COLLEGE ALGEBRA

by

P.Y. Ali & T. Valenti

Chancellor College
2016
Contents

1 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 2

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 What is logic? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Logical connectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5.1 Logical conjuction and logical disjunction . . . . . . . . 4
1.5.2 Truth tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.3 Exclusive Or (XOR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.4 Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Conditional and Biconditional Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6.1 Conditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6.2 Biconditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6.3 Converse,Inverse and Contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 Inferential logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.8 Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.9 Mathematical proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.9.1 Direct proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.9.2 Proof by contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

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 1.9.3 Proof by contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.9.4 Mathematical induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 SET THEORY 23
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4 Set Theory Notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4.1 Ways to Describe Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
[Link] The Verbal Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
[Link] The Roster Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
[Link] The Set-Builder Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4.2 Subset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
[Link] Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
[Link] Proper and Improper Subsets . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.3 Universal Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4.4 Empty set or Null set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4.5 Equal Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4.6 Equivalent sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4.7 Finite and Infinite sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4.8 Set Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
[Link] Union set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
[Link] Intersection Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
[Link] Difference Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
[Link] Disjoint Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
[Link] Complement Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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 [Link] The Number of Elements in a Set/Set Cardi-
nality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
[Link] Cartesian Product of Two Sets . . . . . . . . 37
[Link] Power Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3 NUMBER SYSTEMS 41
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4 Sets of numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4.1 Natural numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4.2 Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4.3 Rational numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4.4 Irrational numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4.5 Real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.5 Summations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5.1 Writing a sum in sigma notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.5.2 Rules for use with sigma notation . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.6 Multiplication and Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.6.1 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.6.2 Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6.3 Complete the square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.6.4 Quadratic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
[Link] Discriminant of a Quadratic Equation . . . . 58
3.6.5 The Remainder Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.7 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

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 [Link] Interval notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
[Link] Solving inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.7.1 Absolute Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.7.2 Indices and Logarithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
[Link] Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
[Link] Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

4 INTRODUCTION TO COMBINATORICS 82
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.4 Fundamental Counting Principle (FCP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.5 Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.5.1 Mathematics of Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.5.2 Guidelines for When to Use Permutations . . . . . . . 88
4.5.3 Distinguishable Permutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.5.4 Theorem on Distinguishable Permutation . . . . . . . 90
4.5.5 Circular Permutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.6 Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.6.1 Mathematics of Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.6.2 Factorial Formula for Combination . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.6.3 Guidelines for When to Use Combinations . . . . . . . 92
4.6.4 Guidelines for Choosing a Counting Method . . . . . . 94
4.6.5 Summary of Permutation and Combination . . . . . . 94
4.7 Pascal’s Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.8 The Binomial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

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 [Link] Activity Two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

5 FUNCTIONS 103
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.3 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.4 Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.4.1 Domain and Range of a Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.5 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.5.1 Evaluating a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.5.2 finding domain and range of a function . . . . . . . . . 111
5.5.3 One-to-one and onto functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.5.4 Even and Odd functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.5.5 Composite functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.5.6 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.5.7 Graphs of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
[Link] Linear Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
[Link] Quadratic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
[Link] Piecewise Defined Functions . . . . . . . . . . 126
[Link] Absolute Value Function . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
[Link] Greatest Integer Function (Step Function) . . 127
[Link] Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
[Link] Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

6 GRAPHS AND INTERPRETATION 133

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

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6.3 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.4 Graphs of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.4.1 Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.4.2 Linear Functions Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
[Link] Finding the Slope of a Line . . . . . . . . . . 136
[Link] Point-Slope Form of the Equation of a Line . 136
[Link] Parallel and Perpendicular Lines . . . . . . . 137
[Link] Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
[Link] Graph Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
[Link] Symmetry with Respect to the y-axis . . . . . 139
[Link] Symmetry with Respect to the Origin . . . . 139
[Link] Symmetry with Respect to the x-axis . . . . . 140
6.4.3 Quadratic Function Graphs: Parabola . . . . . . . . . 140
[Link] Effect of “a" on the Graph of f . . . . . . . . 140
[Link] Transformation of Quadratic Graphs and sym-
metry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
[Link] Vertical and Horizontal Shifts . . . . . . . . . 142
[Link] Standard Form of a Quadratic Function . . . 143
[Link] The Minimum and Maximum Values of Quadratic
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.4.4 Graphs of General Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . 148
[Link] The Effect of Multiplicity of a Polynomial . . 148
[Link] Turning Points and Intercepts . . . . . . . . . 150
[Link] Zeros of a polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
[Link] Intermediate Value Theorem for Polynomial . 151
[Link] Steps for Graphing Polynomial Functions . . 151

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6.4.5 Graph Relationships with the Basic Function . . . . . 155
[Link] General Graph Transformations . . . . . . . . 156
6.4.6 Sine, Cosine and Tangent Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 158
[Link] Angle and Degree Measure . . . . . . . . . . 158
[Link] Radian Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
[Link] Converting Angles Between Degrees and Ra-
dians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
[Link] Applications of Radian Measure . . . . . . . . 161
[Link] Arc Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
[Link] Area of a Sector of a Circle . . . . . . . . . . 162
[Link] Area of a Sector of a Circle . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.4.7 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
[Link] Rotation of Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
[Link] Reference Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
[Link] Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
[Link] Solving Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . 171
6.4.8 Graphing the Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . 174
[Link] The Graph of sine Function . . . . . . . . . . 175
[Link] The Graph of Cosine Function . . . . . . . . 176
[Link] The Graph of Tangent Function . . . . . . . . 177
6.4.9 Properties of graphs of Trigonometric Function . . . . 179
[Link] Amplitude and Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
[Link] Translations of Sine and Cosine Curves . . . . 180
[Link] Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
[Link] Activity Three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.4.10 Graph of Modulus Functions and their Transformations 186

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 6.4.11 Graph of Exponential functions and their Transforma-
tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
[Link] Basic Exponential Function Graphs . . . . . . 187
6.4.12 Graph of Logarithmic Functions and their Transforma-
tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.4.13 Greatest Integer Function and its Graphs . . . . . . . . 190
[Link] graph of greatest integer Function . . . . . . . 191
6.4.14 Conic Sections Graphs and their Transformations . . . 193
6.4.15 Standard Equations of Conic Sections . . . . . . . . . . 194
[Link] Parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
[Link] Ellipses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
[Link] Hyperbolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.4.16 Transformations of Conics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.4.17 Shifted Conics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Bibliography 207

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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

1.1 Introduction

In this chapter we shall look at various strategies for proving mathematical

statements. We shall be able to say with absolute certainty that a property
holds for all numbers or all cases, not just those we’ve tried, and not just
because it sounds convincing or would be quite nice if it were so. In order to
do so, we shall first discuss key terms in mathematical logic. Then we shall
discuss various techniques for mathematical proofs.

1.2 Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

a) use basic terminology in mathematical logic correctly.

b) present a comprehensible mathematical argument using appropriate

mathematical symbols.

c) write mathematical proofs correctly.

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 1.3 Key Terms

Logic, Proposition, Logical connectives, Truth tables, Inferential logic, Quan-

tifiers, Mathematical proofs.

1.4 What is logic?

Mathematical logic is the study of the logical relationship between objects

called propositions and forms the basis of all mathematical reasoning. A
proposition is a statement that is either true or false. We will use letters,
such as p, q, r, . . . to denote a proposition. We will also use the notation

p:2=2=5

to define p to be the proposition 2 = 2 = 5. The value of a proposition is

called its truth value; denoted by T or 1 if it is true and F or 0 if it is false.
Statements that are not propositions include questions and commands.

Example 1.4.1. Which of the following are propositions? Give the truth
value of the propositions.

a) The derivative of sin x is cos x.

b) What time is it?

c) 2 + 2 = 5

d) Do your home work.

Solution.

a) A proposition with truth value (T ).

b) Not a proposition.

c) A proposition with truth value (F ).

d) Not a proposition.

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Activity 5.4

1. Indicate which of the following sentences are propositions:

(a) Every even number has at least two factors.

(b) She is a mathematics major.
(c) 128 = 26
(d) When is the test?

2. Consider the propositions

p : It is raining.

q : It is warm.

Use logical connectives to represent the proposition "It is raining but

not warm."

1.5 Logical connectives

We can create compound propositions or propositional functions from two

or more propositions using logical (symbolic) connectives. The propositions
that form a propositional function are called the propositional variables.

1.5.1 Logical conjuction and logical disjunction

Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction of p and q, denoted by p ∧ q,

is the proposition: p and q. This proposition is defined to be true only when
both p and q are true and it is false otherwise. It is also referred to as the
logical AND. The disjunction of p and q, denoted by p ∨ q, is the proposition:
p or q. This proposition is false only when both p and q are false, otherwise
it is true. It is also referred to as the logical Or.

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Example 1.5.1. Let

p:4<7
q:7<5

Construct the proposition p ∧ q and p ∨ q.

Solution.

p ∧ q : 4 < 7 and 7 < 5

p ∧ q : 4 < 7 or 7 < 5

Example 1.5.2. Consider the following proposition:

p : It is raining
q : It is warm

Construct the proposition p ∧ q and p ∨ q.

Solution.

p ∧ q : It is raining and it is warm

p ∧ q : It is raining or it is warm

1.5.2 Truth tables

A truth table is used to show the relationships between the truth value of
propositions. We present the truth table of p ∧ q.

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

We leave the truth table of p ∨ q as an exercise.

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1.5.3 Exclusive Or (XOR)

Let p and q be two propositions. Then exclusive or of p and q, denoted p ⊕ q,

is the proposition that is true when exactly one of p and q is true and is false
otherwise. We present the truth table of the exclusive or.

p q p⊕q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example 1.5.3. Construct a truth table for p ⊕ (q ⊕ r)

Solution. The table is as follows.

p q r q⊕r p ⊕ (q ⊕ r)
T T T F T
T T F T F
T F T T F
T F F F T
F T T F F
F T F T T
F F T T T
F F F F F

1.5.4 Negation

A proposition can be negated. This is also a proposition. Let p be the propo-

sition. The negation of p, denoted ∼ p, is the proposition not p. We present
the truth table of p. We present the table of ∼ p.

