FORMS AND FRAME OF ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES

The shell structure is a thin curved membrane or a slab that is usually made from the reinforced cement
concrete. The shell Structure is used as both structure and covering membrane.

Shell Structures are defined as structures that are capable of maintaining their shape and the support
loads without any help of the frame or the solid mass materials.

The term shell is generally used to describe structures that possess high strength and rigidity due to their
thin form. This of the best feature of the shell structures is their continuity and curvature. Due to
its structural continuity, the shells can transmit the loads in a number of different directions.

Shell structures are also commonly known as plate structures. Structures whose thickness is very less as per
as the length and breadth of the structure are considered. These types of structures are known as thin shell
structures.

The main purpose of constructing the shell structure is to reduce the self-weight of the structure by making
the structure as thin as possible.

Reinforced cement concrete is used in the construction of shell structures because it is a highly plastic
material. When the cement is mixed with water it will take the shape of centering and once it gets hardened,
the shell membrane will act as a strong and Rigid shell structure

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Behavior of shell structures

Shell structures have been used in construction for many years to span over large column less spaces. New
forms and variations on old ones have become popular in construction. The structural action of shells
facilitates the efficient use of materials. The wide variety of shapes available results in aesthetically pleasing
structures that enclose flexible space. There are many approaches to the analysis and design of shell
structures. The laws governing the behavior of general shell structures are given by the mathematically
intensive general shell theory. The theory is valid for any shell under any loading condition, but requires the
use of highly advanced mathematics to arrive at a solution. The membrane theory neglects the bending
stresses in shells and simplifies the process of analysis considerably. But the membrane theory is only valid
under special conditions. This thesis aims to 1) provide the reader with an introduction to various methods of
shell analysis, and 2) to examine the effects of certain parameters upon the occurrence of bending in shell
structures. The use of the approximate method and computer based finite element analysis are explained in
detail. The parametric analysis is intended to provide some insight as to the influence of certain geometrical
properties on the stress systems of shell structures.
What Is Moment Frame?

The Moment Frame is basically an assembly that consists of beams and columns. The Beams and columns
of the assembly are rigidly connected with each other.

In the Moment frames, there is a resistance to the lateral forces which is provided by the rigid frame action
with the development of the Bending moment and Shear force in the members and joints.

Moment frames mainly consist of a series of beams and columns where the attachments are formed with
the help of welding and bolting. This type of connection are known as Moment connections.

Moment frames are structurally designed to carry the horizontal as well as vertical loads in the same plane.
The Moment frames are the special type of frames that are rigidly connected with each other of its
components so that it will able to resist the overturning forces and Lateral forces acting on it because of
the Bending moment and shear strength.

The overall strength of the moment frames while design it to carry the seismic loads mainly depends upon
the stiffness and strength of the members.

Moment frames are transferred through the connections and it relies mainly on the rigid connections which
will help to transfer the lateral loads to the underneath strata of the foundation.

The analysis of the Moment frames is a little bit complex as compared to other types of frames and the
construction cost required for moment frames also expensive.

The one of the advantage of moment frames that they have more capability of deformation and very little
stiffness as compared to other types of Frames.

Moment frames are used to resist the earthquake loads and the construction of the moment frames are not
infilled with the materials such as concrete or another masonry which major changes the behavior of the
moment frames.

Types of Moment Frames

There are various types of moment Frames which are as follows.

1. Ordinary Moment Frame (OMF)

This Types of Portal frame system provides very little resistance towards the lateral movement and so it is
only used for zero or low seismic areas.

2. Intermediate Moment Frame(IMF)

The intermediate moment frames are designed in such a way that it will release the Limited inelastic
deformations in the Moment Frames. The inelastic deformation in the moment frames are developed due to
the lateral forces.

3. Special Moment Frame (SMF)

Special moment frames connections are one of the strongest and stable connections that are specially
designed to which stand the inelastic deformation in the members when it undergoes the lateral forces.

Conclusion of Moment Frames

Moment frames are one of the popular frames which are widely used in the construction
of steel structures where rigid conditions are required between the component members.

