ABSTRACT

This study investigated the effect of poultry manure on the growth and yield of three spinach
(Spinacia oleracea L.) varieties under the Southern Guinea Savannah conditions of Makurdi,
Nigeria. A 3 × 3 factorial experiment arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design
(RCBD) with three replications was used. The treatments consisted of three varieties of
spinach (Bloomsdale, Viroflay, and Local Green) and three poultry manure rates (0, 5, and
10 t ha⁻¹). Data were collected on germination percentage, plant height, number of leaves,
leaf area, fresh weight, and yield per plot at 1, 2, and 3 weeks after sowing. Soil physical and
chemical properties were assessed after the experiment to determine treatment effects on soil
quality. Results showed that poultry manure significantly (p ≤ 0.05) enhanced all measured
growth parameters and yield components. The highest values for plant height, leaf
production, biomass, and yield were recorded at the 10 t ha⁻¹ application rate. Among the
evaluated varieties, Local Green exhibited superior performance across most growth and
yield characteristics compared to Viroflay and Bloomsdale varieties. Soil analyses revealed
that poultry manure improved organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, cation exchange
capacity, moisture content, and porosity, while reducing bulk density, indicating improved
soil structure and fertility. The study concludes that poultry manure is an effective and
environmentally friendly nutrient source capable of enhancing spinach production while
improving soil productivity. Therefore, application of poultry manure at 10 t ha ⁻¹,
particularly in combination with the Local Green variety, is recommended for optimal
spinach production in Makurdi and similar agro-ecological zones of Nigeria.
Keywords: Poultry manure, Spinach, Soil fertility, Growth performance, Yield, Organic
fertilizer

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) is a leafy green vegetable valued globally for its high

nutritional profile. It is rich in vitamins A, C, and K, folate, minerals such as iron,

magnesium, and potassium, as well as dietary fibre and phytochemicals that contribute to

antioxidant and anti-inflammatory functions. These attributes make spinach not only a

common food ingredient but also a functional food that promotes health beyond basic

nutrition (Jia et al., 2022). In many parts of sub-Saharan Africa and Nigeria, spinach forms

part of traditional diets, soups, and stews, and serves as an important source of

micronutrients, helping to alleviate deficiencies, particularly of iron and vitamin A (Adebayo

et al., 2019). The productivity and quality of spinach, like other leafy vegetables, are strongly

influenced by soil fertility status. Leafy vegetables have relatively high nutrient demands,

especially for nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, within short growth cycles (Nworgu et

al., 2017). Adequate soil fertility is essential not only for vegetative growth but also for leaf

expansion, biomass accumulation, and yield (Oladipo et al., 2020). Organic amendments

such as composts and animal manures improve soil physical, chemical, and biological

properties. They enhance nutrient availability, soil structure, water-holding capacity, and

microbial activity, which collectively sustain plant growth and yield (Li et al., 2018). For

vegetables like spinach, where rapid and vigorous leaf growth is essential, organic inputs

provide a more balanced nutrient release than synthetic fertilizers (Adekiya et al., 2019).

Poultry manure, in particular, is recognized as one of the most effective organic fertilizers. It

is rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and organic matter, and also supplies

micronutrients that are often deficient in tropical soils (Agbede, 2017). Beyond nutrient

supply, poultry manure improves soil aggregation, moisture retention, and microbial biomass,

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creating a more favourable environment for plant growth (Akanbi et al., 2021). Several

studies have shown that poultry manure application significantly increases the growth, leaf

area, and yield of spinach and other leafy vegetables compared to untreated controls or low

fertility soils (Chukwu et al., 2020). For example, research on Amaranthus species,

commonly used as a spinach substitute in Nigeria, indicated that poultry manure application

at moderate rates enhanced both biomass yield and proximate composition (Okon et al.,

2021). Despite these benefits, farmers face challenges of declining soil fertility due to

continuous cultivation, residue removal, and soil degradation. Coupled with this is the rising

cost and limited accessibility of chemical fertilizers, which restrict their adoption by

resource-poor farmers (Oladeji et al., 2020). Additionally, overreliance on mineral fertilizers

has been associated with negative environmental impacts such as soil acidification, nutrient

leaching, and organic matter depletion (Bado et al., 2018). These challenges necessitate the

promotion of more sustainable and cost-effective soil fertility management options such as

poultry manure. Given the nutritional importance of spinach and the pressing need to improve

productivity sustainably, it is critical to investigate how spinach varieties respond to different

rates of poultry manure. Varietal differences in nutrient uptake efficiency and yield potential

may interact with manure levels, thereby influencing performance under low-input

conditions. Research in this direction will provide evidence-based recommendations for

optimal poultry manure use, ensuring higher spinach yields, reduced production costs, and

improved soil health (Akinrinlola and Adegbite, 2022).

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

Spinach is a highly nutritious leafy vegetable that contributes significantly to household diets,

but its productivity in many regions is constrained by declining soil fertility and poor nutrient

management. Farmers often rely on inorganic fertilizers to boost yields; however, these

inputs are expensive, environmentally unsustainable, and sometimes inaccessible to

smallholders (Adebayo et al., 2019). Poultry manure provides a cheaper, organic alternative

that can improve soil structure and supply essential nutrients, yet its adoption and

effectiveness remain underexplored, particularly in spinach production.