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 p ∼p
T F
F T

Example 1.5.4. Find the negation of the proposition p : −3 < x ≤ 0.

Solution. The negation of the proposition p is ∼ p: x > 0 or x < −3.

Example 1.5.5. Consider the following propositions:

p : Today is Monday
q :2+1=3
r : The derivative of sin x is cos x.

Construct the truth table of [∼ (p ∧ q)] ∨ r.

Solution. The truth table is as follows:

p q r p∧q ∼ (p ∧ q) [∼ (p ∧ q)] ∨ r
T T T T F T
T T F T F F
T F T F T T
T F F F T T
F T T F T T
F T F F T T
F F T F T T
F F F F T T

A compound proposition is called a tautology if it is always true, regard-

less of the truth values of the propositions that occur in it.

Example 1.5.6. Show that p∨ ∼ p is a tautology.

Solution. The truth table is as follows:

p ∼p p∨ ∼ p
T F T
F T T

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Therefore the proposition is a tautology.

Two propositions are equivalent if they have exactly the same truth values
under all circumstances. We p ≡ q.

Example 1.5.7. Show that ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡∼ p∧ ∼ q.(DeMorgan’s law)

Solution. The truth table is as follows:

p q ∼p ∼q p∨q ∼ (p ∨ q) ∼ p∧ ∼ p
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F F F T
F F T T F T T

A proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called a

contigency.
In propositional functions, the order of operations is that ∼ is performed
first. the operations ∨ and ∧ are performed in any order.

Activity 5.5

1. Write the truth table for p ∨ q.

2. Show that ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡∼ p∨ ∼ q.(DeMorgan’s law)

3. Is (p ⊕ q) ⊕ r ≡ p ⊕ (q ⊕ r)? Justify your answer.

4. Show that (p ∧ q) ∨ (∼ p ∨ (p∧ ∼ q)) is a tautology.

5. Show that (p∧ ∼ q) ∧ (∼ p ∨ q) is a contradiction.

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1.6 Conditional and Biconditional Propositions

1.6.1 Conditional

Let p and q be propositions. The implication p → q is the proposition that

is false only when p is true and q is false; otherwise it is true. p is called the
hypothesis and q is called the conclusion. When p is true, we say that the
hypothesis is a sufficient condition for the conclusion. Thus it is sufficient
to know p in order to conclude about q. The conclusion is then called a
necessary condition of that hypothesis; or necessary for that hypothesis to
happen or be true. The connective → is called the conditional connective.
We present a table of the implication p → q.

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Example 1.6.1. Show that p → q ≡∼ p ∨ q.

Solution. The truth table is as follows:

p q ∼p p→q ∼p∨q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

It follows from the previous example that the proposition p → q is always

true if the hypothesis pis false, regardless of the truth value of q.
The implication p → q can be equivalently read as

a) if p then q.

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 b) p implies q.

c) p is a sufficient condition for q.

d) q is a necessary condition for p.

e) p only if q.

f) q whenever p.

g) q follows from p.

In propositional functions that involve the connectives ∼, ∧, ∨, and → the

order of operations is that ∼ is performed first and → is performed last.

Example 1.6.2. a) Show that ∼ (p →) ≡ p∧ ∼ q.

b) Find the negation of the statement "If my school uniform is with the
tailor, then I cannot go to school."

Solution. a) Using DeMorgan’s laws we get

∼ (p → q) ≡∼ (∼ p ∨ q)
≡∼ 9 ∼ p)∧ ∼ q
≡ p∧ ∼ q

b) my school uniform is with Tailor and I can go to school.

1.6.2 Biconditional

The biconditional of p and q, denoted by p ↔ q is the compound proposition

that is true when both p and q have the same truth values and false if p
and q have opposite truth values. It is also read as "p if and only if q" or"p
is a necessary and sufficient condition for q. We present the truth table for
p ↔ q.

Example 1.6.3. Show that p → q ≡∼ p ∨ q.

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Solution. The truth table is as follows:

p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Example 1.6.4. Show that p ↔ q ≡ (p ↔ q) ∧ (q ↔ p).

Solution. The table of values is as below.

p q p→q q→p p↔q (p → q) ∧ (q ↔ p)

T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F F F
F F T T T T

1.6.3 Converse,Inverse and Contrapositive

Consider the proposition p → q :

• Its converse is the proposition q → p.

• Its inverse (or opposite) is the proposition ∼ p →∼ q.

• Its contrapositive is the proposition ∼ q →∼ p.

Example 1.6.5. Find the converse, inverse and the contrapositive of the
implications "If today is Monday, then I have a test today."

Solution. The converse: I have a test today then today is Monday.

The inverse: If today is not Monday then I don’t have a test today.
The contrapositive: If I don’t have a test today then today is not Monday.

Example 1.6.6. Show that p → q ≡∼ q →∼ p.

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Solution. Using DeMorgan’s laws we get

p → q ≡∼ p ∨ q
≡∼ (p∧ ∼ q)
≡∼ (∼ q ∧ p)
≡∼∼ q∨ ∼ p
≡ q∨ ∼ p
≡∼ q →∼ p

Example 1.6.7. Use truth tables to show that p → q 6≡ q → p.

Solution. It suffices to show that ∼ p ∨ q 6≡∼ q ∨ p.

p q ∼p∼q ∼p∼q ∼q∨p

T T F F T T
T F F T F T
F T T F T F
F F T T T T

Activity 5.5.2

1. a) If P is a square, then P is a rectangle.

b) If n is prime, then n is odd or n is 2.
c) If Charles is Naomi’s father, then Takondwa is her uncle and Dal-
itso is her aunt.

2. Use tables to show that p → q 6≡∼ p →∼ q.

3. Show that ∼ q →∼ p ≡ p → q.

4. Construct the truth table for the proposition: (p → r) ↔ (q → r).

12
1.7 Inferential logic

We shall consider a group of related propositions.

An argument is a set of two or more propositions related to each other in
such a way that all but one of them (the premises) are supposed to provide
support for the remaining one (the conclusion). The transition from premises
to conclusion is the inference upon which the argument relies.

Example 1.7.1. Show that the propositions: "James is a doctor. So James

went to medical school since all doctors have gone to medical school" form
an argument.

Solution. Indeed this is an argument. The truth of the conclusion, "James

went to medical school," is inferred or deduced from its premises, "James is
a doctor" and "all doctors have gone to medical school."

We can represent the above argument as follows: Let

p: James is a doctor.
q: All doctors have gone to medical school.
r: James went to medical school.
Then

p∧q
∴r

The symbol ∴ is to indicate the inferrenced conclusion.

Suppose that the premises of an argument are all true. Then the con-
clusion may be either true or false. When the conclusion is true then the
argument is said to be valid. When the conclusion is false then the argument
is said to be invalid.
To test an argument for validity one proceeds as follows:

(1) Identify the premises and the conclusion of the argument.

(2) Construct a truth table including the premises and the conclusion.

13
 (3) Find rows in which all premises are true.

(4) In each row of Step (3), if the conclusion is true then the argument is
valid; otherwise the argument is

Example 1.7.2 (Modus Ponens or the method of affirming). Show that the
argument

p→q
p
∴q

is valid.

Solution. The truth table is as follows:

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

We can see from the first row that the argument is valid.

Example 1.7.3 (Modus Tollens or the method of denial). Show that the
argument

p→q
∼q
∴∼ p

14
is valid.
Solution. The truth table is as follows:

p q p→q ∼q ∼p
T T T F F
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T T T

We can see from the last row that the argument is valid.

Activity 5.5.4
1. Use symbols to write the logical form of the given argument.
If Tom is not on team A, then Hua is on teamB.
If Hua is not on team B, then Tom is on team A.
∴ Tom is not on team A or Hua is not on teamB.

2. Use a truth table to determine whether the argument below is valid.

p→q

q→p

∴p ∨ q

3. Use a truth table to determine whether the argument below is valid.

p→q

∼q∨r

∴r

15
1.8 Quantifiers

Statements such as ”x > 20 are not propositions when we do not define the
variable. We can, however, obtain propositions from such statements.
An expression involving one or two variables defined on some domain is
called a predicate. If we substitute a particular value for the variable(s) we
get a proposition which is either true or false. For example, P (n) : n is odd
is a predicate on the natural numbers. We see that P (1) is true and P (2)
is false. In the expression P (x), x is called a free variable. As x varies the
truth value of P (x) varies as well.
Another way of obtaining propositions is by means of quantifiers. For
example ∀x ∈ D; P (x) is a proposition which is true if P (x) is true for
all values of x in the domain D of P : For example, if k is an nonnegative
integer, then the predicate P (k) : 2k + 1 is odd is true for all k ∈ N: We
write, ∀k ∈ N; (2k is odd): We call the symbol ∀ the universal quantifier.
The proposition ∀x ∈ D; P (x) is false if P (x) is false for at least one
value of x: In this case x is called a counter example.
The notation ∃x ∈ D; P (x) is a proposition that is true if there is at least
one value of x ∈ D where P (x) is true; otherwise it is false. The symbol ∃ is
called the existential quantifier.
The proposition ∀x ∈ D; P (x) → Q(x) is called the universal conditional
proposition. For example, the proposition ∀x ∈ R; if x > 2 then x2 > 4 is a
universal conditional proposition.

Example 1.8.1. a) Write in the form ∀x ∈ D; P (x) the proposition :

"every real number is either positive, negative or 0".

b) Let P (x) denote the statement "x > 5": What is the truth value of the
proposition ∃x ∈ R; P (x):

c) Rewrite the proposition "if a real number is an integer then it is a

rational number" as a universal conditional proposition.

Solution. a) ∀x ∈ R; x > 0; x < 0; orx = 0:

16
 b) Since 6 ∈ R and 6 > 5; the given proposition is true

c) ∀x ∈ R; if x is an integer then x is a rational number

Example 1.8.2. a) What is the negation of the proposition ∀x ∈ D; P (x)?

b) What is the negation of the proposition ∀x ∈ D; P (x)?

c) What is the negation of the proposition ∀x ∈ D; P (x) → Q(x)?