Moment frames are specially designed to control lateral or horizontal displacement. Moment frame has
good resistance towards the lateral loads in bending compression.

What Is Folded Plate | Folded Plate Structure | Folded Plate Roof Construction Details | Folded Plate
Staircase | What Are Folded Plate Roofs

What Is Folded Plate?

When assemblies of flat plates are rigidly connected together with each other along their edges, such setup is
known as Folded Plate. Folded Plates are connected to in such a way that the structural system is capable of
carrying loads without the need of additional supporting beams along mutual edges.
The first Roof which was constructed using folded structure was prepared by the engineer eudene Freyssinet
in 1923 as an aircraft hangar at Orly airport in Paris.

Folded Plate Structure:

  Folded Plate Structure is those structures where flat plates or slabs are assembled in different
directions and are joined together along their longitudinal edges.
 In Folded Plate Structure the structural system does not need additional supporting beams along
mutual edges and is capable of carrying loads without supporting beams.
 The technique of Folded Plate Structure has originated in Germany in the 1920s. Later this technique
of Folded Plate Structure became popular in Russia and The United States during the 1930s for the
construction purpose of roofs of Industrial warehouses and public buildings.
 Now a day’s Folded Plate Structure is generally made up of Cast in Situ, precast reinforced concrete,
or steel plates.
 Folded Plate Structure has many benefits for construction purposes.
 Firstly, the plates or slabs that are used in Folded Plate Structures are simpler to manufacture than
other shells like cylindrical shells.
 Secondly, the framework requirement for Folded Plate Structures is relatively simple than other
structures.
 Thirdly, fewer materials are required for the construction purpose of Folded Plate Structures;
however they take more materials than curved shells if there are more bending requirements involved
in the construction.
 Finally, Folded Plate Structures are economical over long spans that need to be free of
internal columns as Folded Plate Structures have an intrinsic rigidity and high load-carrying
capacity than other structures.

Folded Plate Roof Construction Details:

 The construction details of Folded Plate Roof are first, precast prestressed folded plate roof elements
are casted on a flat surface with hinges between each panel.
 Then the Folded Plate Roof elements are transported flat and then opened to the desired angle during
erection on the construction sites.
 Then the joints are connected and cast in place to unify the structure.
 This construction method and design rationale was developed in China and now being widely used in
Honduras for both public buildings and industrial buildings.

Folded Plate Staircase:

 In modern construction of buildings Folded Plate Staircase are used as they have a thin and sleek
structure.
 Though Folded Plate Staircase looks good they are expensive compare to other categories of
staircases due to the additional cost of centering and alignment of the framework.
 During the construction process of Folded Plate Staircase right amount of counterweight is needed
for the stability of the structure.
  Now a day’s folded plate staircase runs alongside an exposed wall to connect the two floors of a
building.

What Are Folded Plate Roofs?

 Folded Plate Roofs are a type of folded plate structure that is chosen for their durability and high
weight-bearing capacity.
 Folded Plate Roofs are easy to assemble as they consist of flat slabs or plates that are inclined in
different directions and they are joined along their edges at the top.
 In Germany in the 1920s the first Folded Plate Roofs were used in construction of mainly very large
factory buildings such as coal bunkers.
 In United States in the 1930s the technology of Folded Plate Roofs were used in the construction of
warehouses and it quickly became the preferred roofing solution for really large commercial and
industrial buildings.

Types of Folded Plate

Types of Folded Plate are the following.
 Prismatic: Rectangular plates.
 Pyramidal: Non-rectangular plates.
 Prismoidal: Triangular or trapezoidal plates.

Short Note on
Folded Plates
Folded plates are assemblies of flat plates rigidly connected together along their edges in such a way that
the structural system capable of carrying loads without the need for additional supporting beams along
mutual edges.

Folded plate structures are assemblies of flat plates, or slabs, inclined in different directions and joined
along their longitudinal edges. Modern folded plate structures are typically made of cast in situ or precast
reinforced concrete, or steel plate.