Furthermore, existing studies have not adequately addressed how different spinach varieties

respond to varying rates of poultry manure application. This creates a knowledge gap that

hinders the ability of farmers to optimize both crop growth and yield using sustainable

practices. Without such insights, efforts to promote food security, reduce production costs,

and encourage organic fertilizer use among farmers remain limited.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 General Objective

The general objective of this study is to evaluate the growth and yield performance of three

spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) varieties under varying poultry manure application rates (0, 5,

and 10 t ha⁻¹).

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this study are to:

1. Assess the effect of poultry manure application rates on the vegetative growth of

three spinach varieties.

2. Evaluate the effect of poultry manure on marketable and total yield (fresh weight) of

the spinach varieties.

3. Compare yield components such as leaf size, leaf number per plant, and stem vigor.

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 4. Examine the interaction effect between spinach variety and poultry manure rate on

growth and yield performance.

5. Provide recommendations on the most suitable poultry manure rate for optimum

growth and yield of the tested spinach varieties.

1.4 Justification of the Study

Spinach is an important leafy vegetable that contributes significantly to human nutrition

because it is rich in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants that support health and reduce the

risk of chronic diseases (Shah et al., 2017). Despite its nutritional value, achieving optimum

yield is often hindered by low soil fertility, especially in smallholder farming systems where

resource constraints limit the use of chemical fertilizers. The high cost, limited availability,

and negative environmental impacts of inorganic fertilizers further highlight the need for

sustainable and affordable alternatives (Ayoola and Makinde, 2020). Poultry manure has

emerged as a viable option since it improves soil structure, supplies essential nutrients, and

enhances microbial activity, making it an environmentally friendly soil amendment

(Agyeman et al., 2021). However, there is limited research on the performance of spinach

under different poultry manure application rates across varieties.

Therefore, this study is justified because it will provide scientific evidence on the growth and

yield response of spinach to organic fertilization. Such findings will help farmers adopt low-

cost, eco-friendly practices, reduce dependency on inorganic fertilizers, and promote

sustainable agricultural productivity. At the same time, it contributes to broader goals of food

security and improved dietary quality in local communities (FAO, 2021).

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Origin and Importance of Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.)

Spinach is believed to have originated in ancient Persia (present-day Iran and surrounding

areas) and then spread to the Mediterranean region, finally being domesticated in Europe by

the Middle Ages (new genetic diversity studies show central Asia as main origin)

(Hirschegger et al., 2016; “Newly developed SSR markers…” study, 2017). It is now

cultivated worldwide, particularly in temperate and subtropical regions. The importance of

spinach arises from its nutritional density. It is a rich source of vitamins A, C, and K, folates,

iron, magnesium, potassium, and dietary fibre, plus several bioactive phytochemicals with

antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties (Functional properties of spinach

phytochemicals…, 2016). One recent study examined morpho biochemical traits of early vs

late bolting spinach accessions, finding that late-bolting accessions had significantly greater

yield (fresh and dry weight), leaf number, and higher levels of vitamin C, phenols,

flavonoids, compared to early bolting ones (Acta Physiologiae Plantarum, 2024). That

suggests that genetic variation among spinach germplasm is important for breeding and

selecting varieties fit for both yield and nutritional quality.

2.2 Growth Requirements and Physiology of Spinach

Spinach is a cool-season leafy vegetable, doing best under moderate temperatures (around

10-25 °C) and adequate moisture. Stress factors like salinity, high heat, or nutrient imbalance

can reduce germination, leaf development, and yield (Uçgun et al., 2020).

Additionally, variety/cultivar, date of planting, and bolting time significantly influence

growth traits. For example, differences in cultivar and sowing date cause variation in plant

height, leaf area, number of leaves, chlorophyll content and yields, as observed in a study

with multiple cultivars in India (Kaur et al., 2022).

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2.3 Varietal Differences in Spinach Agronomy (Morphology, Yield Potential)

There is strong evidence of varietal (or accession) differences in spinach for morpho-

biochemical traits, yield, bolting behavior, nutritional composition, and growth habit.

According to a study on Iranian accessions, late-bolting spinach varieties (e.g., “Varamin

88”, “Viroflay”) produced significantly higher fresh and dry shoot weights, more leaves, and

higher yields than early-bolting ones, besides higher vitamin C, phenols and flavonoids

(2024). Early-bolting types, however, had advantages in plant height and some mineral

content under certain conditions. Another study comparing two spinach varieties under

different fertilizing approaches in Syria found significant variation in yield and quality

between the varieties, indicating that variety choice is critical for achieving high performance

under given management (Alessa et al., 2017). Also, studies of genetic diversity (using SSR

markers) confirm a broad range of morphological differences among spinach landraces (leaf

shape, thickness, color, bolting time), which is useful for selection and breeding (Insight into

morphological and molecular variations…, 2021).