Solution. a) ∀x ∈ D; ∼ P (x):

b) ∀x ∈ D; ∼ P (x):

c) Since P (x) → Q(x) ≡ (∼ P (x)) ∨ Q(x); we have ∼ (∀x ∈ D; P (x) →

Q(x)) ≡ ∀x ∈ D; P (x)∧ ∼ Q(x)

Activity 5.5.3
1. Rewrite the following using quantifiers:

a) Some rel numbers are rational.

b) The sum of any two even integers is even.
c) The product of two odd integers is odd.

2. Write the negation of the following propositions:

a) Every polynomial function is continuous .

b) If an integer is divisible by 2, then it is even.
c) For all integers n, if n2 is even then n is even.

1.9 Mathematical proofs

A proof is a sequence of statements. When you read or write a proof you

should always be very clear exactly why each statement is valid. You should
be always be able to identify how it follows from earlier statements. We shall
look at various forms of a proof.

17
1.9.1 Direct proof

A direct proof is a sequence of statements which are either givens or deduc-

tions from previous statements, and whose last statement is the conclusion
to be proved. Some of the "givens" are definitions and hypotheses. We give
an example of a direct proof:
We say the integer n is even if there is an integer k such that n = 2k. We
say n is odd if there is a k such that n = 2k + 1.

Example 1.9.1. If n is even, so is n2 .

Proof. Assume n is even. Because n is even, n = 2k for some k. Now

n2 = 4k 2 = 2(2k 2 ). Let j = 2k 2 ; then n2 = 2j, so n is even.

Activity 5.5.5

1. Prove that the sum of two odd numbers is even.

2. Prove that the sum of an even number and an odd number is odd.

1.9.2 Proof by contradiction

This is an example of indirect proof. To prove something by contradiction,

we assume that what we want to prove is not true, and then show that the
consequences of this are not possible. That is, the consequences contradict
either what we have just assumed, or something we already know to be true
(or, indeed, both) - we call this a contradiction.

Example 1.9.2. If n ∈ N and n2 is even, so is n.

Proof. Suppose n2 is even. If n is not even, it is odd, and therefore of the

form 2k + 1, for some k ∈ N. Then n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1. But
4k 2 + 4k is clearly even, so 4k 2 + 4k + 1 is odd. That is impossible since we
have assumed n2 is even. Hence it cannot be that n is odd,i.e, n must be
even.

18
 √
Example 1.9.3. 2 is irrational.

Proof. We begin by assuming that it is not (i.e. that it is rational), and

√
then trying to arrive at a contradiction. Suppose 2 is rational. Then it can
be written as pq , where p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0. Assume p and q are not both even.
If they were, we could cancel out a factor of 2.
√ 2
Thus if 2 = p/q then squaring both sides gives 2 = pq2 .
Then 2q 2 = p2 and so p2 is clearly even. If p2 is even then we know from
above that p must be even, and so can be written as p = 2k where k is an
integer. Thus p2 = 4k 2 and so 2q 2 = 4k 2 .
Dividing 2q 2 = 4k 2 through by 2 gives us that q 2 is also even, and so q
must be even.
If p and q are both even then they have 2 as a common factor, which
√
contradicts our assumption. Thus our assumption is incorrect, and 2 is not
rational.

Activity 5.5.7
√
Prove that 4 is irrational.

1.9.3 Proof by contrapositive

This is another example of an indirect proof. A proof by contrapositive, rests

on the fact that a statement of the form "If A, then B." (A → B) is logically
equivalent to "If ∼ B, then ∼ A." (∼ B →∼ A) The second statement is
called the contrapositive of the first. Instead of proving that A implies B,
you prove directly that ∼ B implies ∼ A.

Example 1.9.4. Suppose x ∈ Z. If 7x + 9 is even, then x is odd.

Proof. Suppose x is not odd. Thus x is even, so x = 2k for some integer

k. Then 7x + 9 = 7(2k) + 9 = 14k + 8 + 1 = 2(7k + 4) + 1. Therefore

19
7x + 9 = 2m + 1, where m is the integer 7k + 4. Consequently 7x + 9 is odd.
Therefore 7x + 9 is not even.

Activity [Link]

1. Prove that if x ∈ Z and x2 + 6x + 5 is even, then x is odd.

2. Prove that if n ∈ N and n2 is even, so is n.

1.9.4 Mathematical induction

Mathematical induction is a method for proving that statements involving

natural numbers are true for all natural numbers. For example, the statement
“the sum of the first n positive odd integers equals n2 ” that is,

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2 (1.1)

can be proved for all natural numbers n by using mathematical induction.

Now let’s us restate the statement above for various values of n = 1, 2, 3, . . ..

n=1 The sum of the first positive odd integers is 12 ; 1 = 1.

n=2 The sum of the first two positive odd integers is 22 ; 1 + 3 = 4 = 22 .

n=3 The sum of the first three positive odd integers is 32 ; 1 + 3 + 5 = 9 = 32 .

n=4 The sum of the first two positive odd integers is 42 ; 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16 = 42 .

Although from this pattern we might conjecture that statement (1.1) is true
for any choice of n, can we really be sure that it does not fail for some choice
of n? The method of proof by mathematical induction will, in fact, prove
that the statement is true for all n.
The idea behind proof by mathematical induction is simple one: The
natural numbers form a list, so that if we start at the beginning and keep
going from one number to the next, we eventually get to any given number.

20
 Let P1 , P2 , P3 , . . . be a list of propositions that may or may not be [Link]
principle of mathematical induction asserts that all the propositions P1 , P2 , P3 , . . .
are true provided

1. P1 is true,

2. Pn+1 is true whenever Pn is true.

We will refer to (1),i.e, the fact that P1 is true as the basis for induction and
we will refer to (2) as the induction step.
n(n+1)
Example 1.9.5. Prove that 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = 2
.

n(n+1)
Proof. Let P (n) : 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = 2
. Firstly, when n = 1,

LHS of P (1) = 1
1(1 + 1)
= = 1 = RHS of P (1).
2
So P (1) is true.
Now for the induction step, assume P (k) is true, for some natural number
k, i.e, 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + k = k(k+1)
2
. Since we wish to prove P (k + 1) from this,
we add k + 1 to both sides to obtain
k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + k + k + 1 = +k+1
2
1
= [k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1)]
2
1
= (k + 1)(k + 2)
2
So P (k + 1) is true if P (k) is true. By the principle of mathematical conduc-
tion, we conclude that Pn is true fro all n.

Example 1.9.6. Prove that 7n + 5 is divisible by 6.

Proof. Let P (n) : ”7n + 5 is divisible by 6”. When n = 1 we have 12 which

is clearly divisible by 6. For the induction step, assume P (n) is true. Now
7n + 5 = 7 · 7n + 5 = (6 + 1)7n + 5 = 6 · 7n + (7n + 5). By assumption the
term (7n + 5) is divisible by 6, so is 6 · 7n . Hence 7n + 5 is divisible by 6.

21
Activity [Link]

Prove by induction:

1. 1 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 = 16 n(n + 1)(2n + 1);

2. 13 + 33 + 33 + · · · + n3 = 41 n2 (n + 1)2 ;

3. 1 + 21 + 14 + · · · 21n = 2 − 1
2n
;

4. 53 + 3 is divisible by 4.

5. 3n > 2n .

22
Chapter 2

SET THEORY

2.1 Introduction

Set theory is the branch of mathematical logic that studies sets, which infor-
mally are collections of objects. Although any type or objects can be collected
into a set, set theory is applied most often to objects that are relevant to
mathematics. The language of set theory can be used in the definition of
nearly all mathematical objects.

2.2 Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

a) Understand set theory

b) Know the notations in set theory

c) Perform set manipulations for different set relationships

d) Apply set cardinality to solve real life problems

23
2.3 Key Terms

Set, member, subset, set operation, universal set, empty set, set cardinality

2.4 Set Theory Notions

Definition 2.4.1. A set is a well-defined collection of objects. The objects
are called the ‘Element’ of the set. Here, ‘well-defined’ means that it is
possible to determine whether an object belongs to the collection or not,
without prejudice.

The collection of letters that make up the word “ Malawi" is well-defined

and is a set, but the collection of the good people in the world is not well-
defined and therefore is not a set. In general, there are three ways to describe
sets which are listed below:

2.4.1 Ways to Describe Sets

[Link] The Verbal Method

Use a sentence to define the set, e.g. "the set of number from one to ten".

[Link] The Roster Method

Begin with a left brace ‘{’, list each element the set only once and then end
with a right brace ‘}’ e.g. “{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}"

[Link] The Set-Builder Method

A combination of the verbal and roster method using a “Dummy variable"

such as x. “{x, such that x is from one to ten}" or “{x | 1 ≤ x ≤ 10}"
For instance, let M be the set described verbally as the set of letters
that make up the word “Malawi". A roster definition of M is {m, a, l, w, i}.

24
Note that we listed ‘a’ only once, even though it appears twice in the word
“Malawi". Also the order of the elements doesn’t matter, so {l, w, a, m} is
also roster description of M. On the other hand, a set builder description of
M is : {x | x is a letter int he word “Malawi"}. The way to read this is ‘The
set of elements x such that x is a letter in the word “Malawi"’. In each of the
above cases, we may use the familiar equals sign ‘=’ and write
M = {m, a, l, w, i} or M = {x}, |x is a letter in the word “Malawi"}
Notice that w is in M but any other letters, such as t, are not in M. We
express these ideas of set inclusion and exclusion ( or membership) mathe-
matically using the symbols. More precisely we have the following definition.

Definition 2.4.2. (Element, Member) Let A be a set.

• If x is an element of A then we write x ∈ A which is read ‘x is in A’.

• If x is not an element of A then we write x 6∈ A which is read ‘x is not

in A’.

For instance, in the previous example above w ∈ M (read “w is in M")

and q 6∈ M(read q is not in M).

2.4.2 Subset

[Link] Motivation

Now let’s consider another set, C, formed from set M from above defined as
follows: C= {x | x is a consonant in the word “Malawi"}. Hence the roster
definition of the set is: C={m, l, w}. Thus by construction every element of
C is a member of M. We express this relationship by stating that the set C
is a subset of the set M, which is written in symbols as, C ⊆ M. The more
formal definition is given below.

