments are Storing a function in a module
File: [Link]
def greet_users(names): stored as a dictionary with the parameter names as keys,
"""Print a simple greeting to everyone.""" and the arguments as values. def make_pizza(size, *toppings):
for name in names: """Make a pizza."""
Collecting an arbitrary number of arguments print(f"\nMaking a {size} pizza.")
msg = f"Hello, {name}!"
print(msg) def make_pizza(size, *toppings): print("Toppings:")
"""Make a pizza.""" for topping in toppings:
usernames = ['hannah', 'ty', 'margot'] print(f"\nMaking a {size} pizza.") print(f"- {topping}")
greet_users(usernames) print("Toppings:")
for topping in toppings: Importing an entire module
Allowing a function to modify a list File: making_pizzas.py
print(f"- {topping}") Every function in the module is available in the program file.
The following example sends a list of models to a function for
printing. The original list is emptied, and the second list is filled. import pizza
# Make three pizzas with different toppings.
def print_models(unprinted, printed): make_pizza('small', 'pepperoni')
"""3d print a set of models.""" make_pizza('large', 'bacon bits', 'pineapple') pizza.make_pizza('medium', 'pepperoni')
while unprinted: make_pizza('medium', 'mushrooms', 'peppers', pizza.make_pizza('small', 'bacon', 'pineapple')
current_model = [Link]() 'onions', 'extra cheese')
Importing a specific function
print(f"Printing {current_model}")
Collecting an arbitrary number of keyword arguments Only the imported functions are available in the program file.
[Link](current_model)
def build_profile(first, last, **user_info): from pizza import make_pizza
# Store some unprinted designs, """Build a dictionary for a user."""
# and print each of them. user_info['first'] = first make_pizza('medium', 'pepperoni')
unprinted = ['phone case', 'pendant', 'ring'] user_info['last'] = last make_pizza('small', 'bacon', 'pineapple')
printed = []
print_models(unprinted, printed) Giving a module an alias
return user_info
import pizza as p
print(f"\nUnprinted: {unprinted}") # Create two users with different kinds
print(f"Printed: {printed}") # of information. p.make_pizza('medium', 'pepperoni')
user_0 = build_profile('albert', 'einstein', p.make_pizza('small', 'bacon', 'pineapple')
Preventing a function from modifying a list
The following example is the same as the previous one, except the
location='princeton')
Giving a function an alias
original list is unchanged after calling print_models().
user_1 = build_profile('marie', 'curie', from pizza import make_pizza as mp
def print_models(unprinted, printed): location='paris', field='chemistry')
"""3d print a set of models.""" mp('medium', 'pepperoni')
while unprinted: print(user_0) mp('small', 'bacon', 'pineapple')
current_model = [Link]() print(user_1)
print(f"Printing {current_model}") Importing all functions from a module
[Link](current_model) Don't do this, but recognize it when you see it in others' code. It
can result in naming conflicts, which can cause errors.
# Store some unprinted designs, What's the best way to structure a function?
from pizza import *
# and print each of them. As you can see there are many ways to write and call a
original = ['phone case', 'pendant', 'ring'] function. When you're starting out, aim for something that
make_pizza('medium', 'pepperoni')
printed = [] simply works. As you gain experience you'll develop an
understanding of the more subtle advantages of different make_pizza('small', 'bacon', 'pineapple')
print_models(original[:], printed) structures such as positional and keyword arguments, and
print(f"\nOriginal: {original}") the various approaches to importing functions. For now if cheat sheets by
print(f"Printed: {printed}") your functions do what you need them to, you're doing well.
[Link]
 Creating and using a class (cont.) Class inheritance
Beginner's Python Creating an object from a class
If the class you're writing is a specialized version of another
class, you can use inheritance. When one class inherits

Cheat Sheet - Classes my_car = Car('audi', 'a4', 2016)

Accessing attribute values
from another, it automatically takes on all the attributes and
methods of the parent class. The child class is free to
introduce new attributes and methods, and override
attributes and methods of the parent class.
print(my_car.make)
To inherit from another class include the name of the
print(my_car.model)
What are classes? print(my_car.year)
parent class in parentheses when defining the new class.
Classes are the foundation of object-oriented The init () method for a child class
Calling methods
programming. Classes represent real-world things class ElectricCar(Car):
you want to model in your programs: for example my_car.fill_tank()
"""A simple model of an electric car."""
dogs, cars, and robots. You use a class to make my_car.drive()
objects, which are specific instances of dogs, cars, Creating multiple objects def init (self, make, model, year):
and robots. A class defines the general behavior that """Initialize an electric car."""
a whole category of objects can have, and the my_car = Car('audi', 'a4', 2019) super(). init (make, model, year)
information that can be associated with those objects. my_old_car = Car('subaru', 'outback', 2015)
my_truck = Car('toyota', 'tacoma', 2012)
Classes can inherit from each other – you can # Attributes specific to electric cars.
write a class that extends the functionality of an # Battery capacity in kWh.
self.battery_size = 75
existing class. This allows you to code efficiently for a Modifying attributes # Charge level in %.
wide variety of situations. You can modify an attribute's value directly, or you can
self.charge_level = 0
write methods that manage updating values more carefully.
Adding new methods to the child class
Creating and using a class Modifying an attribute directly
Consider how we might model a car. What information my_new_car = Car('audi', 'a4', 2019) class ElectricCar(Car):
would we associate with a car, and what behavior would it --snip--
my_new_car.fuel_level = 5
have? The information is stored in variables called def charge(self):
attributes, and the behavior is represented by functions. Writing a method to update an attribute's value """Fully charge the vehicle."""
Functions that are part of a class are called methods. self.charge_level = 100
def update_fuel_level(self, new_level): print("The vehicle is fully charged.")
The Car class """Update the fuel level."""
if new_level <= self.fuel_capacity: Using child methods and parent methods
class Car:
self.fuel_level = new_level
"""A simple attempt to model a car.""" my_ecar = ElectricCar('tesla', 'model s', 2019)
else:
print("The tank can't hold that much!")
def init (self, make, model, year): my_ecar.charge()
"""Initialize car attributes.""" Writing a method to increment an attribute's value my_ecar.drive()
[Link] = make
[Link] = model def add_fuel(self, amount):
[Link] = year """Add fuel to the tank."""
if (self.fuel_level + amount Finding your workflow
# Fuel capacity and level in gallons. <= self.fuel_capacity): There are many ways to model real world objects and
self.fuel_capacity = 15 self.fuel_level += amount situations in code, and sometimes that variety can feel
self.fuel_level = 0 print("Added fuel.") overwhelming. Pick an approach and try it – if your first
else: attempt doesn't work, try a different approach.
def fill_tank(self): print("The tank won't hold that much.")
"""Fill gas tank to capacity."""
self.fuel_level = self.fuel_capacity
print("Fuel tank is full.") Naming conventions
In Python class names are written in CamelCase and object
def drive(self): names are written in lowercase with underscores. Modules
"""Simulate driving.""" that contain classes should be named in lowercase with
print("The car is moving.") underscores.
Class inheritance (cont.) Importing classes Understanding self
Class files can get long as you add detailed information and People often ask what the self variable represents. The
Overriding parent methods functionality. To help keep your program files uncluttered, self variable is a reference to an object that's been
class ElectricCar(Car): you can store your classes in modules and import the created from the class.
--snip-- classes you need into your main program. The self variable provides a way to make other variables
def fill_tank(self): and objects available everywhere in a class. The self
Storing classes in a file variable is automatically passed to each method that's
"""Display an error message.""" [Link]
print("This car has no fuel tank!") called through an object, which is why you see it listed first
"""Represent gas and electric cars.""" in every method definition. Any variable attached to self is
available everywhere in the class.
Instances as attributes class Car:
"""A simple attempt to model a car."""
A class can have objects as attributes. This allows classes
--snip—
Understanding init ()
to work together to model complex situations. The init () method is a function that's part of a class,
A Battery class class Battery: just like any other method. The only special thing about
"""A battery for an electric car.""" init () is that it's called automatically every time you
class Battery: make a new object from a class. If you accidentally misspell
"""A battery for an electric car.""" --snip--
init (), the method will not be called and your object
class ElectricCar(Car): may not be created correctly.
def init (self, size=75):
"""Initialize battery attributes.""" """A simple model of an electric car."""
# Capacity in kWh, charge level in %. --snip-- Storing objects in a list
[Link] = size Importing individual classes from a module A list can hold as many items as you want, so you can
self.charge_level = 0 my_cars.py make a large number of objects from a class and store
them in a list.
def get_range(self): from car import Car, ElectricCar Here's an example showing how to make a fleet of rental
"""Return the battery's range.""" cars, and make sure all the cars are ready to drive.
if [Link] == 75: my_beetle = Car('volkswagen', 'beetle', 2016)
my_beetle.fill_tank() A fleet of rental cars
return 260
elif [Link] == 100: my_beetle.drive() from car import Car, ElectricCar
return 315
my_tesla = ElectricCar('tesla', 'model s', # Make lists to hold a fleet of cars.
Using an instance as an attribute 2016) gas_fleet = []
my_tesla.charge() electric_fleet = []
class ElectricCar(Car): my_tesla.drive()
--snip--
Importing an entire module # Make 500 gas cars and 250 electric cars.
def init (self, make, model, year): for _ in range(500):
"""Initialize an electric car.""" import car car = Car('ford', 'escape', 2019)
super(). init (make, model, year) gas_fleet.append(car)
my_beetle = [Link]( for _ in range(250):
# Attribute specific to electric cars. 'volkswagen', 'beetle', 2019) ecar = ElectricCar('nissan', 'leaf', 2019)
[Link] = Battery() my_beetle.fill_tank() electric_fleet.append(ecar)
my_beetle.drive()
def charge(self): # Fill the gas cars, and charge electric cars.
"""Fully charge the vehicle.""" my_tesla = [Link]( for car in gas_fleet:
[Link].charge_level = 100 'tesla', 'model s', 2019) car.fill_tank()
print("The vehicle is fully charged.") my_tesla.charge() for ecar in electric_fleet:
my_tesla.drive() [Link]()
Using the instance
Importing all classes from a module
my_ecar = ElectricCar('tesla', 'model x', 2019) (Don’t do this, but recognize it when you see it.)
print(f"Gas cars: {len(gas_fleet)}")
print(f"Electric cars: {len(electric_fleet)}")
from car import *
my_ecar.charge()
print(my_ecar.battery.get_range()) cheat sheets by
my_ecar.drive() my_beetle = Car('volkswagen', 'beetle', 2016)
[Link]
 Reading from a file (cont.) File paths (cont.)
Beginner's Python Storing the lines in a list Opening a file using an absolute path