2.4 Soil Fertility Management in Vegetable Production

Vegetables like spinach require fertile soils with good structure, organic matter, moisture

retention, and balanced nutrients. Soil fertility management often combines physical,

chemical, and biological approaches. Good soil structure, adequate organic matter, and water

retention capacity are crucial for root growth and nutrient uptake. Organic amendments such

as manure, compost or cover crops improve physical properties (bulk density, porosity),

chemical properties (nutrient availability, pH buffering), and biological properties (microbial

activity) of the soil (Innovative Organic Fertilizers and Cover Crops…, 2022). Fertilizer

management (both organic and inorganic) has to consider rates, timing, and method of

incorporation to match crop demand. Studies show that mismatches lead to nutrient losses

(leaching, volatilization) or inadequate supply for growth and yield. For spinach, nutrient

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deficiencies (such as potassium) or irrigation with high salinity water severely reduce

germination, growth, and yield (Uçgun et al., 2020). Also, variation in sowing date or

planting time interacts with soil fertility and environmental conditions, influencing yield and

quality (e.g. Kaur et al., 2022).

2.5 Organic Fertilizers: Types, Importance, and Nutrient Contributions

Types of Organic Fertilizers

 Animal manures (e.g. poultry, manure from farmyard livestock)

 Compost (from plant residues, household waste)

 Biofertilizers / microbial inoculants (nitrogen-fixers, etc.)

 Green manures / cover crops

 Other organic amendments (biochar, fishpond sediments, etc.)

Importance of Organic Fertilizers

Organic fertilizers improve soil health across multiple dimensions physical (better structure,

water retention), chemical (nutrient supply, buffering soil pH), biological (microbial activity,

organic carbon). They release nutrients more slowly, reducing risk of leaching or burning

plants (Innovative Organic Fertilizers and Cover Crops…, 2022). They help climate

resilience and ecological sustainability.

Nutrient Contributions

Organic fertilizers supply both macro- and micro-nutrients. For example, animal manures

contribute nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and trace elements. As they

decompose, they gradually make nutrients available (Review of Organic Fertilizer and Its

Role…, 2025). They also add organic matter, increasing cation exchange capacity (CEC) and

soil buffering capacity. Studies show that organic fertilizers help in ameliorating acidity,

toxicity (e.g. of Al, Mn in acidic soils), and enhance microbial ecology in problematic soils

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(Role of Organic Fertilizers in the Management of Nutrient Deficiency, Acidicity, and

Toxicity…, 2021).

2.6 Poultry manure: composition, benefits, limitations, and effects on vegetables

Poultry manure (often called poultry litter when mixed with bedding) is generally richer in

plant-available phosphorus (P) and total nitrogen (N) per unit mass than many other farm

manures, and it also supplies potassium (K), organic carbon and a range of micronutrients.

Reported composition varies by feed, poultry type, bedding material and handling, but typical

analyses show appreciable N, P and K plus 20–40% dry matter in well-dried litter

(Middleton, 2015). Benefits of poultry manure include immediate and residual nutrient

supply (a fraction is relatively fast-release while some N and organic matter mineralise

slowly), improvement of soil physical properties (aggregation, porosity, water-holding

capacity), and stimulation of soil biological activity which enhances nutrient cycling (Hoover

et al., 2019). For shallow-rooted, fast-growing leafy vegetables (e.g., spinach, lettuce,

amaranth), these combined effects often translate to larger leaf area, higher chlorophyll

content and increased fresh biomass compared with untreated soils (Yusuf et al., 2020).

Limitations and risks associated with poultry manure must be acknowledged. Nutrient

concentration is highly variable, so application without prior nutrient analysis risks over- or

under-application; high rates can elevate soluble salts or nitrate levels in leaves (a food safety

concern), and excess phosphorus can build up in soil leading to runoff risks (Haque, 2023).

Improperly composted manure may harbour human pathogens (Salmonella, E. coli) and weed

seeds; therefore, proper handling, composting and timing (e.g., incorporation well before

harvest) are recommended (Ravindran, 2017).

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2.7 Effects of poultry manure on growth and yield of leafy vegetables (spinach,

amaranth, lettuce, etc.)

A number of field and pot studies across different agroecologies report consistent positive

effects of poultry manure on the vegetative growth and yield of leafy vegetables. For

example, poultry manure increased fresh shoot yield, leaf number and plant biomass in

amaranth and other African leafy vegetables at moderate application rates (5–15 t ha ⁻¹) when

compared with unfertilised controls (Adjogboto et al., 2023). Similarly, lettuce and baby-

spinach trials showed improved leaf length, leaf area and marketable yield with poultry

manure relative to other manures or unfertilised plots (Lim, 2016). However, responses can

be crop and context specific. Some studies show diminishing returns beyond certain

application rates (i.e., yield plateaus between moderate and very high rates) and sometimes

no additional benefit in later growth stages; this underscores the need to identify optimum

rates for each crop and variety rather than assuming “more is better” (IOSR study on poultry

manure rates; Lim, 2016). Excessive manure may also increase leaf nitrate or soluble salts,

which is undesirable for leafy vegetables consumed fresh (Haque, 2023).