Definition 2.4.3. Given sets A and B, we say that the set A is a subset of
the set B and write ‘A ⊆ B’ if every element in A is also an element of B.

25
 Illustration

Note that in our example above C ⊆ M, but not vice-versa, since a ∈ M

but a 6∈ C. Although the set of vowels V = {a, e, i, o, u}, has some elements
in common with M, V is not a subset of M. And also M is not a subset of V
either.
Note: If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C then A ⊆ C.

[Link] Proper and Improper Subsets

Definition 2.4.4. (Proper subset) We say that A is a proper subset of B if

all the elements of A are contained in B but necessarily excluding at least
one element of B and we use the symbol “⊂ ” strictly if A ⊂ B and A 6= B
i.e. there exists one element b ∈ B such that b 6∈ A.

Note: An empty subset is considered as a proper subset of any set.

Definition 2.4.5. (Improper subset) An “Improper Subset" is a subset which

can be equal to the original set. we use the symbol “⊆" which can be inter-
preted as “is a proper subset or is equal to".

Example 2.4.6. Consider the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Then {1, 2, 3} ⊂ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
while {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ⊆ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5}.

Recall: repetition of elements in sets is immaterial.

26
2.4.3 Universal Set

The set containing the totality of the elements of any particular discussion
or situation is called universal set.
Notations Other symbols for universal set are: µ and ξ. For instance,
in the case where all sets under discussion consist of numbers, we can take
the universal set to be just R (a set of real numbers).

2.4.4 Empty set or Null set

A set which contains no element is an empty set or null set. This is symbol-
ically denoted by: {} or ∅.

Example 2.4.7. The following are examples of empty sets:

(a) {x | x is a real number satisfying, x2 ≤ 0 }

(b) {x | x ∈ R, and x = x + 1}

(c) {x | x is a positive satisfying x + 2 = 0}

2.4.5 Equal Sets

Two sets are equal if and only if they have exactly the same elements. We
define A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

Example 2.4.8. (a) {2, 4, 2, 2} = {2, 4} = {4, 4, 2}

(b) {vowels in the English alphabet}={a, e, i, o, u}

2.4.6 Equivalent sets

Two sets are equivalent if their element can be put into one-to-one corre-
spondence with one another. In other words, two sets are equivalent if they

27
have the same number of elements. The notation A ≈ B means set A and B
are equivalent.

Example 2.4.9. {a, b, c, d} and {#, &, $, %} are equivalent since one-to-
one correspondence can be established between them. This is written as,
{a, b, c, d} ≈ {#, &, $, %}, but {1, 2, 3} 6≈ {a, b}.

2.4.7 Finite and Infinite sets

Definition 2.4.10. (a) A finite set is a set whose elements can be placed
in one-to-one correspondence with the first k-counting numbers. In
other words, a set is finite if its elements can be counted. The empty
set is also considered finite.

Example 2.4.11. : Here are three examples of finite sets

(i) {1, 2, 3, . . . , n}
(ii) {whole numbers between 2000 and 2005} = {2001, 2002, 2003, 2004}
(iii) {whole numbers between 2000 and 3000} = {2001, 2002, 2003, . . . , 2999}

The dots ‘. . . ’ in (iii) stand for the other 995 numbers in the set.

(b) An infinite set is a set that is not finite.

Example 2.4.12. : Here are three examples of infinite sets.

(i) {even whole numbers}={0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . .}

(ii) {whole numbers greater than 2000} = {2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, . . .}
(iii) {counting numbers}={1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}

All the sets above are infinite (or non-finite) no matter how many ele-
ments we list. This time the dots ‘. . . ’ have slightly a different mean-
ing, because they stand for infinite many elements that we could not
possibly list all, no matter how long we try.

28
Activity 1

1. Determine whether the statement is true or false; justify.

a) ∅ ∈ ∅
b) {∅} ∈ {∅}
c) {1, 2} ∈ {1, {1, 2}, 2, 3}
d) 2 6∈ {a, e, i, o, u}
e) State whether each of the following sets is an empty set or not.
i. {x | x2 = x2 + 2}
ii. {t | t2 = 1}

2. Are the following sets equal or not; justify.

a) {1, 2, 3} and {2, 3, 1}

b) {x | x2 + x = 2} and {1, −2}
c) {a, a, b} and {b, a}
d) {d, i, n, n, e, r} and {s, u, p, p, e, r}

3. List the elements of the following sets.

a) The set of months which do not contain the letter r.

b) The set of positive numbers less than 100 that are evenly divisible
by 10.
c) {x | x2 = 9}
 
x 7
d) x | − = 0
3 3
e) Let R = {1, 2, 3, 4} and T = {2, 4, 6}. List the elements of:
i. {x | x ∈ R and x ∈ T}
ii. {x | x ∈ R or x ∈ T}
iii. {x | x ∈ R and x 6∈ T}

4. Express the following sets in the form, {x | . . .}

29
 a) {2, 4, 6, 8}
b) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
c) {2, 3, 5, 7, 11}
d) The set of positive multiples of 3.

5. Determine whether the statement is true or false; justify.

a) For any set S, S ⊆ S

b) For any set S, S ⊂ S
c) 5 ⊂ {3, 5, 7}
d) {x} ⊆ {x, {x}.x + 1}

6. list all subsets of the set: {x1 , x2 , x3 }.

2.4.8 Set Operations

Given the set A and B of a universal set, µ, new sets can be constructed by
application of certain operations on sets A, B and µ. The following are the
basic binary operations on sets.

[Link] Union set

The union of two sets A and B consists of all elements belonging to A or B.

This is denoted as A ∪ B.

The shaded region is: A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

Example 2.4.13. a) Let A = {2, 5, 7} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8}. Then A∪B =

{2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}.

30
 b) Let A = {x | x is an even integer} and B = {x | x is an odd inte-
ger}.Then A ∪ B = {x | x is an integer}.

Properties of union sets

If A, B and C are sets then

i. A ∪ A = A

ii. A ∪ B = B ∪ A

iii. A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C

iv. A ⊆ A ∪ B

The proofs for the above propositions are left as exercise.

[Link] Intersection Set

The intersection of two sets A and B consists of all elements belonging to

both A and B. This is denoted as A ∩ B.
Illustration

The shaded region is: A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

Example 2.4.14. : Given that A = {1, 2, 4}, B = {3, 5, 6} and C = {2, 5, 6}
Then

a) A ∩ B = ∅

b) A ∩ C = {2}

c) B ∩ C = {5, 6}

31
[Link] Difference Set

Definition 2.4.15. : Given set A and set B, the difference of set B from set
A is the set of all elements in A but not in B. We write A − B or A\B.

Illustration

The shaded region is : A − B The shaded region is : B − A

{x | x ∈ A and x 6∈ B} {x | x ∈ B and x 6∈ A}

Example 2.4.16. Given A = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7} and B = {1, 3, 5, 9}. Then

a) A − B = {2, 4, 7}

b) B − A = {3, 9}

[Link] Disjoint Set

Two sets are called disjoint if they have no element in common. Otherwise,
disjoint sets are known as non-overlapping sets.
Illustration

The shaded region defined by : A ∩ B = ∅

Example 2.4.17. Given A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {8, 9, 10} and C = {a, b, c}.
Then

32
 a) A ∩ B = ∅

b) A ∩ C = ∅

c) B ∩ C = ∅

Properties of Intersection Sets

If A, B and C are sets, then

i. A ∩ A = A

ii A ∩ B = B ∩ A

iii. A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

iv. A ∩ B ⊆ A

v. ∅ ⊆ A

The proofs for the above properties by using venn diagrams are left as an
exercise.

[Link] Complement Sets

Definition 2.4.18. : Let ξ be the universal set and suppose A ⊆ ξ. Then

the complement of A in ξ, is the set of all elements in ξ which are not in
A. Symbolically, the complement of A with respect to the universal set ξ, is
denoted as A0 or Ac or Ā.

Illustration

Notice that, A ⊆ ξ and then A0 = ξ-A.

Example 2.4.19. : Let U = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16} and A = {6, 10, 4, 16}.
Then A0 = {2, 8, 12, 14}

33
Properties of Complement sets

Let A ⊆ ξ be any set. Then

i. (A0 )0 = A

ii. A ∪ A0 = ξ

iii. A ∪ ξ = ξ

iv. A ∪ ∅ = A

v. A ∩ Ā = ∅

vi. (∅)0 = ξ

vii. A ∩ ξ = A

viii. A ∩ ∅ = ∅

ix. (ξ)0 = ∅

34
The proofs for the above properties by using Venn diagrams are left as an
exercise.

Example 2.4.20. : Show that A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). We use a

Venn diagram.

Thus A = {1, 2, 3, 5}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7} and C = {2, 3, 4, 6}. Hence B ∪ C =

{2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} ∴ A ∩ (B ∪ C) = {2, 4, 5} On the other hand, A ∩ B = {4, 5}
A ∩ C = {2, 4} So, (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) = {4, 5} ∪ {2, 4} = {2, 4, 5} Clearly,
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

De Morgan’s Law

The De Morgan’s Law states that: (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B0 and (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B0

The basic proof of the De Morgan’s Laws can be proved by using Venn
diagrams. From the De Morgans Laws deduce that: A ∩ (A ∩ B)0 = A ∩ B0

[Link] The Number of Elements in a Set/Set Cardinality

The number of elements in a set A is denoted by n(A) or |A|. Number of

elements of two disjoint sets A and B is represented as:

n(A) + n(B) = n(A ∪ B)

Whereas if A and B are overlapping( not disjoint), we have:

n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B = n(A ∪ B)

35
Proof : The proof for number of elements in overlapping sets use what is
known as the exclusion and inclusion principle. Notice that A can be divided
into two disjoint sets, A ∩ B0 and A ∩ B. similarly B can be divided into the
disjoint sets A0 ∩ B and A ∩ B

n(A) = n(A ∩ B0 ) + n(A ∩ B)

n(B) = n(A0 ∩ B) + n(A ∩ B)

adding, we have: n(A) + n(B) = n(A ∩ B 0 ) + n(A0 ∩ B) + 2n(A ∩ B) But

the sets, A ∩ B 0 , A0 ∩ B and A ∩ B are disjoint and the union of these three
sets is A ∪ B.