Folded Plate Roofs

Folded plate roofs are roofing systems chosen for their high weight-bearing capacity and their durability.
They can be best described as assemblies that consist of flat slabs or plates that are inclined in different
directions and are joined along their edges at the top.

Folding Structures Architecture

Folded structures are three-dimensional structures – spatial structures and they belong to
the structural systems. The term folded structure defines a folded form of construction,
including structures derived from elements which form a folded structure by their mutual relationship in
space.
Types of Folded Plates
1. V-Shaped Plate
2. Butterfly-Shaped Folding Plates
3. Trough Shaped Folding Plates
 4. Tapered Folded Plates
5. Hyped Folding Plates

Folded Plates Structures

Folded plate structures are composed of a number of flat plates connected to each other. They have many
uses: in roofing of large spans in an architecturally appealing appearance; as box girders in bridges and
overpasses; as bunkers in silo structures; as sheet piles.

What Is Pneumatic Structures?

Pneumatic Structures are the special type of structure which is generally characterized by the slightly
higher air pressure of internal surrounding.
The word ‘Pneumatic’ means the structures which is constructed with the support of Air Pneumatic
structures was introduced in the Building Technology about 40 years ago.
The pneumatic structure is a membrane structure which is stabilized with the help of the compressed
air. The Pneumatic structures are a very cost-effective type of Buildings for the longer span.
The roof of the pneumatic structures are made from the rubber or enforce film with the help
of polymers. The weight of the roofing membrane is balance and maintain with the help air compressors or
blowers.

Pneumatic structures are environment-friendly structures. In the construction of the Pneumatic structures,
the pressure difference between the enclosed space and the exterior is responsible for building for
its shape and stability.
Pneumatic structures are the combination of two components with different properties which is an airtight
membrane and compressed air.
One of the Disadvantages of the pure pneumatic structures is that it required high air pressure to maintain
its shape. The pneumatic structures are generally made from the laminated membranes such as
nylon, fibreglass polyester, silicon rubber etc.
The shape of the Pneumatic structure is round because it creates a larger volume for less amount of material.
The pneumatic structure is a membrane which can carry the total load develop from the tensile stresses.
The stabilization of the Pneumatic structure is done with the help of pre-stressing of the membrane. The pre-
stressing of the membrane is done by applying an external force to put the membrane.

Pneumatic architecture structures are used widely for the construction of permanent as well as temporary
structures. Pneumatic structures can develop an artificial environment which is adaptable for humans.
The foundation required for the Pneumatic structure is secured to the ground using Heavyweights.
The material which is used for the envelope is as follows.
 Fibreglass which has high tensile strength and durability
 Polyester or PVC coated polyester which is flexible.
 Nylon or vinyl-coated nylon which has more strength and durability.

Principle of Pneumatic Structures

  The principle of the Pneumatic structure is the use of a very thin membrane which is supported by a
pressure difference.
 The Dead weight of the space available in the envelope is balanced by increasing the inside air
pressure.
 The thin membrane gets stress to the point where it cannot be indented by
the asymmetrical loading.

Types of Pneumatic Structures

There are mainly two types of Pneumatic structures
 Air supported pneumatic structures
 Air inflated pneumatic structures

1. Air Supported Pneumatic Structures

Air supported structures have Air higher than the atmospheric pressure supporting the envelope. Air
supported inverter structures are supported by the internal air pressure and use of a network of the cable
stiffen the fabric.
The lifespan of the Air supported structures is 20 to 25 years. The Air supported Pneumatic structures have
a relatively low cost. The Internal pressure in the air-supported structures is maintained above the Normal
atmospheric pressure with the help of compressors or fans.
It should be provided with Airlocks which are required to prevent the loss of internal air pressure.