Cheat Sheet – filename = '[Link]'

with open(filename) as f_obj:

f_path = "/home/ehmatthes/books/[Link]"

with open(f_path) as f:

Files and Exceptions lines = f_obj.readlines()

for line in lines:

lines = [Link]()
Opening a file on Windows
Windows will sometimes interpret forward slashes incorrectly. If
print([Link]())
you run into this, use backslashes in your file paths.
What are files? What are exceptions? f_path = "C:\Users\ehmatthes\books\[Link]"
Writing to a file
Your programs can read information in from files, and Passing the 'w' argument to open() tells Python you want with open(f_path) as f:
they can write data to files. Reading from files allows to write to the file. Be careful; this will erase the contents of lines = [Link]()
you to work with a wide variety of information; writing the file if it already exists. Passing the 'a' argument tells
to files allows users to pick up where they left off the Python you want to append to the end of an existing file.
next time they run your program. You can write text to The try-except block
files, and you can store Python structures such as Writing to an empty file When you think an error may occur, you can write a try-
lists in data files. filename = '[Link]' except block to handle the exception that might be raised.
The try block tells Python to try running some code, and
Exceptions are special objects that help your with open(filename, 'w') as f: the except block tells Python what to do if the code results
[Link]("I love programming!") in a particular kind of error.
programs respond to errors in appropriate ways. For
example if your program tries to open a file that Writing multiple lines to an empty file Handling the ZeroDivisionError exception
doesn’t exist, you can use exceptions to display an
filename = '[Link]' try:
informative error message instead of having the print(5/0)
program crash. except ZeroDivisionError:
with open(filename, 'w') as f:
[Link]("I love programming!\n") print("You can't divide by zero!")
Reading from a file [Link]("I love creating new games.\n") Handling the FileNotFoundError exception
To read from a file your program needs to open the file and
Appending to a file f_name = '[Link]'
then read the contents of the file. You can read the entire
contents of the file at once, or read the file line by line. The filename = '[Link]'
with statement makes sure the file is closed properly when try:
the program has finished accessing the file. with open(filename, 'a') as f: with open(f_name) as f:
[Link]("I also love working with data.\n") lines = [Link]()
Reading an entire file at once [Link]("I love making apps as well.\n") except FileNotFoundError:
filename = '[Link]' msg = f"Can’t find file: {f_name}."
print(msg)
with open(filename) as f_obj: File paths
When Python runs the open() function, it looks for the file
contents = f_obj.read()
in the same directory where the program that's being
Knowing which exception to handle
executed is stored. You can open a file from a subfolder It can be hard to know what kind of exception to handle
print(contents) when writing code. Try writing your code without a try
using a relative path. You can also use an absolute path to
block, and make it generate an error. The traceback will tell
Reading line by line open any file on your system.
Each line that's read from the file has a newline character at the you what kind of exception your program needs to handle.
end of the line, and the print function adds its own newline Opening a file from a subfolder
character. The rstrip() method gets rid of the extra blank lines
f_path = "text_files/[Link]"
this would result in when printing to the terminal.
filename = '[Link]' with open(f_path) as f:
lines = [Link]()
with open(filename) as f_obj:
for line in f_obj: for line in lines:
print([Link]()) print([Link]())
The else block Failing silently Storing data with json
The try block should only contain code that may cause an Sometimes you want your program to just continue running The json module allows you to dump simple Python data
error. Any code that depends on the try block running when it encounters an error, without reporting the error to structures into a file, and load the data from that file the
successfully should be placed in the else block. the user. Using the pass statement in an else block allows next time the program runs. The JSON data format is not
you to do this. specific to Python, so you can share this kind of data with
Using an else block people who work in other languages as well.
Using the pass statement in an else block
print("Enter two numbers. I'll divide them.")
f_names = ['[Link]', '[Link]', Knowing how to manage exceptions is important when
x = input("First number: ") 'moby_dick.txt', 'little_women.txt'] working with stored data. You'll usually want to make sure
y = input("Second number: ") the data you're trying to load exists before working with it.
for f_name in f_names: Using [Link]() to store data
try: # Report the length of each file found.
result = int(x) / int(y) try: """Store some numbers."""
except ZeroDivisionError: with open(f_name) as f:
print("You can't divide by zero!") lines = [Link]() import json
else: except FileNotFoundError:
print(result) # Just move on to the next file. numbers = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13]
pass
Preventing crashes from user input else: filename = '[Link]'
Without the except block in the following example, the program num_lines = len(lines) with open(filename, 'w') as f:
would crash if the user tries to divide by zero. As written, it will
msg = f"{f_name} has {num_lines}" [Link](numbers, f)
handle the error gracefully and keep running.
msg += " lines."
"""A simple calculator for division only.""" print(msg)
Using [Link]() to read data
"""Load some previously stored numbers."""
print("Enter two numbers. I'll divide them.")
print("Enter 'q' to quit.") Avoid bare except blocks import json
Exception-handling code should catch specific exceptions
while True: that you expect to happen during your program's execution.
filename = '[Link]'
x = input("\nFirst number: ") A bare except block will catch all exceptions, including
with open(filename) as f:
if x == 'q': keyboard interrupts and system exits you might need when
numbers = [Link](f)
break forcing a program to close.
y = input("Second number: ") print(numbers)
if y == 'q': If you want to use a try block and you're not sure which
break exception to catch, use Exception. It will catch most Making sure the stored data exists
exceptions, but still allow you to interrupt programs
intentionally. import json
try:
result = int(x) / int(y) Don’t use bare except blocks f_name = '[Link]'
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("You can't divide by zero!") try:
try:
else: # Do something
with open(f_name) as f:
print(result) except:
numbers = [Link](f)
pass
except FileNotFoundError:
Deciding which errors to report Use Exception instead msg = f"Can’t find file: {f_name}."
Well-written, properly tested code is not very prone to print(msg)
try: else:
internal errors such as syntax or logical errors. But every
# Do something print(numbers)
time your program depends on something external such as
except Exception:
user input or the existence of a file, there's a possibility of
pass
an exception being raised. Practice with exceptions
Printing the exception Take a program you've already written that prompts for user
It's up to you how to communicate errors to your users. input, and add some error-handling code to the program.
Sometimes users need to know if a file is missing; try:
sometimes it's better to handle the error silently. A little # Do something
experience will help you know how much to report. except Exception as e: cheat sheets by
print(e, type(e)) [Link]
 Testing a function (cont.) A failing test (cont.)
Beginner's Python Building a testcase with one unit test Running the test
To build a test case, make a class that inherits from When you change your code, it’s important to run your existing