∴ n(A) + n(B) = [n(A ∩ B 0 ) + n(A0 ∩ B) + n(A ∩ B)] + n(A ∩ B)

= n(A ∪ B) + n(A ∩ B)

Or n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B) = n(A ∩ B) In a similar fashion: n(A ∪ B ∪

C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ B) − n(A ∩ C) − n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
Example: In a class of 120 students, 6 play football, volleyball and netball.
16 play football and volleyball, 17 play volleyball and netball, 18 play football
and netball. 53 play football, 47 play volleyball and 44 play netball. How
many play none of the sporting games?

Solution. Let F , V and N be the sets of the students playing, football,

volleyball and netball respectively, and let U be the set of all students in the
class. Thus n(U ) = 120 and

n(F ∪ V ∪ N ) = n(F ) + N (V ) + n(N ) − n(F ∩ V ) − n(F ∩ N ) − n(V ∩ N )

+ n(F ∩ V ∩ N )
= 53 + 47 + 44 − 16 − 18 − 17 + 6
= 99

36
Therefore, the students playing none of the sporting games, F , V and N are
(F ∪ V ∪ N )0 .

n((F ∪ V ∪ N )0 ) = n(U ) − n(F ∪ V ∪ N )

= 120 − 99
= 21

The problem can also be solved using a Venn diagram.

[Link] Cartesian Product of Two Sets

In addition to union, intersection and complement there is still another way in

which sets are operated on to produce (construct) new sets. This operation
differs from the others in that the resultant set is a set of ordered pairs
of elements. Notice that in the ordered pair (a, b) the order in which the
elements are given has special meaning and is significance.

Definition 2.4.21. : The Cartesian product of two sets, A and B, denoted

by A × B is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.

Example 2.4.22. Given A = {1, 2} and B = {x, y, z}, then:

A × B = {(1, x), (1, y), (1, z), (2, x), (2, y), (2, z)}
and B × A = {(x, 1), (x, 2).(y, 1), (y, 2), (z, 1), (z, 2)}

Remark: (x, y) = (u, v) if and only if x = v and y = u

[Link] Power Set

Given a set, you can form a new set with the power set operation, defined as
follows.

Definition 2.4.23. : If A is a set, the Power set of A is another set, denoted

as ρ(A) and defined to be the set of all subsets of A. Thus ρ(A) = {X | X ⊆
A}.

37
Example 2.4.24. : Suppose A = {a, b, c}. Then:

ρ(A) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}

If A is a finite set, then |ρ(A)| = 2|A| .

Activity 2

1. Suppose, A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7} and C = {2, 8, 4}. Find:

a) A ∪ B d) A − C g) B ∩ C
b) A ∩ B e) B − A h) C − A
c) A − B f) A ∩ C i) C − B

2. Use venn diagrams to shade the region defined by:

a) A ∪ C c) (A ∩ B) ∩ C e) A ∩ (B ∪ C)
b) B ∪C d) A∩(B ∩C) f) (A∩B)∪(A∩C)

3. If A ⊂ B, then simplify if possible.

a) A ∩ B c) A0 ∪ B 0
b) A ∪ B 0 d) A0 ∩ (A ∪ B)

4. Let A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {1, 3, 5, 7} have universal set U =

{0, 1, 2, . . . , 8}. Find:

a) Ā d) A ∪ Ā g) Ā ∩ B̄
b) B̄ e) A − Ā h) A ∩ B
c) A ∩ Ā f) A ∪ B i) Ā ∩ B

5. Suppose A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {a, c}, write out the indicated sets
by listing
their elements between braces.

38
 a) A × B d) A × A g) A × B × B
b) B × A e) B × B h) A × (B × B)
c) ∅ × B f) (A × B) × B i) B 3

6. Sketch these Cartesian products on the xy-plane R2

a) {1} × {0, 1} d) {x | x2 = 4} × [0, 1]

b) {0, 1} × {1} e) [0, 1] × [0, 1]

7. Find the indicated sets.

a) ρ({{a, b}, {c}}) c) ρ({{∅}, 5}) e) ρ({1, 2}) ×

ρ({3})
b) ρ({1, 2, 3, 4}) d) ρ(ρ({2})) f) ρ({1, 2} ×
{3})

8. Suppose that |A| = m and |B| = n. Find the following cardinalities.

a) |ρ(ρ(ρ(A)))| c) |ρ(A×B)| e) |ρ(A×

ρ(B))|
b) |ρ(ρ(A))| d) |ρ(A)×ρ(B)| f) |ρ(ρ(ρ(A×
∅)))|

9. In a group of 60 people, 27 like cold drinks and 42 like hot drinks and
each person
likes at least one of the two drinks. How many like both coffee and tea?

10. In a competition, a school awarded medals in different categories. 36

medals in dance, 18 medals in music and 12 medals in dramatics. If
these medals went to a total of 45 persons and only 4 persons got medals
in all the three categories, how many received medals in exactly two of
these categories?

11. Each student in a class of 40 plays at least one indoor game chess,
draft and scrabble. 18 play chess, 20 play scrabble, 27 play draft. 7
play chess and scrabble, 12 play scrabble and draft while 4 play chess,
scrabble and draft. Find the number of students who play:

39
a) Chess and draft
b) Chess, draft but not scrabble.

40
Chapter 3

NUMBER SYSTEMS

3.1 Introduction

A number is a mathematical object used to count and measure. A nota-

tional symbol that represent a number is called a numeral. Different types
of numbers have many different uses. Numbers can be classified into sets,
called number systems, such as the natural numbers and real numbers. In
the this chapter we shall study these sets of numbers. We shall also discuss
multiplication and factorization of polynomials. In addition we shall discuss
roots of quadratic equations and equations of higher order. We shall end
the chapter by discussing inequalities, modulus function and exponents and
logarithms

3.2 Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

a) classify numbers in different number systems within the real numbers.

b) multiply polynomials

c) factorize polynomials

41
 d) solve quadratic equations and equations of higher order.

e) solve inequalities.

f) evaluate exponential expressions

g) solve exponential equations

h) evaluate logarithmic expressions.

i) solve logarithmic equations

3.3 Key Terms

Sets of numbers, Multiplication, Factorization, Completing square, Quadratic

Formula, Remainder Theorem, Inequality, Exponent, Logarithm

3.4 Sets of numbers

Counting is one of the most familiar concepts in all of mathematics. Humans

have been using numbers to count with for thousands of years. There are
different kinds of numbers used in Mathematics. We give some of the key
number sets and their properties.

3.4.1 Natural numbers

This is a set of counting numbers denoted by N. Thus N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}.

Now the sum and product of two natural numbers is another natural number.
Thus if a, b ∈ N, then a + b ∈ N and ab ∈ N.
However the difference between two natural numbers is not always another
natural number. Thus for example 3, 5 ∈ N, but 3 − 5 = −2 ∈
/ N.
Also the division of two natural numbers is not always another natural num-
1
ber. Thus for example 2, 6 ∈ N, but 2/6 = 3
∈
/ N.
Also the root of natural numbers is not always another natural number. Thus

42
 √
for example 5 ∈ N, but 5∈
/ N.
We may use powers, since this is another way of writing a product formed
by several equal factors. Thus if a ∈ N, then a2 ∈ N.
Note that sometimes natural numbers can mean the set of whole numbers,
i.e, {0, 1, 2, . . .} depending on the subject.
We now enlarge N so that it includes negatives. This will answer some sub-
traction problems.

3.4.2 Integers

The set of integers denoted by Z include zero as well as the negative whole
numbers. Z is for the German "zahl" meaning number. Thus Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}.
Note that N ⊆ Z.
The addition, subtraction and multiplication of two integers is another inte-
ger. That is if a, b ∈ Z, then a + b ∈ Z, a − b ∈ Z and ab ∈ Z.
However the division of two integers is not always another integer. Thus for
1
example 2, 6 ∈ Z, but 2/6 = 3
∈
/ Z.
We can use powers, but the exponent has to be a natural number. For ex-
ample, (−3)3 = −27 ∈ Z, but (−3)−3 = − 27
1
∈
/ Z.
The root of an integer is not always another integer. Thus for example
√
−4 ∈
/ Z.
We now enlarge Z so that it includes [Link] will help to answer some
division problems.

3.4.3 Rational numbers

A rational number is the quotient of two integers with a nonzero denominator.

Thus Q = ab |a, b ∈ Z and b 6= 0 . Now 13 is a rational number and 3 is a


rational number also because you could write it as 13 . In general, if a ∈ Z,

then a1 ∈ Q. Thus rational numbers include: all the integers and all the
fractions. That is Z ⊆ Q. The following are therefore rational numbers
133 1
, , −13, − 27 , 101
100 5 2
, etc.

43
We show why b must be zero. We define for example
1
=∞ (3.1)
0
where the right-hand side is "infinity." By (3.1) we have

1 = 0 · ∞. (3.2)

Since 0 = 0 + 0, we get 1 = (0 + 0) · ∞ = 0 · ∞ + 0 · ∞. Then using (3.3)

again, we have
1 = 1 + 1 = 2, a contradiction.

We thus see that division by zero cannot be allowed. Thus an expression of

the form a0 is meaningless.
The sum, difference, product and quotient of two rational numbers is another
rational number.
We can use powers, but the exponent must be an integer.
The root of aqrational number is not always another rational number. Thus
9
for example − 16 ∈/ Q.

3.4.4 Irrational numbers

A number is irrational if there are infinite, non-recurrent decimal places,

therefore it cannot be expressed in the form of fraction. The famous irrational
number is π. We know that π = 3.141592653589 · · · . Other irrational num-
√ √ √
bers are: 2, 3, 5, √12 , e( a number which appears in growth processes ,
in radioactive decay) etc.

3.4.5 Real numbers

The set formed by rational and irrational numbers is the set of real numbers
denoted by R. Thus R = {x : x is a rational or an irrational number.} In fact
a real number can be thought of as any point anywhere on the number line.

