UNIT 4

QUANTUM IDEAS

Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 1

 Difficulties in Classical Physics
• At the end of 19th century concept of physics were explained by classical
mechanics, the theory of electromagnetism and thermodynamics.
• However, in the early 20th century classical physics was challenged on
two basic fronts

✓ Relativistic domain.
✓ Microscopic domain.
The failure of classical physics to explain microscopic phenomenon such as;
blackbody radiation, photoelectric effect, atomic stability, atomic
spectroscopy and Compton scattering.

Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 2

Development Of Quantum Mechanics
First breakthrough
Planck`s hypothesis (1900) • The findings of Planck, Einstein, Bohr, and
(quantisation of energy) Compton—gave both the theoretical foundations as
well as the conclusive experimental confirmation for
the particle aspect of waves; that is, the concept
In 1905, Einstein explained
that waves exhibit particle behaviour at the
photoelectric effect following
Planck`s quantisation of energy
microscopic scale.

In 1913, Bohr model of • Later in 1927, Davisson and Germer

hydrogen atom (atoms found experimentally confirmed wave property of
only in discrete energy states) material particles.

In, 1923 Compton Effect,

(X-ray photons behave like a • By 1925, Heisenberg and Schrodinger gave
particle with momenta hν/c the refined theory based on the experimental
findings and theory given by Planck`s and
In 1923, de-Broglie postulated Bohr : Quantum Mechanics
radiation behaves like particle
as well as wave
Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 3
 Black Body Radiation
• A blackbody is any object that absorbs radiations all
wavelengths incident on it.
• When such a body is heated, it emits radiations, known as
blackbody radiations.
• A cavity made up of any material (iron or copper) with a
narrow opening whose walls are perfectly reflecting,
considered to be perfectly blackbody.
• Any radiation falls on the hole, enters the cavity, gets trapped
and eventually gets absorbed by successive reflection on the
inner surfaces of the cavity.

Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 4

 Spectral Distribution Of Blackbody Distribution
• When the cavity is heated with temperature (T), it
emits radiation due to the thermal agitation or
vibrations of electrons in the walls of cavity.
• As the temperature increases, the hole starts to glow
notably from red to yellow to white. So the emitted
radiation from a blackbody is a continuous spectrum,
containing radiations of all frequencies (or
wavelengths).
Experimental findings from various objects
suggests:
• At equilibrium, the radiation emitted has a well defined,
continuous energy distribution.
• To each frequency there corresponds an energy density
which depends neither on the chemical composition of
the object nor on its shape, but only on the temperature Classical thermodynamics, wave theory,
of the cavity’s walls. classical electromagnetic theory failed to
explain the characteristics of blackbody
• With the increase in temperature, the total amount of
spectrum!!!
emitted radiation increases
• The position of maximum peak shifts towards higher
frequencies with increasing temperature. Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 5
 Wein`s Displacement Law
Experimental findings
𝟏
𝝀𝒎 ∝
• At a given temperature, the 𝑻
𝝀𝒎 𝑻 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟗𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎. 𝑲
intensity of radiation increases with
increase in wavelength, reaches
maximum( 𝝀𝒎 ) and then
decreases.
• When the temperature of
blackbody increases the intensity of
emitted radiation increases.
• On increasing the temperature the Stephan-Boltzman Law
𝝀𝒎 shifts to lower wavelengths ( left
side of spectrum). The thermal energy radiated by a blackbody radiator per second
per unit area is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
• The wavelength of emitted temperature and is given by
radiation used to find out the
temperature of surfaces 𝒖 = 𝝈 𝑻𝟒
Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 6
Quest: What will the the energy of radiation as a function of
wavelength or frequency?

energy per unit volume in the range λ→λ+dλ: uλdλ

𝑐 𝑐
In terms of frequency, ν = ⇒ 𝑑ν= − 2 d λ
λ λ
energy per unit volume in the range → ν +d ν : u ν d ν