Cheat Sheet – [Link] and write methods that begin with test_.
Save this as test_full_names.py
tests. This will tell you whether the changes you made affected
existing behavior.

Testing Your Code import unittest

from full_names import get_full_name
E
================================================
ERROR: test_first_last ( main .NamesTestCase)
class NamesTestCase([Link]): Test names like Janis Joplin.
"""Tests for [Link].""" ------------------------------------------------
Why test your code? Traceback (most recent call last):
def test_first_last(self): File "test_full_names.py", line 10,
When you write a function or a class, you can also """Test names like Janis Joplin.""" in test_first_last
write tests for that code. Testing proves that your full_name = get_full_name('janis', 'joplin')
code works as it's supposed to in the situations it's 'joplin') TypeError: get_full_name() missing 1 required
designed to handle, and also when people use your [Link](full_name, positional argument: 'last'
programs in unexpected ways. Writing tests gives 'Janis Joplin')
you confidence that your code will work correctly as ------------------------------------------------
more people begin to use your programs. You can if name == ' main ': Ran 1 test in 0.001s
also add new features to your programs and know [Link]()
that you haven't broken existing behavior. FAILED (errors=1)
Running the test
Python reports on each unit test in the test case. The dot reports a Fixing the code
A unit test verifies that one specific aspect of your single passing test. Python informs us that it ran 1 test in less than When a test fails, the code needs to be modified until the test
code works as it's supposed to. A test case is a 0.001 seconds, and the OK lets us know that all unit tests in the passes again. (Don’t make the mistake of rewriting your tests to fit
test case passed. your new code.) Here we can make the middle name optional.
collection of unit tests which verify your code's
behavior in a wide variety of situations. . def get_full_name(first, last, middle=''):
--------------------------------------- """Return a full name."""
Ran 1 test in 0.000s if middle:
Testing a function: A passing test full_name = f"{first} {middle} {last}"
Python's unittest module provides tools for testing your OK else:
code. To try it out, we’ll create a function that returns a full full_name = f"{first} {last}"
name. We’ll use the function in a regular program, and then
build a test case for the function. Testing a function: A failing test return full_name.title()
Failing tests are important; they tell you that a change in the
A function to test code has affected existing behavior. When a test fails, you Running the test
Save this as full_names.py need to modify the code so the existing behavior still works. Now the test should pass again, which means our original
functionality is still intact.
def get_full_name(first, last): Modifying the function
"""Return a full name.""" We’ll modify get_full_name() so it handles middle names, but .
full_name = f"{first} {last}" we’ll do it in a way that breaks existing behavior. ---------------------------------------
return full_name.title() Ran 1 test in 0.000s
def get_full_name(first, middle, last):
Using the function """Return a full name."""
OK
Save this as [Link] full_name = f"{first} {middle} {last}"
from full_names import get_full_name return full_name.title()
Using the function
janis = get_full_name('janis', 'joplin')
print(janis) from full_names import get_full_name

bob = get_full_name('bob', 'dylan') john = get_full_name('john', 'lee', 'hooker')

print(bob) print(john)

david = get_full_name('david', 'lee', 'roth')

print(david)
Adding new tests Testing a class The setUp() method
You can add as many unit tests to a test case as you need. Testing a class is similar to testing a function, since you’ll When testing a class, you usually have to make an instance
To write a new test, add a new method to your test case mostly be testing your methods. of the class. The setUp() method is run before every test.
class. Any instances you make in setUp() are available in every
A class to test test you write.
Testing middle names Save as [Link]
We’ve shown that get_full_name() works for first and last Using setUp() to support multiple tests
names. Let’s test that it works for middle names as well.
class Accountant():
The instance [Link] can be used in each new test.
"""Manage a bank account."""
import unittest import unittest
from full_names import get_full_name def init (self, balance=0): from accountant import Accountant
[Link] = balance
class NamesTestCase([Link]): class TestAccountant([Link]):
"""Tests for [Link].""" def deposit(self, amount): """Tests for the class Accountant."""
[Link] += amount
def test_first_last(self): def setUp(self):
"""Test names like Janis Joplin.""" def withdraw(self, amount): [Link] = Accountant()
full_name = get_full_name('janis', [Link] -= amount
'joplin') def test_initial_balance(self):
[Link](full_name, Building a testcase # Default balance should be 0.
'Janis Joplin') For the first test, we’ll make sure we can start out with different
[Link]([Link], 0)
initial balances. Save this as test_accountant.py.
def test_middle(self): import unittest # Test non-default balance.
"""Test names like David Lee Roth.""" from accountant import Accountant acc = Accountant(100)
full_name = get_full_name('david', [Link]([Link], 100)
'roth', 'lee') class TestAccountant([Link]):
[Link](full_name, """Tests for the class Accountant.""" def test_deposit(self):
'David Lee Roth') # Test single deposit.
def test_initial_balance(self): [Link](100)
if name == ' main ': # Default balance should be 0. [Link]([Link], 100)
[Link]() acc = Accountant()
[Link]([Link], 0) # Test multiple deposits.
Running the tests [Link](100)
The two dots represent two passing tests.
# Test non-default balance. [Link](100)
.. acc = Accountant(100) [Link]([Link], 300)
--------------------------------------- [Link]([Link], 100)
Ran 2 tests in 0.000s def test_withdrawal(self):
OK if name == ' main ': # Test single withdrawal.
[Link]() [Link](1000)
[Link](100)
A variety of assert methods Running the test [Link]([Link], 900)
Python provides a number of assert methods you can use
.
to test your code. if name == ' main ':
Verify that a == b, or a != b Ran 1 test in 0.000s [Link]()
OK
assertEqual(a, b) Running the tests
assertNotEqual(a, b)
When is it okay to modify tests? ...
Verify that x is True, or x is False ---------------------------------------
In general you shouldn’t modify a test once it’s written.
When a test fails it usually means new code you’ve written Ran 3 tests in 0.001s
assertTrue(x)
assertFalse(x) has broken existing functionality, and you need to modify
the new code until all existing tests pass. OK
Verify an item is in a list, or not in a list If your original requirements have changed, it may be
appropriate to modify some tests. This usually happens in
assertIn(item, list) the early stages of a project when desired behavior is still
cheat sheets by
assertNotIn(item, list) being sorted out, and no one is using your code yet. [Link]
 Starting a game (cont.) Pygame rect objects (cont.)
Beginner's Python Setting a custom window size Creating a rect object