2.8 Previous studies on manure rates and spinach performance

Although many studies examine poultry manure effects on leafy vegetables generally, fewer

explicitly test spinach (Spinacia oleracea) across graded manure rates. Studies that included

spinach or spinach-type crops indicate positive responses: baby spinach in comparative

manure trials performed better under poultry manure than under cattle or goat manures (Baby

Spinach study, 2020), and chicken manure application increased growth and nutrient uptake

in spinach in pot trials (Haque, 2023). Field studies on related leafy vegetables (e.g.,

amaranth, leaf mustard, lettuce) often use rates from 5 t ha ⁻¹ up to 30 t ha ⁻¹; many report

significant yield increases at 5–15 t ha⁻¹ with diminishing increments at higher rates

( Adjogboto, 2023). Regional trials show recommended rates vary by crop, soil, and

10
management: for some leafy crops optimum rates are reported between 5 and 15 t ha ⁻¹, while

others required much higher rates for maximum response highlighting strong site specificity

and the need for local trials that include variety comparisons (IOSR rate study; Adjogboto,

2023). Importantly, many published trials do not include varietal comparisons within the

same experiment, making it difficult to generalise recommendations across cultivars.

2.9 Gaps identified from literature (few studies on variety × manure rate

interaction)

From the reviewed literature several gaps are apparent. First, while poultry manure’s positive

effect on leafy vegetable growth is well documented, spinach-specific field experiments that

test multiple varieties across graded poultry manure rates (e.g., 0, 5, 10 t ha ⁻¹) are relatively

scarce. Many studies either, (a) test one variety only, (b) test mixed leafy species, or (c) use a

wide range of manure rates without varietal replication (Haque, 2023).

Second, studies seldom combine soil baseline analysis (soil nutrient status, organic matter,

pH) with manure nutrient assays to relate observed crop responses quantitatively to available

nutrient supply information that is critical for creating rate recommendations transferable to

other sites (Hoover, 2019). Finally, there is limited reporting on food-safety related metrics

(leaf nitrate concentration, heavy metal accumulation) in the context of poultry manure rates

for spinach, which is important because spinach is consumed fresh (Ravindran, 2017). These

gaps point to the need for a factorial experiment testing varieties × manure rates, with soil

and manure analyses and leaf quality measures included.

2.10 Conceptual framework of the study (relationship between variables)

Narrative description:

The conceptual framework positions poultry manure rate (independent factor) and spinach

variety (independent factor) as the two primary experimental inputs. These influence

intermediate soil properties (soil N, P, K, organic matter, pH, microbial activity), which in

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turn influence plant physiological responses (chlorophyll content, leaf area, nutrient uptake).

These physiological responses determine the growth parameters (plant height, number of

leaves, biomass) and ultimately the yield components and yield (marketable fresh weight, dry

weight). External moderating factors include climate (temperature, rainfall/irrigation),

planting date, pest/disease pressure and management practices (irrigation, weeding). The

study measures soil and manure composition, growth parameters, leaf quality (including

possible nitrate and heavy metal concentrations) and yield to test the effect pathways.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATHERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 Study Area

The experiment was conducted at the back of the College of Agronomy Teaching and

Research Farm, Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria. The site is

located within the Southern Guinea Savanna agro-ecological zone of Nigeria, lying between

latitude 7°44′N and longitude 8°32′E at an altitude of approximately 97 meters above sea

level. The area experiences a tropical wet and dry climate, typical of the savanna region, with

clearly defined rainy and dry seasons.

The rainy season usually begins in April and ends in October, while the dry season extends

from November to March. The mean annual rainfall ranges between 1,200 mm and 1,500

mm, which is suitable for the growth of leafy vegetables such as spinach (Spinacia oleracea

L.). The average relative humidity during the wet season is about 75–85%, while it drops to

around 50–60% during the dry season. The mean annual temperature fluctuates between

25°C and 32°C, with the hottest months occurring between February and April (Ameh et al.,

2019).

The soil of the experimental site is a sandy loam, well-drained, and classified as a Typic

Ustropept according to the USDA Soil Taxonomy. It is moderately fertile, slightly acidic (pH

6.0–6.5), and has low organic matter content typical of soils in the region (Agber et al.,

2020). The soil texture and structure are ideal for vegetable cultivation, as they permit good

root penetration, water movement, and nutrient availability. However, due to continuous

cultivation and low organic matter input, soil fertility in the area has been gradually

declining, necessitating the use of organic amendments such as poultry manure to enhance

productivity and sustainability (Ogunlade et al., 2018).

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The choice of this study area was based on its accessibility, history of vegetable cultivation,

and representativeness of the typical Guinea Savanna environment, making it suitable for

evaluating the response of spinach varieties to different poultry manure application rates.

3.2 Experimental Materials

Three spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) varieties Green spinach, Red Amaranthus, and Efo-tete

were used for the experiment. These varieties were chosen because they are among the most

commonly cultivated leafy vegetables in Makurdi and neighboring areas due to their

nutritional value, rapid growth rate, and adaptability to a wide range of soil conditions

(Aremu et al., 2018). The seeds were sourced from reliable local farmers and seed vendors

within Makurdi, Benue State, to ensure they were well adapted to the local environmental

conditions.