Wien’s energy density distribution law

• Using classical thermodynamics arguments, Wien`s obtain the energy density

per unit frequency of the emitted blackbody radiation:
𝑢ν ν, 𝑇 = 𝐴 ν3 𝑒 −𝑏ν/𝑡
where A and b are some constant
➢Although Wien’s formula fits the high-frequency data remarkably well but
fails at low frequencies.
Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 7
 Rayleigh- Jeans energy density distribution law

• Rayleigh assume an cavity, inside of which blackbody radiations • The average total energy of the
are in thermal equilibrium with the walls of metallic surface. radiation leaving the cavity can be
• The radiations reflecting from the metallic surface form standing obtained by multiplying the
waves with nodes, at temperature T. average energy of the oscillators by
the number of modes (standing
• These standing waves are equivalent to harmonic oscillator. waves).
Harmonic oscillations results from the large number of electrical • The electromagnetic energy density
charges, electrons in the wall of cavity. Each standing wave in the frequency range ν to ν+dν
assumed to be an oscillator, oscillating with frequency ν.
𝟖𝝅𝝂𝟐
𝒖𝝂 = 𝑵 (ν) < 𝑬 > = <𝑬>
• Rayleigh done the calculation to count the number of modes 𝒄𝟑
(i)
(standing waves) of the radiation in the frequency interval ν to
ν+dν.
where < 𝐸 > is the average energy of
𝟖𝝅𝝂𝟐 the oscillators present on the walls of
𝑵 (ν) = ( number of modes of oscillation per the cavity
𝒄𝟑
unit volume, c is the speed of light)
Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 8
 According to the equipartition theorem of classical thermodynamics, all oscillators in the
cavity have the same mean energy, irrespective of their frequencies:

(ii)

where k = 1.3807 x 10-23 J/K is Boltzmann constant. From (i) and (ii) Rayleigh-Jeans law is:

𝟖𝝅𝝂𝟐
u (ν, T) = 𝒄𝟑
kT

• This law is in agreement with low frequencies but

for higher frequencies it deviates from experimental
curve obtained.
• The eq. obtained predicts the so called ultraviolet
ultraviolet catastrophe (for higher frequencies or
short wavelength the blackbody emit infinite amount
of energy)
Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 9
 Planck`s Quantum Hypothesis

Max Planck in 1900 introduced the quantum theory of radiation to explain distribution of energy in
the spectrum of blackbody radiation. He assumed that the atoms of the walls of the blackbody
behave as oscillators and each has a characteristic frequency of oscillation. He proposed :

• An oscillating charge can not have any arbitrary value of energy but can have only discrete energies
i.e., the energy of emitted radiation must come in integral multiple of hν :
𝑬 = 𝒏 𝒉𝝂
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…. is any integer, ν is frequency of oscillation or frequency of emitted radiation; h =
6.023 x 10-34 J-sec, Planck`s constant. hν is known is the energy of a “quantum” of radiation.
The above relation is known as Planck’s quantization rule for energy or Planck’s postulate.

Average Energy Of Planck`s Oscillator

Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 10

Planck`s Energy Density Distribution

• The energy density of radiation u (ν) in the frequency range ν and ν+dν

𝟖𝝅𝝂𝟐
u (ν,T) = <𝑬>
𝒄𝟑

Putting the value of <E> gives

𝟖𝝅𝝂𝟐 𝒉ν
u (ν,T) = . 𝒆𝒉ν/𝒌𝑻 −𝟏 ⇒ Planck`s distribution in terms of frequency
𝒄𝟑
𝑐 𝑐
Since ν = ⇒ 𝑑ν= − dλ
λ λ2

𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄 𝟏
u (λ,T) = . 𝒆𝒉𝒄/λ𝒌𝑻 −𝟏 ⇒ Planck`s distribution in terms of wavelength
λ𝟓

Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 11

 Planck`s Distribution in High and Low 𝟖𝝅𝝂𝟐 𝒉ν
frequencies u (ν,T) = 𝒄𝟑
. 𝒆𝒉ν/𝒌𝑻 −𝟏
• Case I: For the high frequency ν and low temperature , hν >>kT. Therefore 1 can be neglected in the
denominator