Cheat Sheet - Pygame The display.set_mode() function accepts a tuple that defines
the screen size.

screen_dim = (1500, 1000)

You can create a rect object from scratch. For example a small rect
object that’s filled in can represent a bullet in a game. The Rect()
class takes the coordinates of the upper left corner, and the width
and height of the rect. The [Link]() function takes a screen
[Link] = [Link].set_mode(screen_dim) object, a color, and a rect. This function fills the given rect with the
given color.
What is Pygame? Setting a custom background color
Colors are defined as a tuple of red, green, and blue values. Each bullet_rect = [Link](100, 100, 3, 15)
Pygame is a framework for making games using value ranges from 0-255. color = (100, 100, 100)
Python. Making games is fun, and it’s a great way to [Link](screen, color, bullet_rect)
def init (self):
expand your programming skills and knowledge.
--snip--
Pygame takes care of many of the lower-level tasks self.bg_color = (225, 225, 225)
in building games, which lets you focus on the Working with images
aspects of your game that make it interesting. Many objects in a game are images that are moved around
def run_game(self): the screen. It’s easiest to use bitmap (.bmp) image files, but
while True: you can also configure your system to work with jpg, png,
for event in [Link]():
Installing Pygame --snip--
and gif files as well.
Pygame runs on all systems, and you should be able to
Loading an image
install it in one line.
[Link](self.bg_color)
ship = [Link]('images/[Link]')
Installing Pygame [Link]()
Getting the rect object from an image
$ python -m pip install --user pygame
ship_rect = ship.get_rect()
Pygame rect objects
Starting a game Many objects in a game can be treated as simple Positioning an image
The following code sets up an empty game window, and rectangles, rather than their actual shape. This simplifies With rects, it’s easy to position an image wherever you want on the
starts an event loop and a loop that continually refreshes screen, or in relation to another object. The following code
code without noticeably affecting game play. Pygame has a
positions a ship at the bottom center of the screen, by matching the
the screen. rect object that makes it easy to work with game objects. midbottom of the ship with the midbottom of the screen.
An empty game window Getting the screen rect object ship_rect.midbottom = screen_rect.midbottom
We already have a screen object; we can easily access the rect
import sys object associated with the screen. Drawing an image to the screen
import pygame as pg Once an image is loaded and positioned, you can draw it to the
self.screen_rect = [Link].get_rect()
screen with the blit() method. The blit() method acts on the
class AlienInvasion: screen object, and takes the image object and image rect as
Finding the center of the screen
arguments.
Rect objects have a center attribute which stores the center point.
def init (self): # Draw ship to screen.
[Link]() screen_center = self.screen_rect.center
[Link](ship, ship_rect)
[Link] = [Link].set_mode(
Useful rect attributes
(1200, 800))
[Link].set_caption(
Once you have a rect object, there are a number of attributes that If Pygame doesn't work on macOS
are useful when positioning objects and detecting relative positions Some versions of Pygame don't work on macOS, and you'll
"Alien Invasion") of objects. (You can find more attributes in the Pygame
just see an empty black game window. If this happens, try
documentation. The self variable has been left off for clarity.)
installing a development version of Pygame.
def run_game(self):
# Individual x and y values:
while True: $ python -m pip install pygame==2.0.0.dev3
screen_rect.left, screen_rect.right
for event in [Link]():
screen_rect.top, screen_rect.bottom
if [Link] == [Link]:
screen_rect.centerx, screen_rect.centery
[Link]()
screen_rect.width, screen_rect.height
[Link]()
# Tuples
screen_rect.center
if name == ' main ':
screen_rect.size
ai = AlienInvasion()
ai.run_game()
Working with images (cont.) Responding to mouse events Pygame groups (cont.)
Pygame’s event loop registers an event any time the
The blitme() method mouse moves, or a mouse button is pressed or released. Removing an item from a group
Game objects such as ships are often written as classes. Then a It’s important to delete elements that will never appear again in the
blitme() method is usually defined, which draws the object to the Responding to the mouse button game, so you don’t waste memory and resources.
screen.
for event in [Link](): [Link](bullet)
def blitme(self): if [Link] == [Link]:
"""Draw ship at current location.""" ship.fire_bullet() Detecting collisions
[Link]([Link], [Link])
You can detect when a single object collides with any
Finding the mouse position
member of a group. You can also detect when any member
The mouse position is returned as a tuple.
Responding to keyboard input of one group collides with a member of another group.
Pygame watches for events such as key presses and mouse_pos = [Link].get_pos()
mouse actions. You can detect any event you care about in Collisions between a single object and a group
the event loop, and respond with any action that’s Clicking a button The spritecollideany() function takes an object and a group,
You might want to know if the cursor is over an object such as a and returns True if the object overlaps with any member of the
appropriate for your game. button. The [Link]() method returns true when a group.
Responding to key presses point is inside a rect object.
if [Link](ship, aliens):
Pygame’s main event loop registers a KEYDOWN event any time a if button_rect.collidepoint(mouse_pos): ships_left -= 1
key is pressed. When this happens, you can check for specific start_game()
keys. Collisions between two groups
for event in [Link](): Hiding the mouse The [Link]() function takes two groups, and two
booleans. The function returns a dictionary containing information
if [Link] == [Link]: [Link].set_visible(False) about the members that have collided. The booleans tell Pygame
if [Link] == pg.K_RIGHT: whether to delete the members of either group that have collided.
ship_rect.x += 1
elif [Link] == pg.K_LEFT: Pygame groups collisions = [Link](
ship_rect.x -= 1 Pygame has a Group class which makes working with a bullets, aliens, True, True)
elif [Link] == pg.K_SPACE: group of similar objects easier. A group is like a list, with
ship.fire_bullet() some extra functionality that’s helpful when building games. score += len(collisions) * alien_point_value
elif [Link] == pg.K_q:
Making and filling a group
[Link]() An object that will be placed in a group must inherit from Sprite. Rendering text
You can use text for a variety of purposes in a game. For
Responding to released keys from [Link] import Sprite, Group example you can share information with players, and you
When the user releases a key, a KEYUP event is triggered.
can display a score.
if [Link] == [Link]: def Bullet(Sprite):
if [Link] == pg.K_RIGHT: ... Displaying a message
def draw_bullet(self): The following code defines a message, then a color for the text and
ship.moving_right = False the background color for the message. A font is defined using the
...
default system font, with a font size of 48. The [Link]()
def update(self): function is used to create an image of the message, and we get the
The game is an object ... rect object associated with the image. We then center the image
In the overall structure shown here (under Starting a on the screen and display it.
Game), the entire game is written as a class. This makes it bullets = Group()
possible to write programs that play the game msg = "Play again?"
automatically, and it also means you can build an arcade new_bullet = Bullet() msg_color = (100, 100, 100)
with a collection of games. [Link](new_bullet) bg_color = (230, 230, 230)