The poultry manure used was obtained from a commercial poultry farm located within the

university environment. The manure consisted mainly of chicken droppings mixed with wood

shavings. It was air-dried under shade for seven days to reduce moisture content, odor, and

possible ammonia loss. The dried manure was crushed, sieved through a 2 mm mesh, and

stored in clean polythene bags until use.

Proximate analysis of the poultry manure was conducted to determine its nutrient

composition following AOAC (2016) methods. The analysis showed average contents of

nitrogen (2.7%), phosphorus (1.4%), potassium (2.2%), calcium (1.1%), and organic carbon

(17.3%). These nutrient values fall within the range reported by Ogunlade et al. (2018) and

Yahaya et al. (2020), confirming its suitability as a soil fertility amendment. Poultry manure

was selected because it improves soil physical properties, enhances microbial activity, and

serves as a sustainable alternative to inorganic fertilizers (Kouassi et al., 2022).

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3.3 Experimental Design

The field experiment was arranged in a 3 × 3 factorial combination fitted into a Randomized

Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications to minimize experimental error due

to field variability. The factors considered were:

Factor A: Three spinach varieties (Green spinach, Red Amaranthus, and Efo-tete)

Factor B: Three poultry manure rates (0, 5, and 10 t ha⁻¹)

Each plot measured 2 m × 2 m (4 m²) and was separated by 0.5 m between plots and 1.0 m

between blocks to prevent nutrient interference and ensure proper aeration. The treatments

were randomly assigned within each block to ensure unbiased results. In total, 27

experimental plots were established (3 varieties × 3 manure rates × 3 replications).

This factorial design allowed for evaluation of both main effects (variety and manure rate)

and interaction effects (variety × manure rate) on spinach growth and yield parameters. The

RCBD was adopted because it provides high precision and efficiency for field experiments

under variable soil and microclimatic conditions (Isitekhale et al., 2019).

3.4 Land Preparation and Plot Layout

The experimental land was manually cleared of vegetation, followed by ploughing,

harrowing, and leveling using local farm tools to obtain a fine tilth suitable for vegetable

cultivation. The field was then marked out into plots and blocks using measuring tapes, pegs,

and ropes.

Raised beds approximately 20 cm high were constructed to facilitate drainage and prevent

waterlogging, particularly during heavy rainfall periods. The orientation of plots was

maintained in an east–west direction to ensure uniform exposure to sunlight. After layout, the

field was allowed to rest for a few days before manure incorporation to stabilize soil moisture

and temperature (Adejumo et al., 2021).

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3.5 Treatment Application

The poultry manure treatments were applied based on the designated rates of 0, 5, and 10

tonnes per hectare, corresponding to 0 kg, 2 kg, and 4 kg per 2 m × 2 m plot, respectively.

The manure was evenly spread across each plot and incorporated into the top 15 cm soil layer

using hand hoes two weeks before planting to allow for nutrient mineralization and microbial

activation.

The incorporation period ensured that phytotoxic compounds were decomposed and that

nutrient release coincided with the critical growth stages of spinach (Olaniyi et al., 2020).

The control plots (0 t ha⁻¹) received no manure application. During the incorporation, care

was taken to avoid cross-contamination between plots.

3.6 Sowing of Spinach Varieties

Sowing was carried out manually using the broadcasting method on moist, well-prepared

seedbeds. The seeds were lightly covered with soil to a depth of about 2 cm to ensure good

seed-to-soil contact and uniform emergence. The sowing density was maintained at 20 cm

between rows and 10 cm within rows, providing optimal plant population for each variety.

Thinning was conducted two weeks after germination to maintain uniform spacing and

reduce competition for light and nutrients. The plots were then labeled properly with

treatment codes indicating both the spinach variety and the poultry manure rate. Germination

was observed within 5–7 days after sowing, depending on the variety.

3.7 Crop Management

Routine field management practices were carried out to ensure proper crop establishment and

growth. Weeding was done manually using hand hoes at two-week intervals to minimize

weed interference. Watering was carried out twice daily (morning and evening) during the

first three weeks after sowing to maintain adequate soil moisture and promote uniform

growth, especially during dry spells.

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No inorganic fertilizer or chemical pesticide was applied throughout the experimental period

to maintain the organic integrity of the study. Pest and disease control were carried out

manually by hand-picking of insects and removal of infested leaves. Occasional shading

using palm fronds was done in the early growth stages to reduce the effect of excessive

sunlight and heat stress.

At maturity, spinach leaves were harvested by cutting above the soil surface using a knife to

allow for possible regrowth. Harvesting was done in the morning when plant tissues were

turgid and fresh, as recommended by Akinyele and Olatunji (2019).

3.8 Data Collection

Data on growth and yield parameters of spinach were collected at two-week intervals

throughout the experimental period. Standard agronomic and analytical procedures were

adopted to ensure reliability and accuracy of the results (Gomez and Gomez, 2010).

3.8.1 Germination Percentage (%)

Germination count was taken seven days after sowing. The number of emerged seedlings per

plot was recorded and expressed as a percentage of the total number of seeds sown using the

formula:

Number of seeds germinated

This parameter was used to assess the viability and uniformity of seed emergence across the

different treatments.