𝟖𝝅𝝂𝟐 𝒉ν
u (ν,T) = 𝒄𝟑
. 𝒆𝒉ν/𝒌𝑻 subsituting A = 8πh/c3, b = h/k

u (ν,T) = 𝑨 ν𝟑 e-bν/T
This is Wein`s law, which is valid for high frequencies and
low temperature.
𝒉ν 𝑥2
• Case II: For low frequency and high temperature, 𝒆𝒉ν/𝒌𝑻 ≈ 𝟏+ (𝑒 𝑥 =1+𝑥+ +⋯)
𝒌𝑻 2!
𝟖𝝅𝝂𝟐 𝒉ν 𝟖𝝅𝝂𝟐
u (ν,T) = . 𝒉ν u (ν,T) = . kT
𝒄𝟑 (𝟏+ −𝟏) 𝒄𝟑
𝒌𝑻

This is Rayleigh- Jean`s law, valid for low frequency or high wavelength.
Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 12
Photoelectric Effect (Confirmation of energy quantisation)
Definition: “ The emission of electrons from the surface of metal when radiation of suitable frequency falls
on it”. Emitted electrons may be called as photoelectrons.

Experimental Setup:

• In 1887 Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect.

• Setup consists of a metal plate (emitter) and a charge collecting
plate (collector), connected to a power supply of variable voltage
( V ).
• When light is incident on the emitter plate (cathode),
photoelectrons are ejected and collected by the collector plate
(anode).
• Therefore, a current is produced (photocurrent), measured by
ammeter (A).

Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 13

Photoelectric Effect
Experimental Observations: Prior to 1905 following experimental findings were observed
1) “ If the frequency of the incident radiation is smaller than the metal`s threshold
frequency, no photoelectron can be emitted regardless of the radiation`s intensity”
(Philip Lenard, 1902).

▪ Threshold frequency (νo) : For a given metal, there exist a minimum frequency νo ,
below which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency is called threshold or critical
frequency.
▪ Work function (Wo ): There must be minimum (binding) energy required for an electron
to escape from a particular metal surface, this energy is known as work function of the
given metal.
Wo = h νo

2) “No matter how low the intensity of the incident radiation, electrons will be ejected instantly
the moment the frequency of the radiation exceeds the threshold frequency.”

Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 14

Photoelectric Effect
Photoelectric
current
3) “At any frequency above νo , the number of electrons ejected increases
with the intensity of the light but does not depend on the light’s
frequency.” ν ≥ νo
- Photoelectric current increases linearly with intensity of incident
radiation.
Intensity of incident
1 light
4) “The kinetic energy (K. E = 𝑚 𝑣 2 ) of the ejected electrons depends on
2
the frequency but not on the intensity of the beam; the kinetic energy of the K. E
ejected electron increases linearly with the incident frequency.”

Intensity
Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 15
Classical Interpretation

Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 16

 Einstein Equation of Photoelectric Effect Experimental observation
were explained by Einstein in
• Einstein suggested that the light (electromagnetic radiation) travels in small 1905 by mathematical
packets of energy quanta or photon. The photoelectric emission is dependent on equation.
the frequency of incident radiation. The energy of each quanta of energy or
photon is:

𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 ν is the frequency of light and h is the planck`s

constant

• Incident radiation of freq. , ν falls on the metal surface, each photon

transfer all its energy (ℎν) to an electron near the surface.
• If ℎν> Wo (work function), the electron will be knocked out of the
metal.
# From the law of conservation of energy,

Eph = Wo + K.E ⇒ hν = hνo + K.E • K. E varies linearly with freq.

• when ν<νo , no ejection of electron
from the metal surface, irrespective
K. E = h (ν - νo ) (i)
of incident intensity.
𝟏
𝒎 𝒗𝟐 = h (ν - νo ) “Einstein photoelectric equation” (ii) • νo,, is cut off frequency
𝟐 Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 17
Through experiment it ha been found:

# the magnitude of the photoelectric current thus generated is proportional to the

intensity of the incident radiation, yet the speed of the electrons does not depend on the
radiation’s intensity, but on its frequency
• The retarded potentials (Vo) were applied to prevent the ejected electrons
reaching the anode until the current becomes zero.

