IT 3rd year

Basic Research Methods in IT

Chapter Five
Analysis and Presentation of Data
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to know about: -
 How to represent data in different ways

 Understand how to explore, display and examine data

 Know how to write report in different ways….

Chapter outlines

 Data presentation and description

 Exploring, displaying, and examining data

 Hypothesis testing

 Measures of association

 Report witting

 Presenting insights and findings

Data Presentation and Description:

Data Presentation:

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 Presentation of data this refers to the organization of data into tables, graphs or charts, so
that logical and statistical conclusions can be derived from the collected measurements.
 The techniques of data and information presentation in textual, tabular, and graphical
forms are introduced. Text is the principal method for explaining findings, outlining
trends, and providing contextual information in paragraph form.

Presenting of data use different methods some of this methods are:

 Use table,
 Charts and Graphs and
 Oral presentation
 Tables
o Tables are the simplest way to represent data.
o A table compiles all the data into a columns and rows so that it can be easily
interpreted.
 Charts and graphs
o Visual representation of data
o Data are presented as absolute numbers or percentages
 Oral presentation

 An oral presentation is a short talk on a set topic given to a tutorial or seminar group.
In an oral presentation one (or more) students give a talk to a tutorial group and
present views on a topic based on their readings or research. The rest of the group

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then joins in a discussion of the topic. Oral presentations typically involves three
important steps.
o Planning,
o Practicing, and
o Presenting.
Benefits of Oral Presentation.
Oral Presentation is one of the best platforms where non- verbal cues are combined with
effective verbal skills adding a broader aspect to your communication. It allows individuals
to present their thoughts and views confidently in-front of a live audience.
Description:
 One element of data documentation is the description of the data, known as metadata.
Metadata is often defined literally, as data about data, which refers to the information
used to describe an item's attributes in a standardized format e.g. the author's name
and title of a book in a library catalogue.
 Describing and documenting data is essential in ensuring that the researcher, and others
who may need to use the data, can make sense of the data and understand the processes
that have been followed in the collection, processing, and analysis of the data.
 Research data is any physical and/or digital materials that are collected, observed, or
created in research activity for purposes of analysis to produce original research results
or creative works.
 Research data can be generated for different purposes and through different processes,
and can be divided into different categories such as numerical, descriptive or visual.
Moreover, data may be raw or analyzed, experimental or observational, confidential or
publicly accessible. Research data can include laboratory notebooks, field notebooks,
primary research data, questionnaires, audiotapes, videotapes, models, photographs,
films and test responses.
Exploring, Displaying and Examining Data:
 That exploratory data analysis techniques provide insights and data diagnostics by
emphasizing visual representations of the data.
 How cross-tabulation is used to examine relationships involving categorical variables,
serves as a framework for later statistical testing, and makes an efficient tool for data
visualization and later decision-making.
Exploring (EDA):
 Is a (mainly) visual approach and philosophy that focuses on the initial ways by which
one should explore a data set or experiment. Two main aspects of EDA are:
o Openness: A person exploring the data should be open to all possibilities prior
to its exploration.

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o Skepticism: One must ensure that the obvious story the data tells is not
misleading.
What is EDA Used For? EDA is used for:

o Catching mistakes and anomalies

o Gaining new insights into data
o Detecting outliers in data
o Testing assumptions
o Identifying important factors in the data
o Understanding relationships

Displaying data
Displaying data in research is the last step of the research process. It is important to display
data accurately because it helps in presenting the findings of the research effectively to the
reader. The purpose of displaying data in research is to make the findings more visible and
make comparisons easy.
There are basically two ways to display data: tables and graphs.

The tabulated data and the graphical representation both should be used to give more
accurate picture of the research

Tables for displaying data in research

The use of tables to display data is very common in research. Tables are very effective in
presenting a large amount of data. They organize data very well and makes the data very
visible. A badly tabulated data also occurs, in case, you do not have knowledge of tables
and tabulating data consult a statistician to do this step effectively.

Types of tables
Tables are the simplest means to display data, they can be categorized into the following;

 Univariate: A univariate table has one variable to be tabulated;

 Bivariate: a bivariate table, as the name suggests, has two variables to be tabulated and

 Poly variate: a poly variate table has more than two variables to be tabulated.