44
 √
3
√
−17 2 π
w w w w w w w w w w
-
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5

For every real number there is a point on a straight line and for every
point on the straight line, a real number.
All operations can be performed with real numbers with the exception of the
root of a negative number, and division by zero.

Activity 5.4

In the following exercises a, b ∈ R.

1. Which of the following statements are true?

(a) The sum of two irrational numbers is not always an irrational

number.
(b) The product of two irrational numbers is always an irrational num-
ber.
(c) The square of an irrational number is always an irrational number.
Give reasons.

2. If a, b ∈ Q, and b 6= 0, show that

(a) a + b ∈ Q.
(b) a − b ∈ Q.
(c) ab ∈ Q.

45
 a
(d) b
∈ Q.

3.5 Summations

We shall look at a method which is used to write out a long sum in a concise
way. Consider for example the series

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + 100 (3.3)

where the three dots signify the obvious missing terms. Clearly this is the
sum of whole numbers from 1 to 100. Now we write the number as k, where
k ∈ Z. Thus we shall represent (3.3) as
100
X
k (3.4)
k=1

So this expression means that the sum of all the terms k where k takes the
P
values from 1 to 100. Here the symbol is the Greek Capital letter Sigma
corresponding to our letter 0 S 0 , and refers to the first letter of the word
"Sum." Now to evaluate (3.4), first put k = 1, to get 1. Then set k = 2,
which gives 2 and a total of 1 + 2 = 3. Further set k = 3, which yields 3 and
adding again gives 1 + 2 + 3 = 6. Continuing in this way until k = 100, we
recover (3.3). Similarly,
10 
X 1 2  1 2  1 2  1 2  1 2
− = − + − + − + ··· + −
k=1
k 1 2 3 10
1 1 1
=1+ + + ··· +
4 9 10
We don’t have to use k. Here we use p and sum up 4p − 1, going from −2 to
8. Thus
8
X
(4p − 1) = (−9) + (−5) + 0 + · · · + 31.
p=−2

In addition, the upper (or lower) limit may also be a variable. So

n
X
k 2 = 12 + (2)2 + · · · + n2 .
k=1

46
3.5.1 Writing a sum in sigma notation

Example 3.5.1. Write in sigma notation 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + · · · + 90.

Solution. Look for a pattern. Each term is its position location times 2.
X45
Thus 2n.
n=1

1 1 1 1
Example 3.5.2. Write the sum −1 + − + · · · + in sigma nota-
2 3 4 100
tion.

Solution. Th first term −1 can also be written as a fraction − 11 . Notice that

the signs of the terms alternate, with a minus sign for odd-numbered terms
and a plus sign for the even-numbered terms. So we can take care of the sign
by using (−1)k . We can therefore write the sum as
1 1 1 1
(−1)1 + (−1)2 + (−1)3 + · · · + (−1)100 .
1 2 3 100
We can now see that k − th term is (−1)k k1 , and that there are 100 terms, so
100
X 1
we would write the sum in sigma notation as .
k=1
k

3.5.2 Rules for use with sigma notation

1. If we sum a constant n times then we can write

n
X
c = c| + c +{z· · · + }c = nc. (3.5)
k=1 n times

2. If we sum a constant times k then we can write

n
X
ck = (c × 1) + (c × 2) + · · · + (c × n)
k=1

= c × (1 + 2 + · · · + n)
n
X
=c k.
k=1

47
 3. If we sum k plus a constant then we can write
n
X
(k + c) = (1 + c) + (2 + c) + · · · + (n + c)
k=1

= (c| + c +{z· · · + }c) + (1 + 2 + · · · + n)

n times
n
X
= nc + k.
k=1

4. If we have any function g(k) of k and constants a, b then we can write

(i)
n
X n
X
(g(k) + c) = nc + g(k),
k=1 k=1

(ii)
n
X n
X
(ag(k) + c) = nc + a g(k).
k=1 k=1

5. If we have any two functions f (k) and g(k) of k then we can write
n
X n
X n
X
(f (k) + g(k)) = f (k) + g(k).
k=1 k=1 k=1

The following three summations are very useful.

1. n
X n(n + 1)
k = 1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n = . (3.6)
k=1
2

2. n
X n(n + 1)(n + 2)
k 2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 = . (3.7)
k=1
6

3. n
X n2 (n + 1)2
k 3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + · · · + n3 = . (3.8)
k=1
4
100
(3 − 2r)2
P
Example 3.5.3. Find the value of the following summation:
r=1

48
Solution. First we need to square out the stuff being summed and then
break up the summation using the properties as follows,
100
X 100
X
2
(3 − 2r) = (9 − 12r + 4r2 )
r+1 r=1
100
X 100
X 100
X
= 9 − 12 r+4 r2 .
r=1 r=1 r=1

Now using rule (3.9) and formulas (3.6) and(3.7), we get

100
X 100(101) 100(101)(201)
(3 − 2r)2 = 9(100) − 12 +4
r+1
2 6
= 1293700.

Activity 5.5

1. Write in sigma notation.

(a) −3 + 6 − 9 + 12 − 15 + · · · + 60
(b) 2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + · · · + 32
(c) 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + · · · + 128
1
(d) 2
+ 32 + 34 + 45 + · · · + 19
20

2. Expand the following sums written in sigma notation:

k
(−1)n n3
P
(a)
n=1
15
1
P
(b) 2
k(k + 1)
k=1
20
3k
P
(c)
k=1

3. Find the value of the sum.

8
P
(a) cos kπ
k=0

49
 10
P
(b) n(n + 1)(n + 2)
n=1

4. Prove formula (3.6).

3.6 Multiplication and Factorization

We now discuss how to multiply and factorize polynomials. Multiplication

and factorization are reverse processes.

3.6.1 Multiplication

A polynomial in one variable is an algebraic expression of the form

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0

where an , an−1 , . . . , a1 , a0 are constants called the coefficients of the polyno-

mial, n ≥ 0 is an integer, called the degree of the polynomial, and x is a
variable. Examples of polynomials are ax + b, 3x3 − 5, 3x4 − x2 + 2, etc.
Products of polynomials are found by repeated use of the Distributive law
and the laws of exponents. Consider the following:

m(a + b) = ma + mb

Thus to multiply a sum by a number, multiply each term of the sum. That
is called the distributive rule. m multiplies a, then it multiplies b. We say
that we have "distributed" m to a and b.

Example 3.6.1. 2a(3a2 + 5a − 6) = 6a3 + 10a2 − 12a

Now to multiply two brackets (a + b)(x + y) we proceed as follows: First

distribute a to x and y. Then distribute b.

(a + b)(x + y) = ax + ay + bx + by

50
If you have expressions like (x − 3)(x + 2)(2x + y) multiply two of the terms
first.(It doesn’t matter which two you choose)

(x − 3)(x + 2)(2x + y) = (x2 + 2x − 3x − 6)(2x + y)

= (x2 − x − 6)(2x + y)

= 2x3 + x2 y − 2x2 − xy − 12x − 6y

= 2x3 + x2 y − 2x2 − xy − 12x − 6y

Some products have been given special names because of their for. Thus

(x + b)2 = (x + b)(x + b) = x2 + xb + bx + b2 = x2 + 2xb + b2

Similarly, (x−b)2 = x2 −2xb+b2 . We call these two perfect squares. Further,

x2 − b2 = (x − b)(x + b). We call this difference of two squares.

(x + b)2 = x2 + 2xb + b2
(x − b)2 = x2 − 2xb + b2
x2 − b2 = (x − b)(x + b)

We also see that

(x + b)3 = (x + b)(x + b)2

= (x + b)(x2 + 2bx + b2 )

= x3 + 2bx2 + xb2 + bx2 + 2b2 x + b3

= x3 + 3bx2 + 3b2 x + b3 .

Similarly,

(x − b)3 = (x − b)(x − b)2 = x3 − 3bx2 + 3b2 x − b3 .

We call these perfect cubes.

We could of course continue in this way forever. However we use Pascal’s
triangle in Figure 3.1 to easily determine the expansion of (x + b)n for any
n ∈ N.

51
 In the first row write 1 and the two
1
1’s in the second row as shown. Each
1 1
new row starts and ends with 1s.
The intervening numbers are obtained 1 2 1
by adding the two numbers directly 1 3 3 1
above. We can see that in third row we 1 4 6 4 1
2 2
have 121 and (x + b) = 1 · x + 2 · xb +
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 · b2 . In fourth row we have 1331 and
(x+b)3 = 1·x3 +3·x2 b+3·xb2 +1·b3 , in Figure 3.1: Pascal’s triangle.
fifth row we have 14641 and(x + b)4 =
1 · x4 + 4 · x3 b + 6 · x2 b2 + 4 · xb3 1 · b4 , and so on. Note that (a + b)n 6= an + bn
(unless n = 1).
Example 3.6.2. Expand

a) (x − 3)5

b) (x + 5)4
Solution. ´

a) Using Pascal’s triangle

(x − 3)5 = 1 · x5 + 5x4 (−3) + 10x3 (−3)2 + 10x2 (−3)3 + 5x(−3)4 + 1 · (−3)5
= x5 − 15x4 + 90x3 − 270x2 + 405x − 243

b) Using Pascal’s triangle

(x + 5)4 = 1 · x4 + 4x3 (5) + 6x2 (5)2 + 4x(5)3 + 54
= x4 + 20x3 + 150x2 + 500x + 625

3.6.2 Factorization

What we are concerned with here is the reverse of multiplication. Consider

the following product:
(3x − 2)(x + 4) = 3x2 + 12x − 2x − 8

= 3x2 + 10x − 8

52
The two polynomials on the left side are called factors of the polynomial on
the right side. Expressing a given polynomial as a product of other polyno-
mials, that is ,finding the factors of a polynomial, is called factoring.
When you factor a polynomial, first check for common factors. Then see
whether you can use one of the following special formulas:

x2 − b2 = (x − b)(x + b) Difference of two squares

(x + b)2 = x2 + 2xb + b2 Perfect squares
(x − b)2 = x2 − 2xb + b2
x3 + b3 = (x + b)(x2 − bx + b2 ) Sum of two cubes
x3 − b3 = (x − b)(x2 + bx + b2 ) Difference of two cubes

Note that x2 + b2 (sum of squares) has no real factors.