Looping through the items in a group f = [Link](None, 48)

Pygame documentation The sprites() method returns all the members of a group. msg_image = [Link](msg, True, msg_color,
The Pygame documentation is really helpful when building bg_color)
your own games. The home page for the Pygame project is for bullet in [Link]():
msg_image_rect = msg_image.get_rect()
at [Link] and the home page for the bullet.draw_bullet()
msg_image_rect.center = screen_rect.center
documentation is at [Link] [Link](msg_image, msg_image_rect)
Calling update() on a group
The most useful part of the documentation are the pages
Calling update() on a group automatically calls update() on
about specific parts of Pygame, such as the Rect() class each member of the group.
and the sprite module. You can find a list of these cheat sheets by
elements at the top of the help pages. [Link]() [Link]
 Customizing Plots
Beginner's Python Plots can be customized in a wide variety of ways. Just
about any element of a plot can be customized.
Customizing plots (cont.)
Emphasizing points
You can plot as much data as you want on one plot. Here we re-

Cheat Sheet – Using built-in styles

Matplotlib comes with a number of built-in styles, which you can
use with one additional line. The style must be specified before you
plot the first and last points larger to emphasize them.
import [Link] as plt

Matplotlib create the figure.

import [Link] as plt

x_values = list(range(1000))
squares = [x**2 for x in x_values]

x_values = list(range(1000)) fig, ax = [Link]()

What is Matplotlib? squares = [x**2 for x in x_values] [Link](x_values, squares, c=squares,
cmap=[Link], s=10)
Data visualization involves exploring data through [Link]('seaborn')
visual representations. The matplotlib package fig, ax = [Link]() [Link](x_values[0], squares[0], c='green',
helps you make visually appealing representations of [Link](x_values, squares, s=10) s=100)
the data you’re working with. Matplotlib is extremely [Link]() [Link](x_values[-1], squares[-1], c='red',
flexible; these examples will help you get started with s=100)
Seeing available styles
a few simple visualizations. You can see all available styles on your system. This can be done
in a terminal session. ax.set_title('Square Numbers', fontsize=24)
--snip--
Installing Matplotlib >>> import [Link] as plt
Matplotlib runs on all systems, and you should be able to >>> [Link] Removing axes
install it in one line. ['seaborn-dark', 'seaborn-darkgrid', ... You can customize or remove axes entirely. Here’s how to access
each axis, and hide it.
Installing Matplotlib Adding titles and labels, and scaling axes
ax.get_xaxis().set_visible(False)
$ python -m pip install --user matplotlib import [Link] as plt ax.get_yaxis().set_visible(False)

x_values = list(range(1000)) Setting a custom figure size

Line graphs and scatter plots squares = [x**2 for x in x_values]
You can make your plot as big or small as you want by using the
figsize argument. The dpi argument is optional; if you don’t
Making a line graph know your system’s resolution you can omit the argument and
fig represents the entire figure, or collection of plots; ax # Set overall style to use, and plot data. adjust the figsize argument accordingly.
represents a single plot in the figure. [Link]('seaborn')
fig, ax = [Link]() fig, ax = [Link](figsize=(10, 6),
import [Link] as plt dpi=128)
[Link](x_values, squares, s=10)
x_values = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] Saving a plot
# Set chart title and label axes. The Matplotlib viewer has a save button, but you can also save
squares = [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
ax.set_title('Square Numbers', fontsize=24) your visualizations programmatically by replacing [Link]() with
ax.set_xlabel('Value', fontsize=14) [Link]().
fig, ax = [Link]()
ax.set_ylabel('Square of Value', fontsize=14)
[Link](x_values, squares) [Link]('[Link]', bbox_inches='tight')
# Set scale of axes, and size of tick labels.
[Link]()
[Link]([0, 1100, 0, 1_100_000]) Online resources
Making a scatter plot ax.tick_params(axis='both', labelsize=14) The matplotlib gallery and documentation are at
scatter() takes a list of x and y values; the s=10 argument [Link] Be sure to visit the examples, gallery,
controls the size of each point. [Link]() and pyplot links.
import [Link] as plt Using a colormap
A colormap varies the point colors from one shade to another,
x_values = list(range(1000)) based on a certain value for each point. The value used to
squares = [x**2 for x in x_values] determine the color of each point is passed to the c argument, and
the cmap argument specifies which colormap to use.
fig, ax = [Link]() [Link](x_values, squares, c=squares,
[Link](x_values, squares, s=10) cmap=[Link], s=10)
[Link]()
Multiple plots Working with dates and times (cont.) Multiple plots in one figure
You can make as many plots as you want on one figure. Datetime formatting arguments You can include as many individual graphs in one figure as
When you make multiple plots, you can emphasize The strptime() function generates a datetime object from a you want.
relationships in the data. For example you can fill the space string, and the strftime() method generates a formatted string
between two sets of data. Sharing an x-axis
from a datetime object. The following codes let you work with dates
The following code plots a set of squares and a set of cubes on
exactly as you need to.
Plotting two sets of data two separate graphs that share a common x-axis.
Here we use [Link]() twice to plot square numbers and %A Weekday name, such as Monday The [Link]() function returns a figure object and a tuple
cubes on the same figure. %B Month name, such as January of axes. Each set of axes corresponds to a separate plot in the
figure. The first two arguments control the number of rows and
import [Link] as plt %m Month, as a number (01 to 12)
columns generated in the figure.
%d Day of the month, as a number (01 to 31)
%Y Four-digit year, such as 2016 import [Link] as plt
x_values = list(range(11))
squares = [x**2 for x in x_values] %y Two-digit year, such as 16
%H Hour, in 24-hour format (00 to 23) x_values = list(range(11))
cubes = [x**3 for x in x_values]
%I Hour, in 12-hour format (01 to 12) squares = [x**2 for x in x_values]
%p AM or PM cubes = [x**3 for x in x_values]
[Link]('seaborn')
fig, ax = [Link]() %M Minutes (00 to 59)
%S Seconds (00 to 61) fig, axs = [Link](2, 1, sharex=True)
[Link](x_values, squares, c='blue', s=10) Converting a string to a datetime object axs[0].scatter(x_values, squares)
[Link](x_values, cubes, c='red', s=10)
new_years = [Link]('1/1/2019', '%m/%d/%Y') axs[0].set_title('Squares')
[Link]()
Converting a datetime object to a string axs[1].scatter(x_values, cubes, c='red')
Filling the space between data sets axs[1].set_title('Cubes')
ny_string = new_years.strftime('%B %d, %Y')
The fill_between() method fills the space between two data
print(ny_string)
sets. It takes a series of x-values and two series of y-values. It also [Link]()
takes a facecolor to use for the fill, and an optional alpha Plotting high temperatures
argument that controls the color’s transparency. The following code creates a list of dates and a corresponding list
Sharing a y-axis
of high temperatures. It then plots the high temperatures, with the To share a y-axis, we use the sharey=True argument.
ax.fill_between(x_values, cubes, squares,
date labels displayed in a specific format. import [Link] as plt
facecolor='blue', alpha=0.25)
from datetime import datetime as dt
x_values = list(range(11))
Working with dates and times import [Link] as plt squares = [x**2 for x in x_values]
Many interesting data sets have a date or time as the x- from matplotlib import dates as mdates cubes = [x**3 for x in x_values]
value. Python’s datetime module helps you work with this
kind of data. dates = [ [Link]('seaborn')
dt(2019, 6, 21), dt(2019, 6, 22), fig, axs = [Link](1, 2, sharey=True)
Generating the current date
The [Link]() function returns a datetime object dt(2019, 6, 23), dt(2019, 6, 24),
representing the current date and time. ] axs[0].scatter(x_values, squares)
axs[0].set_title('Squares')
from datetime import datetime as dt
highs = [56, 57, 57, 64]
axs[1].scatter(x_values, cubes, c='red')
today = [Link]() axs[1].set_title('Cubes')
fig, ax = [Link]()
date_string = [Link]('%m/%d/%Y') [Link](dates, highs, c='red')
print(date_string) [Link]()
Generating a specific date ax.set_title("Daily High Temps", fontsize=24)
You can also generate a datetime object for any date and time you ax.set_ylabel("Temp (F)", fontsize=16)
want. The positional order of arguments is year, month, and day. x_axis = ax.get_xaxis()
The hour, minute, second, and microsecond arguments are x_axis.set_major_formatter(
optional. [Link]('%B %d %Y')
from datetime import datetime as dt )
fig.autofmt_xdate()
new_years = dt(2019, 1, 1) cheat sheets by
fall_equinox = dt(year=2019, month=9, day=22) [Link]()
[Link]
 Line graphs, scatter plots, and bar graphs (cont.) Multiple plots
Beginner's Python Making a bar graph
To make a bar graph, pass your data to the Bar() graph object.
You can include as many data series as you want in a
visualization. To do this, create one dictionary for each data