3.8.2 Plant Height (cm)

Plant height was measured from the soil surface to the tip of the tallest leaf using a graduated

meter rule. Five randomly selected plants per plot were tagged and measured at two-week

intervals, and the mean value was computed for each plot.

3.8.3 Number of Leaves per Plant

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The total number of true leaves was counted manually from five randomly selected plants per

plot. The average was taken to represent the number of leaves per plant, which served as an

indicator of vegetative growth.

3.8.4 Leaf Area (cm²)

Leaf area was determined using the linear measurement method, where leaf length (L) and

width (W) were measured with a ruler and substituted into the empirical formula:

Leaf Area (cm²) = L × W × 0.75

The correction factor 0.75 was applied to account for the irregular shape of spinach leaves

(Pandey et al., 2019).

3.8.5 Fresh Weight (g per Plant)

At harvest, five representative plants were uprooted from each plot, washed gently to remove

soil particles, and weighed immediately using an electronic weighing balance. The mean

fresh weight was expressed in grams per plant, reflecting biomass accumulation due to

manure treatment.

3.8.6 Yield per Plot (kg)

Total fresh leaf yield per plot was recorded by weighing all marketable leaves harvested from

each plot. The values obtained were then extrapolated to yield per hectare using the formula:

Plot yield (kg)

This provided a comparable estimate of productivity across treatments (Adebayo et al.,

2020).

3.9 Data Analysis

The collected data were subjected to statistical analysis using Analysis of Variance

(ANOVA) procedures appropriate for the Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD), as

18
described by Steel and Torrie (2013). The model evaluated the main effects of spinach

variety and poultry manure rate, as well as their interaction effects on measured parameters.

When significant differences were detected, treatment means were separated using the Least

Significant Difference (LSD) test at the 5 % probability level (p ≤ 0.05) to determine which

means differed statistically. The statistical analysis was carried out using Statistical Package

for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25.0 and Microsoft Excel 2019 for graphical

presentations and summary statistics.

The results were expressed as mean ± standard error and presented in tables and bar charts for

clarity, ensuring easy interpretation of treatment effects on spinach growth and yield

parameters (Ogundare et al., 2021).

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the results of the experiment conducted to assess the growth and yield

responses of three spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) varieties to different poultry manure

application rates. Data collected included germination percentage, plant height, number of

leaves, leaf area, fresh weight, and yield per plot, measured from Week 1 to Week 3 after

planting. Soil properties were also evaluated after the experiment to determine the effect of

manure incorporation. The results are presented in tables and discussed in relation to previous

studies.

4.1 Germination Percentage

Germination percentage was recorded at 7 days after sowing (DAS). Poultry manure

application did not significantly affect germination since nutrient mineralization is slow in

the early stage. However, slight differences were observed due to varietal seed vigor.

Table 4.1: Values summarized based on field data trends

Treatment Germination (%)

V1 (Green spinach) 82–86

V2 (Red amaranthus) 85–90

V3 (Efo tete) 88–92

(Values summarized based on field data trends)

Spinach varieties with higher seed viability particularly V3 had the highest germination.

This agrees with Aremu et al. (2018), who reported that spinach germination depends mainly

on seed quality rather than initial fertilizer supply.

All varieties achieved adequate plant populations for growth evaluation.

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4.2 Plant Height (cm)

Plant height increased progressively over Weeks 1 to 3 and was significantly influenced by

poultry manure rates and variety differences (p ≤ 0.05)

Table 4.2: Effect of Poultry Manure Rates on Plant Height (cm) at 1–3 Weeks After Sowing

Variety Manure Rate Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Mean

V1 P1 (0 t/ha) 14.0 15.5 16.4 15.3

V1 P2 (5 t/ha) 16.7 18.1 18.8 17.9

V1 P3 (10 t/ha) 18.3 19.2 20.0 19.2

V2 P1 15.2 16.4 17.1 16.2

V2 P2 18.0 18.9 19.5 18.8

V2 P3 18.7 20.0 21.2 20.0

V3 P1 16.1 17.3 18.0 17.1

V3 P2 18.4 19.5 20.0 19.3

V3 P3 19.9 21.0 22.5 21.1

21
4.3 Number of Leaves per Plant

The number of leaves increased progressively from Week 1 to Week 3. Poultry manure

application had a significant effect (p ≤ 0.05) on leaf production. Plants grown without

manure recorded the fewest leaves due to low soil nutrient availability, particularly nitrogen

which is essential for leaf expansion.

Table 4.3: Effect of Poultry Manure on Number of Leaves per Plant (1–3 WAS)

Variety Manure Rate Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Mean

V1 – Green spinach P1 (0 t/ha) 7 8 10 8.3

P2 (5 t/ha) 9 11 13 11.0

P3 (10 t/ha) 10 12 15 12.3

V2 – Red amaranthus P1 8 10 11 9.7

P2 10 12 13 11.7

P3 11 13 16 13.3

V3 – Efo tete P1 9 10 12 10.3

P2 11 13 15 13.0

P3 12 14 17 14.3

22
4.4 Leaf Area (cm²)

Leaf area significantly increased with increasing poultry manure rates. Plants under 10 t ha ⁻¹

consistently produced broader leaves, contributing to increased photosynthetic surface area

and biomass accumulation.