Example 3.6.3. a) 6x2 + 9x = 3x(2x + 3)

b) 25x2 − 4 = (5x)2 − (2)2 = (5x − 2)(5x = 2)

c) (x2 + 6x + 1 = (3x + 1)2

d) 6x2 + 9x + 4x + 6 = 3x(2x + 3) + 2(2x + 3) = (3x + 2)(2x + 3)

e) 3x2 − 10x − 8 = (3x + 2)(x − 4)

f) 64 − 27x3 = (4)3 − (3x)3 = (4 − 3x)(42 + 12x + 9x2 )

g) 27x3 + 125y 6 = (3x)3 + (5y 2 )3 = (3x + 5y 2 )(9x2 − 15xy 2 + 25y 4 )

Activity 5.5.2

1 Expand

a) (x + 2y)3
b) (9a − 2b)2
c) (x − y)7

53
 d) (x − 2y)4
e) (x + 2y − 2)2

2 Factorize

a) −8p2 q − 12pq 2 + 16p2 q 2

b) 3x2 + 2x − 8
c) 7(x2 − 6x + 9) + 5(x − 3)
d) x4 − 81
e) 3 − 27x2
f) x6 − 2x3 + 1
g) 2x2 + 4x + 3x + 6

3 Simplify where possible

x2 + 4x + 4
a)
x2 + 5x + 6
3x2 y − 6xy 2 + 12xy
b)
60x2 − 48xy 2 + 72x3 y
1 1
c) (a 5 + b 5 )5

3.6.3 Complete the square

The idea behind completing the square is to ’adjust’ an expression of the

form x2 + bx to make it a perfect square. Perfect squares are polynomials of
the form (x + b)2 = x2 + 2bx + b2 . For example, a2 − 12a2 + 36 is a perfect
square because a2 − 12a2 + 36 = (a − 6)2 .
We now introduce the process known as completing the square by means
of the following example:
Consider the expression x2 + 10x + 21. We note that x2 + 10x + 21 = (x + 5)2 .
Therefore x2 + 10x + 21 = x2 + 10x + 25 + 21 − 25 = (x + 5)2 + 21 − 25.
Thus x2 + 10x + 21 = (x + 5)2 − 4. The process of expressing a quadratic
expression in this way is called completing the square.

54
 If we critically look at the example we notice that the given quadratic
expression is replaced by
 coefficient of x 2
x+ + corrected constant term
2
By applying the process of completing the square to the general quadratic
expression we can obtain a very useful result.
 b c
ax2 + bx + c = a x2 + +
a a
 b c b2 
= a (x + )2 + − 2
2a a 4a
 b 2 b2 − 4ac 
= a (x + ) −
2a 4a2
Example 3.6.4. Complete the square for x2 + 2x + 4.

Solution. We have x2 + 2x + 4 = (x + 1)2 + 4 − 1 = (x + 1)2 + 3

Example 3.6.5. Complete the square for 3x2 − 15x + 12.

Solution. We have
2
 52 25 
3(x − 5x + 4) = 3 (x − ) + 4 −
2 4
 5 2 9
= 3 (x − ) −
2 4
 5 3  5 3
=3 x− + x− −
2 2 2 2
= 3(x − 1)(x − 4).

3.6.4 Quadratic equations

Consider the quadratic expression x2 − 4x + 3. If we put x = 3 the expression

becomes 32 −12+3 which has the value zero and if we put x = 1 the expression
becomes 12 − 4 + 3 which also has the value zero. In other word,x = 3 and
x = 1 both satisfy the equation x2 − 4x + 3 = 0. These two are called the
roots of the equation x2 − 4x + 3 = 0.
An equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 is called a quadratic equation.
By applying the process of completing the square to the general quadratic

55
equation we can derive A formula which can be used to solve any quadratic
equation.
Consider the general quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. By completing
the square we get
b c
a(x2 + x + ) = 0
a a
b c b2
a((x + )2 + − 2 ) = 0
2a a 4a
b 2 b2 − 4ac
a((x + ) − 2
)=0
2a r4a
b b2 − 4ac 2
a((x + )2 − ( ) )=0
2a r 4a2
b b2 − 4ac 2
a((x + )2 ( ) )=0
2a 2a
We see that the term inside the bracket is the difference of two squares and
so we obtain
√ √
b b2 − 4ac b b2 − 4ac
a(x + + )(x + − )=0
2a 2a 2a 2a
Hence either
√ √
b b2 − 4ac b b2 − 4ac
x=− + or x = − −
2a 2a 2a 2a
which we write as √
−b ±b2 − 4ac
x= (3.9)
2a
This is the formula for solving any quadratic equation.

Example 3.6.6. Solve the following quadratic equations using the quadratic
formula.

a) x2 + 5x + 6 = 0

b) 4x2 − 12x + 9 = 0

c) 3x2 + 6x + 5 = 0

56
Solution. a) a = 1, b = 5 c = 6.
√ √
−5 ± 52 − 4 × 1 × 6 −5 ± 1 −5 ± 1
x= = =
2×1 2 2
i.e.
−5 + 1 −5 − 1
x= = −2 or x = = −3
2 2
b) a = 4, b = −12, c = 9
√ √
12 ± 122 − 4 × 4 × 9 12 ± 144 − 144
x= =
2×4 8
12
=
8
3
=
2
3
Thus x = 2
is a repeated root of the equation.

c) a = 3, b = 6, c = 5
√ √
−6 ± 62 − 4 × 3 × 5 −6 ± 36 − 60
x= =
2×3 √6
−6 ± −24
=
6
A negative number does not have a real square root so the given equa-
tion has no real roots.

From the preceding three examples we see that a quadratic equation may
have two, one, or no solutions. Indeed it is the sign of the term under
the square root in (3.9) which determines which of these three possibilities
happens.

Theorem 3.6.1. (Quadratic Formula) Consider the quadratic equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 6= 0.

a) If b2 − 4ac < 0, this equation has no real solution.

b) If b − 4ac ≥ 0, the real solution(s)

√ of this equation is(are) given by the
2
−b ± b − 4ac
quadratic formula:x =
2a
57
 We call the quantity b2 − 4ac the discriminant of the quadratic because
its value tells us whether the equation has real solutions. It also tells us how
many solutions to expect.

[Link] Discriminant of a Quadratic Equation

For a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0:

1. If b2 − 4ac > 0, there are two equal real solutions.

2. If b2 − 4ac = 0, there is a repeated solution.

3. If b2 − 4ac < 0, there is no real solution.

Some quadratic expressions which cannot be factorized directly (or by in-

spection) can be factorized using quadratic formula.

Example 3.6.7. Factorize 2x2 − 5x + 3.

Solution. First we solve the quadratic equation 2x2 − 5x + 3 = 0. With

a = 2, b = −5, and c = 3, evaluate the discriminant b2 − 4ac = (−5)2 −
4(2)(3) = 25 − 24 = 1. Since b2 − 4ac > 0, there are two real solutions, which
can be found using the quadratic formula
p
−(−5) ± (−5)2 − 4(2)(3) 5±1 5 1
x= = = ± .
2×2 4 4 4
Therefore
5 1 5 1 3
2(x − − )(x − + ) = 2(x − )(x − 1.)
4 4 4 4 2
Example 3.6.8. Use the quadratic formula to find the real solutions, if any,
of the equation 3x2 − 4x + 2 = 0.

Solution. With a = 3, b = −4, and c = 2, we find b2 − 4ac = (−4)2 −

4(3)(2) = 16 − 24 = −8. Since b2 − 4ac < 0, the equation has no real
solution.

Some equations which are not quadratic can be reduced to quadratic

equations by a substitution.

58
Example 3.6.9. Solve the equation x4 − 4x2 + 1 − 0.

Solution. First write the equation as (x2 )2 − 4x2 + 1 = 0. Put y = x2 . Thus

y 2 − 4y + 1 = 0. With a = 1, b = −4, and c = 1, evaluate the discriminant
b2 − 4ac = (−4)2 − 4(1)(1) = 16 − 4 = 12. Since b2 − 4ac > 0, there are two
real solutions, which can be found using the quadratic formula
√
√
p
−(−4) ± (−4)2 − 4(1)(1) 4 ± 12
x= = = 2 ± 2 3.
2×1 2
2
√ √
Thus xp = 2 + 2 3 or x2 = 2 − 3. The latter gives no solution, so we get
√
x = ± 2 + 3.

Example 3.6.10. Solve the equation 22x − 12 · 2x + 32 − 0.

Solution. Put y = 2x . We get y 2 − 12y = 32 = 0, and so (y − 8)(y − 4) = 0.

Thus y = 8 or y = 4. So 2x = 4 or 2x = 8, hence x = 2 or x = 3.

Activity 5.5.3

1. Complete the squares for:-

(a) x2 − 4x + 6
(b) 2x2 + 5x − 7
(c) 20x2 + 33x − 36

2. Factorize:

(a) x2 + 4x − 21
(b) 4t2 + t + 1
(c) 2x2 + 5x + 3

3. Solve the following equations:

(a) x2 − x − 3 = 0
(b) 4x2 − 8x − 1 = 0
(c) x3 + 4x2 − 8x = 0

59
 (d) x4 + 3x2 − 10 = 0
(e) 4x2 − 10 · 2x + 16 = 0
√ √
(f) x − 1 + x + 1 = 2

3.6.5 The Remainder Theorem

In the previous section, we were able to find the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0

because the quadratic expression on the left side could be easily factored by
either inspection or quadratic formula. But how do find the roots of the
cubic equation ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 or polynomials of higher degree.
Suppose we divide 25 by 7. We see that 7 goes into 25 with quotient of
3 and a remainder of 4. That is 25 == 3 · 7 + 4. If we divide 36 by 9 we
get 4 with a remainder of 0 and we say that 9 is a factor of 36. Polynomials
can be divided in much the same way as whole numbers. When we take the
quotient of two polynomials (when the divisor is not zero), we get a quotient
and a remainder. Polynomial division is useful in factoring polynomials.
Example 3.6.11. Use long division to find the quotient and remainder of
x3 − 6x2 + 12x − 4/(x + 2).
Solution. x2 − 8x + 28


x+2 x3 − 6x2 + 12x − 4
− x3 − 2x2
− 8x2 + 12x
8x2 + 16x
28x − 4
− 28x − 56
− 60
Thus
x3 − 6x2 + 12x − 4 60
= (x2 − 8x + 28) − , or
x+2 x+2
x3 − 6x2 + 12x − 4 = (x2 − 8x + 28)(x + 2) − 60

Therefore the remainder is −60 and the quotient is x2 − 8x + 28.