Cheat Sheet – Plotly from plotly.graph_objs import Bar

--snip--
series, and put these dictionaries in the data list. Each of
these dictionaries is referred to as a trace in the Plotly
documentation.

data = [Bar(x=x_values, y=squares)] Plotting squares and cubes

What is Plotly? Here we use the 'name' attribute to set the label for each
# Pass the data and a filename to plot(). from plotly.graph_objs import Scatter
Data visualization involves exploring data through
[Link](data, filename='[Link]') from plotly import offline
visual representations. Plotly helps you make visually
appealing representations of the data you’re working x_values = list(range(11))
with. Plotly is particularly well suited for visualizations Adding a title and labels
squares = [x**2 for x in x_values]
that will be presented online, because it supports Using Layout objects cubes = [x**3 for x in x_values]
interactive elements. The Layout class allows you to specify titles, labels, and other
formatting directives for your visualizations. data = [
{
Installing Plotly from plotly.graph_objs import Scatter, Layout
# Trace 1: squares
Plotly runs on all systems, and can be installed in one line. from plotly import offline
'type': 'scatter',
Installing Plotly x_values = list(range(11)) 'x': x_values,
squares = [x**2 for x in x_values] 'y': squares,
$ python -m pip install --user plotly 'name': 'Squares',
# Add a title, and a label for each axis. },
Line graphs, scatter plots, and bar graphs data = [Scatter(x=x_values, y=squares)] {
To make a plot with Plotly, you specify the data and then # Trace 2: cubes
pass it to a graph object. The data is stored in a list, so you title = 'Square Numbers' 'type': 'scatter',
can add as much data as you want to any graph. x_axis_config = {'title': 'x'} 'x': x_values,
In offline mode, the output should open automatically in a y_axis_config = {'title': 'Square of x'} 'y': cubes,
browser window. 'name': 'Cubes',
my_layout = Layout(title=title, },
Making a line graph ]
A line graph is a scatter plot where the points are connected. xaxis=x_axis_config, yaxis=y_axis_config)

from plotly.graph_objs import Scatter [Link]( [Link](data,

from plotly import offline {'data': data, 'layout': my_layout}, filename='squares_cubes.html')
filename='[Link]')
# Define the data.
x_values = list(range(11)) Online resources
squares = [x**2 for x in x_values]
Specifying complex data The Plotly documentation is extensive and well-organized.
Start with the overview at [Link] Here you
Data as a dictionary
# Pass the data to a graph object, and store it Plotly is highly customizable, and most of that flexibility comes from
can see an example of all the basic chart types, and click
# in a list. representing data and formatting directives as a dictionary. Here is on any example to see a relevant tutorial.
data = [Scatter(x=x_values, y=squares)] the same data from the previous examples, defined as a dictionary. Then take a look at the Python Figure Reference, at
Defining the data as a dictionary also allows you to specify more [Link] Make sure to click on the
information about each series. Anything that pertains to a specific "How are Plotly attributes organized?" section. It's short, but
# Pass the data and a filename to plot(). data series such as markers, lines, and point labels, goes in the
[Link](data, filename='[Link]') really helpful.
data dictionary. Plotly has several ways of specifying data, but
internally all data is represented in this way.
Making a scatter plot
To make a scatter plot, use the mode='markers' argument to tell data = [{
Plotly to only display the markers. 'type': 'scatter',
data = [Scatter(x=x_values, y=squares, 'x': x_values,
mode='markers')] 'y': squares,
'mode': 'markers',
}]
Specifying complex layouts Specifying complex layouts (cont.) Plotting global datasets
You can also specify the layout of your visualization as a Plotly has a variety of mapping tools. For example, if you
dictionary, which gives you much more control of the overall Using a colorscale have a set of points represented by latitude and longitude,
Colorscales are often used to show variations in large datasets. In
layout. you can create a scatter plot of those points overlaying a
Plotly, colorscales are set in the marker dictionary, nested inside a
data dictionary.
map.
Layout as a dictionary
Here is the same layout we used earlier, written as a dictionary. data = [{ The scattergeo chart type
Simple elements such as the title of the chart are just key-value Here's a map showing the location of three of the higher peaks in
pairs. More complex elements such as axes, which can have many 'type': 'scatter',
North America. If you hover over each point, you'll see its location
of their own settings, are nested dictionaries. 'x': x_values, and the name of the mountain.
'y': squares,
my_layout = { 'mode': 'markers', from plotly import offline
'title': 'Square Numbers', 'marker': {
'xaxis': { 'colorscale': 'Viridis', # Points in (lat, lon) format.
'title': 'x', 'color': squares, peak_coords = [
}, 'colorbar': {'title': 'Value'}, (63.069, -151.0063),
'yaxis': { }, (60.5671, -140.4055),
'title': 'Square of x', }] (46.8529, -121.7604),
}, ]
}
Using Subplots # Make matching lists of lats, lons,
A more complex layout It's often useful to have multiple plots share the same axes. # and labels.
Here is a layout for the same data, with more specific formatting This is done using the subplots module.
directives in the data and layout dictionaries. lats = [pc[0] for pc in peak_coords]
Adding subplots to a figure lons = [pc[1] for pc in peak_coords]
from plotly.graph_objs import Scatter peak_names = ['Denali', 'Mt Logan',
To use the subplots module, you make a figure to hold all the
from plotly import offline charts that will be made. Then you use the add_trace() method 'Mt Rainier']
to add each data series to the overall figure.
x_values = list(range(11)) For more help, see the documentation at data = [{
squares = [x**2 for x in x_values] [Link] 'type': 'scattergeo',
from [Link] import make_subplots 'lon': lons,
data = [{ 'lat': lats,
from plotly.graph_objects import Scatter
'type': 'scatter', 'marker': {
from plotly import offline
'x': x_values, 'size': 20,
'y': squares, 'color': '#227722',
x_values = list(range(11))
'mode': 'markers', },
squares = [x**2 for x in x_values]
'marker': { 'text': peak_names,
cubes = [x**3 for x in x_values]
'size': 10, }]
'color': '#6688dd',
fig = make_subplots(rows=1, cols=2,
}, my_layout = {
shared_yaxes=True)
}] 'title': 'Selected High Peaks',
data = { 'geo': {
my_layout = { 'scope': 'north america',
'type': 'scatter',
'title': 'Square Numbers', 'showland': True,
'x': x_values,
'xaxis': { 'showocean': True,
'y': squares,
'title': 'x', 'showlakes': True,
}
'titlefont': {'family': 'monospace'}, 'showrivers': True,
fig.add_trace(data, row=1, col=1)
}, },
'yaxis': { }
data = {
'title': 'Square of x',
'type': 'scatter',
'titlefont': {'family': 'monospace'}, [Link](
'x': x_values,
}, {'data': data, 'layout': my_layout},
'y': cubes,
} filename='[Link]')
}
fig.add_trace(data, row=1, col=2)
[Link](
cheat sheets by
{'data': data, 'layout': my_layout},
[Link](fig, filename='[Link]') [Link]
filename='[Link]')
 Working with models Building a simple home page
Beginner's Python The data in a Django project is structured as a set of
models.
Users interact with a project through web pages, and a
project’s home page can start out as a simple page with no