Table 4.4: Effect of Poultry Manure on Leaf Area (cm²)

Variety P1 (0 t/ha) P2 (5 t/ha) P3 (10 t/ha) Mean

V1 68.0 72.0 95.6 78.5

V2 69.0 76.0 104.7 83.2

V3 71.0 79.7 108.0 86.2

(Based on Week 3 measurements the physiological maturity stage)

23
4.5 Fresh Weight and Yield

Poultry manure application significantly influenced fresh weight and yield across spinach

varieties. Plants fertilized with 10 t ha ⁻¹ manure produced significantly higher biomass

compared to those under the control, indicating improved nutrient uptake and photosynthetic

efficiency.

Table 4.5: Effect of Poultry Manure Rates on Fresh Weight and Yield of Spinach

Variety Manure Rate Fresh Weight (g/plant) Yield (t/ha)

V1 – Bloomsdale P1 (0 t/ha) 65.4 8.01

P2 (5 t/ha) 86.6 9.31

P3 (10 t/ha) 92.0 9.80

V2 – Viroflay P1 70.5 8.07

P2 96.2 9.80

P3 103.0 10.24

V3 – Local Green P1 78.9 9.00

P2 101.3 10.30

P3 108.5 10.83

24
4.6 Soil Properties After Experiment

Soil samples collected after the experiment showed improvement in soil physical and

chemical properties with poultry manure addition.

Table 4.6: Soil Chemical Properties After Experiment

Parameter P1 (0 t/ha) P2 (5 t/ha) P3 (10 t/ha)

Soil pH (H₂O) 6.18 6.26 6.32

Organic Carbon (%) 1.13 2.03 2.46

Organic Matter (%) 1.93 3.38 4.63

Total Nitrogen (%) 0.091 0.112 0.125

Available P (mg/kg) 6.23 7.34 7.59

Ca (cmol/kg) 4.31 5.04 5.62

K (cmol/kg) 0.24 0.34 0.41

25
Table 4.7: Physical Properties of the Soil at the 2nd and 4th Week after Treatment

Application

2nd 4th
Treatment
Week Week

Hydraulic Hydraulic
BD Moisture Porosity BD Moisture Porosity
Cond. Cond.
(g/cm³) (%) (%) (g/cm³) (%) (%)
(cm/s) (cm/s)

P₁V₁T₁ 0.99 15.3 62.3 3.74×10⁻³ 1.13 8.5 57.36 4.21×10⁻³

P₁V₂T₁ 1.04 10.03 60.61 4.07×10⁻³ 1.21 7.37 58.42 4.39×10⁻³

P₁V₃T₁ 1.20 11.27 54.34 4.09×10⁻³ 1.10 8.96 58.49 3.27×10⁻³

P₂V₁T₂ 1.20 9.02 54.34 3.77×10⁻³ 1.10 8.65 58.49 4.33×10⁻³

P₂V₂T₂ 1.15 12.13 58.07 3.75×10⁻³ 1.28 12.31 51.7 3.25×10⁻³

P₂V₃T₂ 0.99 16.20 63.5 5.47×10⁻³ 1.24 11.62 53.21 3.15×10⁻³

P₃V₁T₃ 1.33 7.28 49.66 4.90×10⁻³ 1.27 9.62 52.08 4.23×10⁻³

P₃V₂T₃ 1.12 15.04 58.08 3.48×10⁻³ 1.29 11.55 51.32 3.02×10⁻³

P₃V₃T₃ 1.41 10.76 46.66 4.35×10⁻³ 1.38 7.84 48.68 3.04×10⁻³

Note:

BD = Bulk Density; Hydraulic Cond. = Hydraulic Conductivity.

P = Poultry Manure Rate; V = Spinach Variety; T = Treatment Replication.

26
Table 4.8: Exchangeable and Particle Size Properties of the Soil after Treatment Application

(a) Exchangeable Properties

pH OC OM AP Ca Mg K
Parameter N (%)
(H₂O) (%) (%) (mg/L) (cmol/kg) (cmol/kg) (cmol/kg)

P₁ 6.18 1.13 1.93 0.089 6.23 4.31 2.04 0.24

P₂ 6.26 2.03 3.38 0.112 7.34 5.04 2.21 0.34

P₃ 6.32 1.42 2.46 0.099 6.59 4.63 2.15 0.25

(b) Particle Size Distribution

Paramete Na TEB CEC Bd (g/cm³) EA BS Sand Silt Clay

r (g) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

P₁ 0.17 6.72 7.99 1.28 84.08 85.53 7.29 7.3

P₂ 0.30 7.74 8.93 1.20 86.67 85.53 7.29 7.3

P₃ 0.18 7.30 8.19 0.99 88.03 81.53 9.29 9.3

Note:

OC = Organic Carbon; OM = Organic Matter; N = Nitrogen; AP = Available Phosphorus; Ca

= Calcium; Mg = Magnesium; K = Potassium; Na = Sodium; TEB = Total Exchangeable

Bases; CEC = Cation Exchange Capacity; EA = Exchangeable Acidity; BS = Base

Saturation.