2. Air Inflated Pneumatic Structures

Air inflated structures are supported by the pressurized air which contained with an inflated building
element. Air inflated structures are supported with the help of pressurized air within inflated building
elements in the different shapes which will carry the loads.
In the air-inflated structures, the air under high pressure fills only in the supporting elements of the
pneumatic structure. The internal pressure of the air Inflated structures remains at the atmospheric pressure.
Characteristics of the Pneumatic Structures
Pneumatic structure, Membrane structure that is stabilized by the pressure of compressed air.
Air-supported structures are supported by internal air pressure. A network of cables stiffens the fabric, and
the assembly is supported by a rigid ring at the edge.
List of Characteristics of the Pneumatic Structures
 Weight of the Pneumatic Structures
 The Span of the Cinematic Structures
 Safety of the Parametric Structures
 The Time Required for Construction of Pneumatic Structures

Weight of the Pneumatic Structures

 The Pneumatic structures are lightweight.
 The weight of the Pneumatic structures as compared to the area on which it is constructed is very
less.
 The lower pressure is sufficient to balance it.

The Span of the Cinematic Structures

 There is no theoretical maximum span for the Pneumatic structure. It varies as per the need and
the design.
Safety of the Parametric Structures
 Pneumatic structures are safer as compared to conventional building structures.
 Cinematic structures are fire resistance.
The Time Required for Construction of Pneumatic Structures
 Pneumatic structures can be quickly erected and dismantled.
 Pneumatic structures are suitable for the construction of temporary buildings.
 Good Natural lighting and ventilation can be provided in the Pneumatic Structures.
 The pressure of the Pneumatic structures ranges from 80-100 mm.

Advantages of Pneumatic Structures

The Advantages of the Pneumatic structures are as follows.
1. Pneumatic structures are lightweight
2. Pneumatic structures can cover a larger area of span without any type of internal support.
3. Pneumatic structures are economical as compared to other structures.
4. The construction and the assembly of the Pneumatic structures are very fast.
5. Pneumatic structures can be used to construct a whole structure as an entity.
6. Pneumatic structures can be used for both temporary as well as permanent structures for various
purposes.
7. The initial cost of construction of Pneumatic structures is less as compared to a conventional
building.
8. The operation cost of periodic structures is also less as compared to a conventional building.

Disadvantages of Pneumatic Structures

The Disadvantages of Pneumatic structures are as follows
1. Pneumatic structures are less durable and have a short service life.
2. Pneumatic structures are poor resistance to fire and the acoustic insulation.
3. The enclosed membrane of the Pneumatic structures required maintenance of excess pressure.
Also, Read: Fish Ladder | What Is Fish Ladder | Types of Fish Ladder | Fish Ladders in Dams
Uses of the Pneumatic Structures
The various uses of pneumatic structures are as follows
1. Pneumatic structures can be used for the mobile buildings such as maintenance station, camps
medical aid stations etc.
2. Pneumatic structures can be used for permanent as well as temporary buildings for various purposes
like seminar halls, production area and Godowns, stadium etc.
3. Pneumatic Structures examples the Military structures which are used for storage and other
emergency medical operations.
4. Structures for Botanical gardens or zoological gardens.

Pneumatic Structures Examples

There are various examples of pneumatic structures are as follows
1. The pneumatic roof is the roof with the largest span without the support of columns. This type of
rule is very helpful for climate control.
2. The Pneumatic structure example is the Syracuse Carrier Dome.
3. The Allianz Arena stadium in Germany is the largest pneumatic structure.

What Do You Mean by Skeleton Frame?

A skeleton frame is a framed structure often used for the construction of multi-storey buildings. It
incorporates a network, or system, of columns and connecting beams which support the building’s
interior floors and exterior walls and carries all loads to the foundations.
There are different types of framed structure that are used in civil construction; among projects, among
them, the most commonly used frame structure is a skeleton frame.
In a Frame structure where a connection of columns and beams that support the civil structure is
incorporated is known as Skeleton Frame.
The materials used for the construction of Skeleton frames can timber, bamboo, steel and even concrete.
The first time skeleton frame was used in construction was at the end of the 19th century and the start of
the 20th After which skeleton frames was used the rapid construction of civil projects, buildings and
skyscrapers.
The use of Skeleton Frame helped us in constructing interior floor layouts which can be free of
immovable walls.
This lead to the development of using different materials for the construction of facades and giving them
more flexible spaces.
Using of a Skeleton Frame had lead to reducing the importance of masonry in civil construction.
Masonry, which was used as a structural element, has taken a decorative role due to the use of Skeleton
frame.