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Graphs to display data

The purpose of displaying data is to make the communications easier. Graphs should be
used in displaying data when they can add to the visual beauty of the data. The researcher
should decide whether there is a need for table only or he should also present data in the
form of a suitable graph.

Data Exploration, Examination, and Analysis in the Research Process:

Hypothesis Testing:
Definition:
 The Hypothesis Testing is a statistical test used to determine whether
the hypothesis assumed for the sample of data stands true for the entire population or
not. Simply, the hypothesis is an assumption which is tested to determine the
relationship between two data sets.
Why we do hypothesis testing?
 Hypothesis testing is an essential procedure in statistics. A hypothesis test evaluates
two mutually exclusive statements about a population to determine which statement is
best supported by the sample data. When we say that a finding is statistically
significant, it's thanks to a hypothesis test
How do you test a hypothesis?
The following Hypothesis Testing Procedure is followed to test the assumption made.

1) Set up a Hypothesis
2) Set up a suitable Significance Level
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3) Determining a suitable Test Statistic

4) Determining the Critical Region
5) Performing computations
6) Decision-making

Thus, hypothesis testing is the important method in the statistical inference that measures the
deviations in the sample data from the population parameter. The hypothesis tests are widely
used in the business and industry for making the crucial business decisions.

Types of Hypothesis
The six most common forms of hypotheses are:
 Simple Hypothesis
 Complex Hypothesis
 Empirical Hypothesis
 Null Hypothesis (Denoted by "HO")
 Alternative Hypothesis (Denoted by "H1")
 Logical Hypothesis
 Statistical Hypothesis
A simple hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two variables: the
independent variable and the dependent variable.
o Drinking sugary drinks daily leads to obesity.
A complex hypothesis examines the relationship between two or more independent
variables and two or more dependent variables.
o Overweight adults who 1) value longevity and 2) seek happiness are more likely
than other adults to 1) lose their excess weight and 2) feel a more regular sense of
joy.
A null hypothesis (H0) exists when a researcher believes there is no relationship
between the two variables, or there is a lack of information to state a scientific
hypothesis. This is something to attempt to disprove or discredit.
o There is no significant change in my health during the times when I drink green
tea only or root beer only.
This is where the alternative hypothesis (H1) enters the scene. In an attempt to disprove
a null hypothesis, researchers will seek to discover an alternative hypothesis.
o My health improves during the times when I drink green tea only, as opposed to
root beer only.

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A logical hypothesis is a proposed explanation possessing limited evidence. Generally,

you want to turn a logical hypothesis into an empirical hypothesis, putting your theories
or postulations to the test.
o Cacti experience more successful growth rates than tulips on Mars. (Until we're
able to test plant growth in Mars' ground for an extended period of time, the
evidence for this claim will be limited and the hypothesis will only remain
logical.)
An empirical hypothesis, or working hypothesis, comes to life when a theory is being
put to the test, using observation and experiment. It's no longer just an idea or notion. It's
actually going through some trial and error, and perhaps changing around those
independent variables.
o Roses watered with liquid Vitamin B grow faster than roses watered with liquid
Vitamin E. (Here, trial and error is leading to a series of findings.)
A statistical hypothesis is an examination of a portion of a population.
o If you wanted to conduct a study on the life expectancy of Savannahs, you would
want to examine every single resident of Savannah. This is not practical.
Therefore, you would conduct your research using a statistical hypothesis, or a
sample of the Savannah population.

Measures of Association:
 A measure of association is a statistical quantity used to indicate the strength of the
relationship between two variables. Measures of association take on values ranging
from -1.0 to +1.0, with the positive and negative signs indicating the direction of the
relationship, not the strength of the relationship.
Examples: -0.45 and +0.45 indicate equally strong relationships, only one is a negative
relationship and one is a positive relationship. A value of 1.0 (regardless of sign) indicates a
perfect relationship in which variable X allows us to predict the score on variable Y without
making any errors. A score of 0.00 means the two variables are independent of each other and
not related at all.
Report Writing:
 Written and
 Oral Reports:
Writing a research report: A research report can be based on practical work, research by
reading or a study of an organization or industrial/workplace situation.
Preparing:
o Identify the purpose/the aims of the research/research question.
o Identify the audience. – Lecturer/supervisor/company/organization
management/staff.
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The amount of background included will vary depending on the knowledge of the
“audience”.
Collecting and organizing information
There are two main sources of information depending on the research task:

o Reading — theory and other research

o Research — experiments, data collection ‐ questionnaires, surveys, observation,
interviews.
Planning: Before writing the report, prepare a detailed plan in outline form.

