GITHITU JOYCE WANJA

HOV/1805/2024

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This is a property of light that demonstrates its wave like nature where the light bends or spreads out
when passing through an opening or around an obstacle, particularly when the opening is comparable in
size to the wavelength of the light, causing the wavefronts to deform and spread out.
Both light energy and sound energy travel in waves. The wavelength of a wave can be described as the
space between two sequential parts of a moving wave.
This can be observed , for example when light passes through a narrow slit or around a small object. It
can also be observed through a double slit. When the coherent light passes through two closely spaced
slits, the resulting diffraction pattern can be projected onto a screen showing a series of bright and dark
bands.
This is how diffraction works :
1. A wave of light approaches an obstacle or slit
2. The light wave bends around the edges of the obstacle or pass through the slit, spreading out.
3. As the diffracted waves overlap, they interfere with each other .This interference can be constructive
or destructive.
4. It results in a series of bright and dark fringes known as diffraction pattern.

Diffraction phenomenon is described by Huygens principle that treats each point in a propagating
wavefront as a collection of individual spherical wavelets. Every point on a wave point is considered a
source of new wavelets which can be considered a source of new wavelets which can be used to predict
the resulting wave pattern after passing through an opening.
The characteristic is most pronounced when a wave from a coherent source encounters a slit that is
comparable in size to its wavelength. This is due to the addition or interference of different points on the
wavefront that travel by the paths of different lengths to the registering surface. If there are multiple
closely spaced openings, a complex pattern of varying intensity can result.
These effects also occur when a light wave travels through a medium with a varying acoustic impedance
all waves diffract, including gravitational waves such as x-rays and radio waves.
Diffraction is most noticeable when the size of the obstacle or opening is close to or smaller than the
wavelength of light.
Factors affecting diffraction
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Longer wavelengths diffract more easily than shorter wavelengths, which is why low frequency sound waves
can bend around corners more readily than higher frequency sound waves
[Link] size
The amount of diffraction increases as the size of the opening or obstacle becomes closer to the wavelength of
light
[Link] shape
Sharp edges and narrow openings enhance diffraction effects.
How diffraction demonstrates the wave nature of light
Interference patterns
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The diffraction pattern observed on a screen is a result of constructive and destructive interference between the
diffracted light waves, which is a characteristic behavior of waves.
Bending around corners
Unlike particles which would travel in straight lines ,the wave like nature of light allows it to bend around edges
and obstacles ,creating a diffraction pattern.
Examples of diffraction
[Link]-slit diffraction
When a wave passes through a narrow slit , it spreads out on the other side instead of continuing in a straight
line. This effect is more pronounced if the slit width is comparable to the wavelength.
[Link] slit diffraction
When wave passes through two closely spaced slits, they interfere constructively and destructively creating an
interference pattern of brighter dark fringes.
[Link] grating
A series of closely spaced slits causes light waves to spread out and interfere producing a spectrum of colors.
[Link] and water wave diffraction
Sound waves bend around obstacles allowing hearing of sounds even when sounds are directly visible
Diffraction is crucial in various applications including optical instruments, X-ray crystallography and the design
of audio and radio communication system
Diagram of diffraction

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GITHITU JOYCE WANJA
HOV/1805/2024
This is the phenomena of multiple light waves interacting with one another under certain circumstances ,
causing the combined amplitudes of the waves to either increase or decrease . It occurs when two rays
with the same wavelength end up travelling together in the same direction but having different
wavelengths of frequencies. The resultant effect is a complex wave. A pulsating frequency called a beat
results when the wavelengths are slightly different.
One of the best occurring everyday optical interference is light being reflected from a film of oil floating
on water, soap bubble, the speckled pattern of light observed when laser beam interacts with a rough
surface.
When two crests or toughs of a wave align with each other to give a resultant amplitude that is higher its
called constructive interference. This is when if the waves are shifted, positive parts of one wave and
amplitudes add. Typically , it is the sum of the individual amplitudes of the waves. Such waves are said
to be in phase ,which means phase difference is 0.
When the crest of one wave aligns with the trough of another to give a resultant amplitude its called
destructive interference . The positive parts of one of the other wave, the amplitude cancel and result in
no wave.
Typically it’s the difference of the individual amplitudes of the waves , such waves are said to be out of
phase which means their phase difference is an odd.

Interference fringes are as a result of light interference. They are bright and dark bands that can be seen
on the screen. These bands are as a result of constructive and destructive interference of light waves
form the two slits.