A building skeleton is a steel frame that is built to support a large skyscraper or building. A building
skeleton is made out of metal beams forming vertical columns crossed with steel girders for stability.
Building skeleton structures are formed by riveting together steel support beams and girders. The new
floor is signalled where horizontal beam meats the vertical columns.
Using building skeleton in constructions gives you more advantages and benefits than ordinary
constructions.

What Is Steel Structure Building?

There are many types of structural techniques used when the construction of a building. When vertical
sheet columns and horizontal I-beams of Steel are used as skeleton frames, the building is known as steel
structure building.
These columns and beams support the floors and transfer the weight of the whole building to its
foundation.
The development of steel structure building technique from the early 19th century to the
late 20th century made the construction of the tall building and skyscraper possible.
The most common material used for steel structure building construction is a type of steel called mild steel.
Mild steel which is used as the material is solid due to its chemical composition.
The important feature of steel structure building is its flexibility because of the use of mild steel.
Mild steel can bend without cracking due to its molecular arrangements, which is another great
advantage, as a steel structure building can flex when heavy force is applied to one side of the building due
to wind or an earthquake.

What Is Steel Frame Construction?

Steel frame construction is a durable and reliable method of construction which is used in many civil
construction projects.
Steel frame construction is a very cost-effective and sustainable option for low-rise, mid-rise and high-
rise building projects.
In a building frame system where the vertical and horizontal structural elements are formed by a system of
structural steel beams and columns is referred to as Steel Frame Construction.
Steel frame construction is typically designed, fabricated and erected in accordance with standards
developed by the American Institute of steel construction in the United States and the Canadian Standards
Association in Canada.

Use of Steel Frame Structures

1. High rise buildings because of its strength, low weight, and speed of construction.
2. Public buildings and Malls because of their ability to create large span spaces at low cost.
3. Warehouse buildings because of its strength and its ability to create large span spaces.
4. Residential buildings due to a technique called light gauge steel construction.

Types of Steel Building Construction

Steel building construction has various types which are used in appropriate construction requirements. Steel
fabrication is another term of steel construction.
1. Conventional Steel Fabrication.
2. Bolted Steel Fabrication.
3. Light Gauge Steel Construction.

What Is Steel Beam Construction?

Steel beam construction is the type of construction where steel beams are used for the construction
of roof structures and house frames, to secure the structure from harsh weather conditions.
A popular and versatile construction material which is used in steel beam construction is Mild Steel.
Constructions of skyscrapers and high rise buildings have been possible due to its strong, flexible and
durable nature.
Structural steel which is an important component in steel beam construction, is meant for supporting heavy
loads.
This steel product comes in various shapes and sizes from small pieces to large sheets and is used as per
the requirement of the civil structure.

Advantages of Steel Beam Construction

1. Structural steel that is used in Steel Beam Constructions is recyclable, unlike many other
construction materials.
2. Structural steel used in making steel beams has a high strength to weight ratio, making it quite
durable.
3. Structural steel that is used in Steel Beam Constructions has high life expectancy than
construction material such as wood because wood is likely to get rotten faster.
4. The chemical composition of steel beams used in Steel Beam Constructions makes them resistant
to corrosion. It prevents them from causing internal damage that may otherwise affect the durability
of the structure.

1. Structural steel components that are used in steel frames are lighter, stronger and have
more tensile strength than wood, bamboo or concrete products.
2. Steel frame construction far stronger and more durable than traditional wood frame alternatives
due to their molecular properties and arrangements.
3. Steel studs that are used in steel frames are available in a variety of sizes and can be fabricated
order. This means the steel studs can be cut, bolted and welded to bear the required loads in
buildings of all different types and sizes.
4. Steel frame constructions are highly resistant to fire, because of the steel components which
are made up of metal, which reduces the fire risk to a civil structure and stops the spread of a
fire.
5. Special flame retardant coatings can be applied over the steel frames to increase fire resistance
property of structural steel.
6. Mild steel parts that are used in steel frames are immune to the degrading effects of insects and
mammals that tend to burrow or dug in the structures, which cause a problem for the
wooden framework.