• Stopping potential : The negative potential for which photoelectric

current becomes zero is called stopping potential Vo.
✓ Stopping potential is different for different frequencies but the
saturation current remains the same.
✓ For same frequency, stopping potential is same for different intensity.

The maximum kinetic energy is thus equivalent to stopping potential

1 2
(𝐾. 𝐸)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑉𝑜
2

ℎ 𝑊𝑜
eq. (ii) → 𝑒 𝑉𝑜 = h (ν-νo) or 𝑉𝑜 = ν −
𝑒 𝑒
Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 18
 Compton Effect

Confirm the particle aspect of radiation (X ray photon).

• In 1923, Arthur Compton, directed the X rays of

wavelength λon the target (carbon).(shown in fig.)
• An x ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation, at
high frequency and thus small wavelength.
• X ray photons scattered from the target at rest.
• Compton measured the wavelengths and intensities
of the x rays that were scattered in various directions
from his carbon target.
• The wavelength of the scattered radiation is larger
than the wavelength of the incident radiation.

Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 19

 Experimental Findings

• One single wavelength (λ= 70 pm) of X ray

beam incident on carbon target.
• The scattered X ray beam contains with two
prominent peaks one at incident wavelength λ
and the other λ` .
• λ` is longer than λ. This shift in wavelength is
called Compton shift (Δλ).
• The Compton shift varies with the scattered
angle at which the x rays and is greater for a
greater angle.
Classical Interpretation
➢ The incident and scattered x-ray radiation should have the
same wavelength and is a sinusoidally oscillating EM
wave.
➢ High energetic X- ray beam sets the electrons of carbon
target to oscillate.
• Both the predictions contradicts with
➢ Electron will radiate light with same wavelength and
intensity depends on incident intensity.
experimental findings.
Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 20
 Compton Effect
Compton assumed that the incident radiation of X ray as
stream of particles --- photons colliding elastically with
electrons.

• Consider E = h ν and 𝑝Ԧ = hν / c are energy and

momentum of incident photon, it collides with an
electron at rest.
• Let 𝑝′ be the momentum of scattered photon at an
angle 𝜃 and 𝑃𝑒 be the momentum of recoil electron.

Applying conservation of linear momentum

(i)

(ii)

Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 21

Now, applying conservation of energy:
Energy of incident photon (E) + Rest mass energy of electron (Eo ) =
Scattered photon energy ( E` ) + Scattered electron energy (Ee ).

(iii)
Using eq. (ii)

(iv) Using E = h ν and E` = h ν`

(v)

(vi)
Is called Compton wavelength of
electron.
Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 22
➢ when Ө = 0, minimum Compton shift (Δλ)min = 0.
➢ when Ө = 180o maximum Compton shift (Δλ)max = 2h/me c.
⇒ The wavelength shift of the X-rays depends only on the angle at which they are
scattered and not on the frequency (or wavelength) of the incident photons.
⇒ The Compton effect confirms that photons behave like particles: they collide with
electrons like material particles

Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 23

 Wave Aspect Of Particles
de Broglie’s Hypothesis: Matter Waves

• Louis de Broglie proposed fundamental relation between waves and particles.

• Suggesting that this wave–particle duality is not restricted to radiation, but must be universal:
all material particles should also display a dual wave–particle behavior.

Momentum of photon according to special theory of relativity is given by

ℎν ℎ
𝑝= =
𝑐 λ
Generalizing to any material particle, (rest mass is not zero): each material particle of
momentum 𝑝Ԧ behaves as a group of waves (matter waves) whose wavelength λ and wave
vector 𝑘 .
de Broglie relation and λ is called de
Broglie wavelength.

Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 24

 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

• According to Heisenberg uncertainty principle “it is impossible to determine simultaneously the

exact position and momentum of a particle” (like electron).
• It does not matter for ordinary sized objects like car or aeroplane.

The three dimensional form of uncertainty relation for position and momentum is :

Δx : uncertainty in position in x-direction.

Δpx : uncertainty in momentum in x direction

Energy time uncertainty relationship written as follows:

ΔE : uncertainty in Energy.
Δt : uncertainty in time

Lectuer By Dr. Sana Zafar 25