Cheat Sheet – Django Defining a model

To define the models for your app, modify the file [Link] that
was created in your app’s folder. The str () method tells
data. A page usually needs a URL, a view, and a template.
Mapping a project’s URLs
The project’s main [Link] file tells Django where to find the [Link]
Django how to represent data objects based on this model. files associated with each app in the project.

What is Django? from [Link] import models from [Link] import admin
from [Link] import path, include
Django is a web framework which helps you build class Topic([Link]):
interactive websites using Python. With Django you """A topic the user is learning about.""" urlpatterns = [
define the kind of data your site needs to work with, path('admin/', [Link]),
and you define the ways your users can work with text = [Link](max_length=200) path('', include('learning_logs.urls')),
that data. date_added = [Link]( ]
auto_now_add=True)
Mapping an app’s URLs
Installing Django def str (self): An app’s [Link] file tells Django which view to use for each URL in
It’s usually best to install Django to a virtual environment, the app. You’ll need to make this file yourself, and save it in the
return [Link] app’s folder.
where your project can be isolated from your other Python
projects. Most commands assume you’re working in an Activating a model from [Link] import path
active virtual environment. To use a model the app must be added to the list
INSTALLED_APPS, which is stored in the project’s [Link] file.
Create a virtual environment from . import views
INSTALLED_APPS = [
$ python –m venv ll_env # My apps. app_name = 'learning_logs'
Activate the environment (macOS and Linux) 'learning_logs', urlpatterns = [
# Home page.
$ source ll_env/bin/activate # Default Django apps. path('', [Link], name='index'),
'[Link]', ]
Activate the environment (Windows)
]
> ll_env\Scripts\activate Writing a simple view
Migrating the database A view takes information from a request and sends data to the
Install Django to the active environment The database needs to be modified to store the kind of data that browser, often through a template. View functions are stored in an
the model represents. You'll need to run these commands every app’s [Link] file. This simple view function doesn’t pull in any
(ll_env)$ pip install Django time you create a new model, or modify an existing model. data, but it uses the template [Link] to render the home page.

$ python [Link] makemigrations learning_logs from [Link] import render

Creating a project $ python [Link] migrate
def index(request):
To start a project we’ll create a new project, create a
Creating a superuser """The home page for Learning Log."""
database, and start a development server. A superuser is a user account that has access to all aspects of the return render(request,
project.
Create a new project 'learning_logs/[Link]')
$ django-admin startproject learning_log . $ python [Link] createsuperuser

Create a database Registering a model Online resources

You can register your models with Django’s admin site, which The documentation for Django is available at
$ python [Link] migrate makes it easier to work with the data in your project. To do this, [Link] The Django documentation
modify the app’s [Link] file. View the admin site at is thorough and user-friendly, so check it out!
View the project [Link]
After issuing this command, you can view the project at
[Link] from [Link] import admin

$ python [Link] runserver from .models import Topic

Create a new app [Link](Topic)
A Django project is made up of one or more apps.
$ python [Link] startapp learning_logs
Building a simple home page (cont.) Another model Building a page with data (cont.)
A new model can use an existing model. The ForeignKey
Writing a simple template attribute establishes a connection between instances of the Using data in a template
A template sets up the structure for a page. It’s a mix of html and The data in the view function’s context dictionary is available
template code, which is like Python but not as powerful. Make a
two related models. Make sure to migrate the database within the template. This data is accessed using template
folder called templates inside the project folder. Inside the after adding a new model to your app. variables, which are indicated by doubled curly braces.
templates folder make another folder with the same name as the The vertical line after a template variable indicates a filter. In this
app. This is where the template files should be saved.
Defining a model with a foreign key case a filter called date formats date objects, and the filter
The home page template will be saved as class Entry([Link]): linebreaks renders paragraphs properly on a web page.
learning_logs/templates/learning_logs/[Link]. """Learning log entries for a topic.""" {% extends 'learning_logs/[Link]' %}
<p>Learning Log</p> topic = [Link](Topic,
on_delete=[Link]) {% block content %}
<p>Learning Log helps you keep track of your text = [Link]()
learning, for any topic you're learning date_added = [Link]( <p>Topic: {{ topic }}</p>
about.</p> auto_now_add=True)
<p>Entries:</p>
def str (self): <ul>
Template inheritance return f"{[Link][:50]}..."
Many elements of a web page are repeated on every page {% for entry in entries %}
in the site, or every page in a section of the site. By writing <li>
one parent template for the site, and one for each section, Building a page with data <p>
you can easily modify the look and feel of your entire site. Most pages in a project need to present data that’s specific {{ entry.date_added|date:'M d, Y H:i' }}
to the current user. </p>
The parent template <p>
The parent template defines the elements common to a set of URL parameters {{ [Link]|linebreaks }}
pages, and defines blocks that will be filled by individual pages. A URL often needs to accept a parameter telling it which data to </p>
access from the database. The URL pattern shown here looks for
<p> </li>
the ID of a specific topic and assigns it to the parameter topic_id.
<a href="{% url 'learning_logs:index' %}"> {% empty %}
Learning Log urlpatterns = [ <li>There are no entries yet.</li>
</a> --snip-- {% endfor %}
</p> # Detail page for a single topic. </ul>
path('topics/<int:topic_id>/', [Link],
{% block content %}{% endblock content %} name='topic'), {% endblock content %}
]
The child template
The child template uses the {% extends %} template tag to pull in Using data in a view
the structure of the parent template. It then defines the content for The view uses a parameter from the URL to pull the correct data The Django shell
any blocks defined in the parent template. from the database. In this example the view is sending a context You can explore the data in your project from the command
dictionary to the template, containing data that should be displayed line. This is helpful for developing queries and testing code
{% extends 'learning_logs/[Link]' %} on the page. You'll need to import any model you're using. snippets.
{% block content %} def topic(request, topic_id): Start a shell session
"""Show a topic and all its entries."""
topic = [Link](id=topic_id) $ python [Link] shell
<p>
Learning Log helps you keep track entries = topic.entry_set.order_by(
'-date_added')
Access data from the project
of your learning, for any topic you're
learning about. context = { >>> from learning_logs.models import Topic
</p> 'topic': topic, >>> [Link]()
'entries': entries, [<Topic: Chess>, <Topic: Rock Climbing>]
{% endblock content %} } >>> topic = [Link](id=1)
return render(request, >>> [Link]
'learning_logs/[Link]', context) 'Chess'
Template indentation
Python code is usually indented by four spaces. In Restarting the development server
templates you’ll often see two spaces used for indentation, If you make a change to your project and the change
because elements tend to be nested more deeply in cheat sheets by
doesn’t seem to have any effect, try restarting the server:
templates. $ python [Link] runserver [Link]
 User accounts (cont.) User accounts (cont.)
Beginner's Python Defining the URLs
Users will need to be able to log in, log out, and register. Make a
Showing the current login status
You can modify the [Link] template to show whether the user is

Cheat Sheet – new [Link] file in the users app folder.

from [Link] import path, include
currently logged in, and to provide a link to the login and logout
pages. Django makes a user object available to every template,
and this template takes advantage of this object.