Disadvantages of Steel Frame

1. Steel components that are used in steel frames are not known for its warmth, due to its
high efficiency in conducting heat.
2. One of the benefits of using bamboo or wooden frames and structural components is that their
ability to adjust them on site like cutting them down to size, nails hammered in them to strengthen
the join and so on.
3. This obviously can’t happen with steel that is used in steel frames.
4. Steel components used in steel frames are an alloy of iron which makes them susceptible to
corrosion.
5. Steel components used in steel frames have high maintenance costs because, in order to prevent
them from corrosion and structural damage to the structure, painting is done on the steel surface
after a certain interval of time.

SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE

In architecture and structural engineering, a space frame or space structure (3D truss) is a rigid,
lightweight, truss-like structure constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern; Space
frames can be used to span large areas with some internal support.
The roof of an industrial building supported by a space frame structure with minimal internal support
or columns.
Here we learn about space frame structure, types of space frame structure & much more.
Table of Content
 Introduction to Space Frame Structure:
 Types of Space frame structure:
 [Link] Frame:
 Structural frame:
 Space frame:
 Advantages of Space frame structure:
 Disadvantages of Space frame structure:
 Applications of a Space frame structure:
 Examples of buildings based on space frames:
 Conclusion:
 INTRODUCTION TO SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE:
Space frame structures are stronger due to the essential rigidity of the triangle and in such frames, the
bending moment is transmitted as a stress and a compression load along the length of each strut.
The space frame is usually designed using a stiffness matrix, the special feature of the stiffness
matrix in an architectural space frame is the independence of angular factors.
If the joints are sufficiently rigid, angular deflection can be ignored.
When the span of buildings is large, space frames are used due to the large span, spaces can be
subjected to movement, and expansion joints are provided.
Space frames can be simply supported and various members of the space frames can be prefabricated
by welding.

TYPES OF SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE:

1. Plane Frame:
The plane frame is constructed in a flat plane, trusses or girders are examples of aircraft commonly
used for roof construction and beams.
Construction remained subject to light loading for a long time.
STRUCTURAL FRAME:
These structural frame provide massive roof heights and are largely used commercially for oil as
industrial buildings.
SPACE FRAME:
Space frames have spans in opposite directions of a single spread, it provides a lightweight roof
structure.
In a variation of a plane frame, a space frame is a series of linked pyramid frames.

ADVANTAGES OF SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE:

1. Space frame structures are easy to transport, handle and stack.
2. It provides adjustable cambering facilities.
3. Fast installation or very easy to install on-site due to prefabricated components.
4. It does not require purlins.
5. It is more suitable for the structures which have irregular plan shape and site.
6. Also, suitable for a structure that has a larger span.
7. It provides a column-free explicit term.
8. This structure eliminates the need for geometric stability, providing a mid-column.
9. It provides a large spawn at low altitudes.
10. It provides minimum deflection.
11. Space frame structure also has maximum seismic.
12. It has an excellent duration to depth ratio.
13. It provides low transportation costs.
14. It is lightweight and structurally effective.
15. Concentrated loads are evenly distributed over the entire structure.
16. It has very good acoustic properties.

DISADVANTAGES OF SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE:

1. In space frames, prefabricated components can leak into the joints.
2. The price of transport may be higher than volcanic prefabricated sections.
3. Large prefabricated sections require heavy-duty cranes, precise measurement, and handling.

APPLICATIONS OF A SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE:

 Space frames are a common feature in modern construction often found with minimal support in
modern roofing large commercial and industrial buildings.
 They are commonly used to construct aircraft hangars, factories, cinema balls, exhibition halls,
airports, and canopies.

EXAMPLES OF BUILDINGS BASED ON SPACE FRAMES:

 Stansted Airport in London.
 Bank of China Tower and Louvre Pyramid.
 Rogers Center by Roger Robbie and Michael Allen.
 Eden Project in Cornwall, England.
 Globen, Sweden – Dome diameter 110 m.