Thomas Young performed the double split experiment in 1801, that helped understand the interference of
light. This experiment helped prove the wave nature of light. He also proved that light underwent
interference . In this double split experiment, coherent laser light is allowed to illuminate a barrier
containing two pinhole apertures that allow only some of the light to pass through. A screen is placed in
the region behind the slits and a pattern of bright red and dark interference bands becomes visible on the
screen. The key to this experiment is mutual coherence between light diffracted from the two slits at a
barrier.

Conditions for interference of light

[Link] light source must be coherent and the same state of polarization
[Link] amplitudes and the intensities of the light sources should be equal. This will ensure there is
sufficient contrast between the maxima and minima of the interference pattern.
3. The light source must be monochromatic and a point source
[Link] sources of light must be nearer enough to produce clear and sharp fringes.
[Link] source and the screen should be far enough to produce wide and sharp fringes.

Applications of interference
Interferometers: devices used to measure very small distances or changes in optical path length based on
interference principle.

Anti-reflective coating: Coatings on lenses on the other optical components that minimize unwanted
reflections by creating destructive interference

Holography: A technique that uses interference to record and produce 3D images

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Interference of light yields in the redistribution of energies of light waves. These energies realign and
form new waves that may be destructive.
Diagram of interference

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Polarization of light refers to the phenomenon in which waves of light or electromagnetic radiation are restricted
to vibrate in a single direction. This is a process of converting non-polarized light into polarized light. The light
in which the particles vibrate in all various planes is known as unpolarized light. It is also a property of
transverse waves which specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillations. In a transverse wave, the
direction of the oscillations is perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the wave.
The electric field moves in one direction and the magnetic field in another plane of the magnetic field
perpendicular to it, and the direction of travel is perpendicular to both. These electric and magnetic vibrations
can occur in numerous planes. A light wave that is vibrating in more than one plane is known as unpolarized
light. The light emitted by the sun , by a lamp are unpolarized sources. Polarized waves are light waves in which
the vibrations occur in a single plane. Plane polarized light consists of waves in which the direction of vibration
is the same for all waves.
Two types of waves are involved in this phenomenon:
[Link] waves : The waves in which the movement of the particles is perpendicular to the wave’s motion
direction.
[Link] waves: These occur when the medium’s particles move in the same direction as the waves.
The combination of electric and magnetic forces travelling across space is known as light. A light wave’s
electric and magnetic vibrations are perpendicular to each other. The magnetic field travels in one direction and
the electric field in one plane, a magnetic field perpendicular to it, and a travel direction that is perpendicular to
both. Electric and magnetic vibrations can happen in a variety of planes.
Polarization can occur through various methods such as reflection, transmission, scattering, or flattering.
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(polaroids)
Polaroids are polarizing materials made up of molecules that are oriented in a specific direction .A pass axis
exists on every polaroid .Only the pass axis will enable light to flow through .Both the horizontal and the
vertical pass axes can exist on a polaroid . When light that is not polarized travels through a polaroid, it becomes
polarized.
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When light strikes a molecule or an atom, the light energy is absorbed and reemitted in multiple directions.
When the polarized light passes through the atmosphere the molecule in the atmosphere dispersed the polarized
light in all possible directions. The dispersed light is emitted in a direction perpendicular to the incident beam.
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The unpolarized light becomes polarized after reflection of refraction.
Types of polarization
There are 3 types of polarization depending on how the electric field is oriented:
Linear polarization
Circular polarization
Elliptical polarization
[Link] polarization
The electric field of light is limited to a single plane along the direction of propagation.
[Link] polarization
The propagation of the occurring electric field will be in a circular motion.
[Link] polarization
The amplitude and phase differences between the two linear components are not equal.
Brewster’s law states that , for unpolarized light of a known wavelength experiences maximum plan polarization
at the angle of incidence then the tangent of the incidence angle is refractive index of the substance for given
wavelength.
It also states that reflected ray is fully polarized at a specific angle of incidence. The angle between reflected and
refracted ray is always 90 degrees.
Applications of polarization of light
[Link] to determine the chirality of organic molecules
[Link] to differentiate between transversa and longitudinal waves
[Link] plastic industry, polaroid filters are used to conduct stress analysis testing
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[Link] to create and display 3 dimensional movies
[Link] sunglasses, used to analyze earthquakes in seismology
[Link] to minimize glare
[Link] in infrared spectroscopy
Polarization is a very important phenomenon in physics.
Diagram of polarization

REFERENCES
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