Writing the report

Basic steps in the writing process

 Draft the report from your detailed plan.

 Do not worry too much about the final form and language, but rather on presenting the
ideas coherently and logically.
 Redraft and edit. Check that sections contain the required information and use suitable
headings, check ideas flow in a logical order and remove any unnecessary information.
 Write in an academic style and tone.

Oral communication

Strong oral communication skills are an important success factor in engineering practice.
Research has shown that engineers are spending at least one third of their overall work time
on oral discussions or presentations.
Preparing an oral presentation
Steps
There are five steps in constructing an effective oral presentation:
1. Plan your presentation
Gather your thoughts. What is the content of my presentation (what?), what is the
purpose of the presentation (why?) and who is my audience (for whom?). Take into
account constraints of time (when? and how long?) and space (where?).
2. Formulate your core message
Determine the structure and content of your presentation. The content should be
limited to what serves the purpose and be organized in a way that suits the audience.
Formulate the core message and its headlines. Define the main message you want
your audience to remember and substantiate your arguments.

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3. Create your slides

Compose your presentation and create slides. Keep in mind that each slide should
convey only one message. Limit the amount of information on each slide and use
visual aids to keep the attention of the audience.
4. Deliver the presentation
Master all channels and master your content. Control your verbal and nonverbal
actions.
5. Answer questions
Listen to and make sure you understand each question. Take your time to think
about your answer and construct an answer that is brief and to the point.
Structure and organization
Below we formulate some basic guidelines for structuring an oral presentation:
 Open the presentation and capture the audience’s attention.
 Introduce and situate the topic of the presentation.
 Ensure the overall structure and purpose of the presentation are clear to the audience.
Devote one slide to the presentation outline.
 Develop a clear, coherent and compelling core message.
 Make sure the presentation is logically organized and easily followed by the audience.
 Enhance the presentation with tables, figures, graphs and other visual aids.
 Restate the main points and provide adequate closure.
Questions and answers
The main considerations answering questions are the following:
Try to adequately handle and respond to tough questions.
Effectively respond when asked for clarification.
Verbal communication
Voice
During your presentation, pay attention to your pace, volume, articulation and
intonation:
 Speak in a relaxed manner with a varied pace.
 Speak in a clear, audible voice with appropriate volume.
 Speak with proper articulation and pronunciation.
 Speak in a lively, natural manner with proper intonation.
Language
As regards language, consider the following points:
 Take care of your language and ensure it is appropriate to the topic and the audience.
 Use rather formal language with few verbal fillers.
 Adapt the presentation anticipating the audience’s background knowledge of the topic.
Non-verbal communication
Delivery
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 Try to make effective use of the space.

 Physical gestures, stance and facial expressions must support the message.
 Deliver a dynamic presentation and show enthusiasm.
 Speak directly to, involve and interact with the audience.
 Make frequent eye contact with members of the audience.
Media, slides and visuals
As a presenter, you should be able to easily handle media equipment and respond to
unexpected events.
Ensure that slides are readable and the amount of text on the slides is limited. Choose
a readable typeface and an appropriate font size, make sure there is enough contrast
between the colors chosen for the background and the text or graphics.
 Follow the 7x7 rule: use no more than seven lines per slide and seven words per
line to avoid information overload.
 Maintain parallel structure and constructions in a slide.
 Limit the amount of colors and animation effects used in the presentation.
Slides should be functional and enhance the presentation. Images and visuals should
be relevant to your presentation.
Timing
Check and practice the timing of your presentation:
 Rehearse your presentation in order to make sure it fits within the given time frame.
 Ensure that all team members are participating equally or as assigned by the
instructor.
///End of Chapter Five///

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