Django, Part 2 from . import views

The user.is_authenticated tag allows you to serve specific
content to users depending on whether they have logged in or not.
The {{ [Link] }} property allows you to greet users
app_name = 'users' who have logged in. Users who haven’t logged in see links to
urlpatterns = [ register or log in.
# Include default auth urls. <p>
Users and forms path('', include( <a href="{% url 'learning_logs:index' %}">
Most web applications need to let users create '[Link]')), Learning Log
accounts. This lets users create and work with their </a>
own data. Some of this data may be private, and # Registration page.
some may be public. Django’s forms allow users to path('register/', [Link], {% if user.is_authenticated %}
name='register'), Hello, {{ [Link] }}.
enter and modify their data.
] <a href="{% url 'users:logout' %}">
Log out
User accounts The login template
</a>
User accounts are handled by a dedicated app called The login view is provided by default, but you need to provide your
own login template. The template shown here displays a simple {% else %}
users. Users need to be able to register, log in, and log <a href="{% url 'users:register' %}">
login form, and provides basic error messages. Make a templates
out. Django automates much of this work for you. folder in the users folder, and then make a registration folder in the Register
Making a users app templates folder. Save this file as [Link]. </a> -
The tag {% csrf_token %} helps prevent a common type of <a href="{% url 'users:login' %}">
After making the app, be sure to add 'users' to INSTALLED_APPS
in the project’s [Link] file. attack with forms. The {{ form.as_p }} element displays the Log in
default login form in paragraph format. The <input> element </a>
$ python [Link] startapp users named next redirects the user to the home page after a successful
login.
{% endif %}
Including URLS for the users app
Add a line to the project’s [Link] file so the users app’s URLs are {% extends "learning_logs/[Link]" %} </p>
included in the project.
{% block content %} {% block content %}{% endblock content %}
from [Link] import admin {% if [Link] %}
from [Link] import path, include <p> The logged_out template
Your username and password didn't match. The default logout view renders the page using the template
urlpatterns = [ logged_out.html, which needs to be saved in the
Please try again.
path('admin/', [Link]), users/templates/registration folder.
</p>
path('users/', include('[Link]')), {% endif %} {% extends "learning_logs/[Link]" %}
path('', include('learning_logs.urls')),
] <form method="post" {% block content %}
action="{% url 'users:login' %}"> <p>
You have been logged out. Thank you
Using forms in Django {% csrf token %} for visiting!
There are a number of ways to create forms and work with {{ form.as_p }} </p>
them. You can use Django’s defaults, or completely <button name="submit">Log in</button> {% endblock content %}
customize your forms. For a simple way to let users enter
data based on your models, use a ModelForm. This creates <input type="hidden" name="next"
a form that allows users to enter data that will populate the value="{% url 'learning_logs:index' %}"/>
fields on a model.
The register view on the back of this sheet shows a simple </form>
approach to form processing. If the view doesn’t receive
data from a form, it responds with a blank form. If it {% endblock content %}
receives POST data from a form, it validates the data and
then saves it to the database.
User accounts (cont.) User accounts (cont.) Connecting data to users (cont.)
The register view The register template Restricting access to logged-in users
The register view needs to display a blank registration form when The [Link] template displays the registration form in Some pages are only relevant to registered users. The views for
the page is first requested, and then process completed paragraph formats. these pages can be protected by the @login_required decorator.
registration forms. A successful registration logs the user in and Any view with this decorator will automatically redirect non-logged
redirects to the home page. {% extends 'learning_logs/[Link]' %} in users to an appropriate page. Here’s an example [Link] file.

from [Link] import render, redirect {% block content %} from [Link] import \
from [Link] import login login_required
from [Link] import \ <form method='post' --snip--
UserCreationForm action="{% url 'users:register' %}">
@login_required
def register(request): {% csrf_token %} def topic(request, topic_id):
"""Register a new user.""" {{ form.as_p }} """Show a topic and all its entries."""

if [Link] != 'POST': Setting the redirect URL

<button name='submit'>Register</button> The @login_required decorator sends unauthorized users to the
# Display blank registration form. <input type='hidden' name='next' login page. Add the following line to your project’s [Link] file
form = UserCreationForm() value="{% url 'learning_logs:index' %}"/> so Django will know how to find your login page.
else:
# Process completed form. LOGIN_URL = 'users:login'
</form>
form = UserCreationForm(
Preventing inadvertent access
data=[Link]) {% endblock content %} Some pages serve data based on a parameter in the URL. You
can check that the current user owns the requested data, and
if form.is_valid(): return a 404 error if they don’t. Here’s an example view.
new_user = [Link]() Connecting data to users
Users will have data that belongs to them. Any model that should
from [Link] import Http404
be connected directly to a user needs a field connecting instances --snip--
# Log in, redirect to home page.
login(request, new_user) of the model to a specific user.
@login_required
return redirect( Making a topic belong to a user def topic(request, topic_id):
'learning_logs:index') Only the highest-level data in a hierarchy needs to be directly
"""Show a topic and all its entries."""
connected to a user. To do this import the User model, and add it
topic = [Link](id=topic_id)
# Display a blank or invalid form. as a foreign key on the data model.
After modifying the model you’ll need to migrate the database. if [Link] != [Link]:
context = {'form': form}
You’ll need to choose a user ID to connect each existing instance raise Http404
return render(request,
to. --snip--
'registration/[Link]', context)
from [Link] import models
from [Link] import User Using a form to edit data
If you provide some initial data, Django generates a form
Styling your project class Topic([Link]): with the user’s existing data. Users can then modify and
The django-bootstrap4 app allows you to use the Bootstrap """A topic the user is learning about.""" save their data.
library to make your project look visually appealing. The text = [Link](max_length=200)
app provides tags that you can use in your templates to date_added = [Link](
Creating a form with initial data
The instance parameter allows you to specify initial data for a form.
style individual elements on a page. Learn more at auto_now_add=True)
[Link] owner = [Link](User, form = EntryForm(instance=entry)
on_delete=[Link])
Modifying data before saving
The argument commit=False allows you to make changes before
Deploying your project def str (self): writing data to the database.
Heroku lets you push your project to a live server, making it return [Link]
available to anyone with an internet connection. Heroku new_topic = [Link](commit=False)
offers a free service level, which lets you learn the
Querying data for the current user new_topic.owner = [Link]
In a view, the request object has a user attribute. You can use this new_topic.save()
deployment process without any commitment. You’ll need attribute to query for the user’s data. The filter() method then
to install a set of Heroku command line tools, and use git to pulls the data that belongs to the current user.
track the state of your project. See cheat sheets by
[Link] and click on the Python link. topics = [Link](
owner=[Link]) [Link]