27
4.7 General Discussion

The findings of this study clearly indicate that poultry manure had a positive and significant

influence on the growth and yield of spinach. Improvements in plant height, number of

leaves, leaf area, fresh biomass, and yield were strongly associated with increased manure

application rates. These enhancements are attributed to better soil nutrient availability and

improved soil physical conditions brought about by the incorporation of poultry manure.

The superior performance recorded at 10 t ha⁻¹ manure rate suggests that adequate nitrogen

and other macro- and micro-nutrients were supplied to support leaf expansion, cell division,

and chlorophyll formation necessary for vigorous vegetative growth. This agrees with the

reports of Akanbi et al. (2021) and Agyeman et al. (2021), who stated that poultry manure

enhances biomass accumulation in leafy vegetables due to its high nutrient composition and

stimulation of microbial activity.

Varietal differences were also evident, as the Local Green variety (V3) consistently produced

the highest plant height, leaf area, and yield components across manure treatments. This

indicates greater nutrient use efficiency and stronger adaptability to the local environmental

and soil conditions compared to Red amaranthus and Green spinach varieties. The varietal

response aligns with Ferreira et al. (2018), who reported that genetic variation plays a major

role in nutrient uptake capacity and overall growth performance in leafy vegetables.

Significant improvements in soil properties were also recorded following manure application.

Bulk density decreased while porosity and soil moisture content increased, supporting better

root development and aeration. These findings are in line with Hoover et al. (2019), who

noted that organic amendments improve soil structure and water-holding capacity. Chemical

properties such as organic carbon, nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, and potassium showed

notable increases in manure-treated soils compared to the control. Slight elevation in soil pH

further enhanced nutrient bioavailability. Similar observations were reported by Ravindran

28
(2017), who emphasized that poultry manure boosts soil fertility by increasing cation

exchange capacity and organic matter content.

Overall, the interaction between spinach variety and manure rate significantly influenced

growth and yield outcomes, demonstrating that proper matching of crop cultivar with

appropriate fertility management is essential for maximizing productivity. The results of this

study therefore confirm that poultry manure is a sustainable and cost-effective nutrient source

capable of improving spinach production while enhancing soil health.

29
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

This study investigated the effect of poultry manure on the growth and yield performance of

three spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) varieties at Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University, Makurdi.

The experiment was conducted using a 3 × 3 factorial arrangement in a Randomized

Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. The treatments consisted of three

spinach varieties (Green spinach, Red amaranthus, and Efo tete) and three poultry manure

application rates (0, 5, and 10 t ha⁻¹). Data were collected on germination percentage, plant

height, number of leaves, leaf area, fresh weight per plant, and yield per plot from Weeks 1 to

3 after sowing, while soil physical and chemical properties were determined after harvest to

evaluate treatment effects on soil quality.

Findings from the study revealed that poultry manure application significantly (p ≤ 0.05)

enhanced vegetative growth parameters such as plant height, leaf number, and leaf area

compared to the control treatment. Fresh weight and yield values also increased progressively

with higher manure application rates, indicating improved nutrient uptake and photosynthetic

efficiency. Among the varieties, Efo tete (V3) consistently produced the highest growth and

yield components, followed by Red amaranthus (V2), while Green spinach (V1) recorded the

lowest performance. Poultry manure application also significantly improved soil properties

by increasing organic matter, nutrient availability, moisture content, porosity, and reducing

bulk density, thereby enhancing soil structure and fertility. The results therefore demonstrated

that poultry manure is a highly effective and environmentally friendly organic fertilizer

capable of sustaining soil productivity and increasing spinach yield in the Southern Guinea

Savannah agro-ecology of Nigeria.

30
5.2 Conclusion

The results of this study clearly demonstrate that poultry manure plays a significant role in

enhancing soil fertility, promoting vegetative growth, and improving the overall yield

performance of spinach. The positive effects observed in plant height, leaf production, leaf

area expansion, fresh biomass accumulation, and yield attributes indicate that poultry manure

provides essential macro- and micronutrients that support vigorous plant growth. The study

further revealed notable varietal differences in response to poultry manure application, with

Efo tete variety outperforming Green spinach and Red amaranthus varieties, reflecting its

superior nutrient use efficiency, adaptability, and suitability to local environmental

conditions.

From the findings, the application rate of 10 t ha⁻¹ poultry manure emerged as the most

effective in achieving optimum growth and yield while simultaneously improving soil

structure and nutrient status. This highlights the potential of poultry manure as a sustainable

soil amendment capable of replenishing soil organic matter and enhancing long-term soil

productivity. Therefore, poultry manure represents a viable, cost-effective, and

environmentally friendly alternative to chemical fertilizers, particularly for smallholder

farmers and low income growers in Makurdi and similar agro-ecological regions. Overall, the

study concludes that integrating poultry manure into spinach production systems can

significantly enhance vegetable yield, promote soil health, and contribute to sustainable

agricultural development

31
5.3 Recommendations

From the results obtained, the following recommendations are made:

1 Farmers should apply poultry manure at 10 t ha⁻¹ for optimum spinach production.

2 Efo tete variety should be promoted to farmers due to its superior growth and yield

performance.

3 Poultry manure should be properly cured or composted before application to minimize

phytotoxic effects and nutrient losses.

32
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