60
Theorem 3.6.2 (Division Algorithms for Polynomials). If f (x) and gx)
denote polynomials and if g(x) is a polynomial whose degree is greater than
zero, then there are unique polynomial q(x) and r(x) such that
f (x) r(x)
= q(x) + or f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x) (3.10)
g(x) g(x)
where r(x) is either the zero polynomial or a polynomial of degree less than
that of g(x).

In equation (3.10), f (x) is the dividend, g(x) is the divisor, q(x) is the
quotient, and r(x) is the remainder.
If the divisor g(x) is of the form

g(x) = x − c c textarealnumber

then the remainder r(x) is either a zero polynomial or a polynomial of degree

0. As a result, for such divisors, the remainder is some number, say R, and

f (x) = (x − c)q(x) + R. (3.11)

This has two important consequences, known as the Remainder and Factor
Theorem.

Theorem 3.6.3 (Remainder Theorem). Let f (x) be a polynomial. If f (x)

is divided by x − c, then the remainder is f (c).

Proof. Suppose that x = c. Then equation (3.12) becomes

f (c) = (c − c)q(x) + R = R.

Substitute f (c) for R in equation (3.10) to obtain

f (c) = (x − c)q(x) + f (c).

Example 3.6.12. Find the remainders if f (x) = x3 − 4x2 − 5 is divided by

1. x + 3

61
 2. x − 2

Solution. 1. First write x + 3 = x − (−3). Then we have c = −3. So

f (−3) = (−3)3 − 4(−3)2 − 5 = −27 − 36 − 5 = −68. The remainder is
−68.

2. f (2) = (2)3 − 4(2)2 − 5 = 8 − 16 − 5 = −13. The remainder is −13.

An important and useful consequence of the Remainder Theorem is the

Factor Theorem.

Theorem 3.6.4 (Factor Theorem). Let f (x) be a polynomial. The x − c is

a factor of f (x) if and only if f (c) = 0.

Proof. The proof requires two parts.

1. Suppose that f (c) = 0. We need to prove that x − c is a factor of f (x).

By equation (3.12), we have

f (x) = (x − c)q(x)

for some polynomial q(x). That is x − c is a factor of f (x).

2. Suppose that x − c is a factor of f (x). We need to prove that f (c) = 0.

There is a polynomial q such that

f (x) = (x − c)q(x).

Replacing x by c, we find that

f (c) = (c − c)q(c) = 0 · q(c) = 0.

This completes the proof.

Example 3.6.13. Use the Factor Theorem to determine whether the func-
tion f (x) = 2x3 − x2 + 2x − 3 has the factor

a) x − 1

62
 b) x + 3

Solution. a) With c = 1, we find the value of f (1).

f (1) = 2(1)3 − (1)2 + 2(1) − 3 = 2 − 1 + 2 − 3 = 0

By the Factor Theorem, x − 1 is a factor of f (x).

b) First write x + 3 in the form x − c. Since x + 3 = x − (−3), we find the

value of f (−3).

f (−3) = 2(−3)3 − (−3)2 + 2(−3) − 3 = −54 − 9 − 6 − 3 = −72

Because f (−3) = −72 6= 0, we conclude from the Factor Theorem that

x − (−3) = x + 3 is not a factor of f (x).

We found in Example 3.6.13 that x − 1 is a factor of f . The other factor

can be found by long division.

2x2 + x + 3


x−1 2x3 − x2 + 2x − 3
− 2x3 + 2x2

x2 + 2x
− x2 + x

3x − 3
− 3x + 3

The quotient is q(x) = 2x3 + x + 3 with a remainder 0. We can write f in

factored form as f (x) = 2x3 − x2 + 2x − 3 = (x − 1)(2x2 + x + 3).
The next theorem mentions the number of real roots that a polynomial
may have.

Theorem 3.6.5 (Number of roots). A polynomial cannot have more real

roots than its degree.

63
Solution. The proof uses the Factor Theorem. If r is a real root of a polyno-
mial f , then f (r) = 0 and, thus, x − r is a factor of f . Each root corresponds
to a factor of degree one. because f cannot have more first-degree factors
than its degree, the result follows.

Example 3.6.14. Factorize x4 + x3 − 3x2 − x + 2. Hence solve the equation

x4 + x3 − 3x2 − x + 2 = 0.

Solution. Let f (x) = x4 +x3 −3x2 −x+2. Let f (0) = 2 and f (1) = 0. Thus
(x − 1) is a factor. Om division we have f (x) = (x − 1)(x3 + 2x2 − x − 2).
Now if we factorize f1 (x) = x3 + 2x2 − x − 2, we have f1 = −2 and f−1 = 0.
Thus (x + 1) is a factor, and on division

f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 1)(x2 + x − 2) = (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 1).

So the solutions of the original equation are x = −1, 1, and − 2.

Activity 5.5.4

1. Find the remainder when

a) 4x3 − 3x2 − 8x + 4 is divided by x − 2.

b) 2x6 − 18x4 + x2 − 9 is divided by x + 4.

2. Use the Factor Theorem to determine whether

a) x − 2 is a factor of 3x4 − 6x3 − 5x + 10.

b) x + 4 is a factor of 4x6 − 64x4 + x2 − 15.

3. Solve the equations

a) x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 6 = 0.
b) 2x3 − 11x2 + 10x + 8 = 0.
c) x4 − x3 + 2x2 − 4x − 8 = 0.
d) 2x4 + x3 − 24x2 + 20x + 16 = 0.

64
3.7 Inequalities
Definition 3.7.1. We say that a is greater than b (or b is less than a), and
write this as a > b (b < a).

We shall make the following assumptions:

1. For every a ∈ R, exactly one of the following is true a > 0, a < 0, a = 0.

2. If a, b ∈ R, a > 0 and b > 0, then a + b > 0 and ab > 0.

We can deduce the following properties from the two properties (also
known as order axioms) given above:

Addition and subtraction properties

3. If a < b, then a + c < b + c, for anyc ∈ R.

4. If If a < b, then a − c < b − c.

Multiplication and division properties

5. If a < b, and c > 0 then ac < bc.

6. If If a < b, and c < 0 then ac > bc.
a
7. If a < b, and c > 0 then c
< cb .
a
8. If a < b, and c < 0 then c
> cb .

Reciprocal property
1
9. If a > 0, then a
>0

Transitive property

10. If a < b and b < c, then a < c.

65
Particular attention should be paid to Property 6 which says multiplying
each side of an inequality by the same negative quantity reverses the direction
(sense) of the inequality. For example, if −x < 5, then (−1)(−x) > (−1)(−5)
or x > 5.
The notation a ≤ b shall mean that a < b or a = b. Similarly b ≥ a
means that b > a or b = a.
Suppose a < b. We shall use the notation a < x < b to mean that x is a
member between a and b. The expression a < x < b is equivalent to the two
inequalities a < x and a < b.

[Link] Interval notation

Definition 3.7.2. Suppose a < b.

i) An open interval denoted by (a, b), consists of all real numbers x for
which a < x < b, i.e, (a, b) = {x : a < x < b}.

ii) An closed interval denoted by [a, b], consists of all real numbers x for
which a ≤ x ≤ b, i.e, (a, b) = {x : a ≤ x ≤ b}.

iii) The half-open, or half-closed intervals are (a, b], consisting of all real
numbers x for which a < x ≥ b,[ i.e, (a, b) = {x : a < x < b}]
and [a, b), consisting of all real numbers x for which a ≥ x < b,[ i.e,
(a, b) = {x : a ≥ x < b}].

The symbol ∞(−∞) is not a real number, but a notation used to indicate
unboundedness in the positive (negative) direction. Using these symbols we
can define five other kinds of intervals.

[a, ∞) = {x : a ≤ x}

(a, ∞) = {x : a < x}

(−∞, a] = {x : x ≤ a}

(−∞, a) = {x : x < a}

66
 (−∞, ∞) = {x : −∞ < x < ∞}

We illustrate some of the intervals below.

g g - w w -
a b a b
(a, b) [a, b]

g w - w -
a b a
(a, b] [a, ∞)

 -
(−∞, ∞)

[Link] Solving inequalities

We shall now look at how to solve inequalities. We give some examples to

demonstrate techniques that can be used when solving inequalities.

Example 3.7.3. Solve the inequality 2 − 3x ≤ 5.

Solution. Subtract 2 from both sides to get −3x ≤ 3. Dividing by −3, we

get x ≥ −3(reverse the sense of the inequality symbol). That is x ∈ [−3, ∞).

Example 3.7.4. Solve x − 3 < 3x − 1 ≤ 5x.

Solution. This means that x − 3 < 3x − 1 and 3x − 1 ≥ 5x, i.e, −2 < 2x

and −1 ≤ 2x. Thus x > −1 and x ≥ − 12 . This satisfied when x ≥ − 12 .

Example 3.7.5. Solve x2 + 5x + 6 > 0.

Solution. Factorizing we have (x+3)(x+2) > 0. The corresponding equation

(x + 3)(x + 2) = 0 has the solutions −3 and −2. The numbers −2 and −3
divide the real line into three intervals (−∞, −3), (−3, −2)(−2, ∞). On each

67
 −3 −2
x+3 - + +
x+2 - - +
(x + 3)(x + 2) + - +

Figure 3.2:

of these intervals we determine the signs of the factors. We construct a table

and present the information as follows. We arrange the points where the
various factors are zero along the top in ascending order. The next two rows
show the signs of the two factors in the intervals
(−∞, −3), (−3, −2), and (−2, ∞). The final row of the table is obtained
from the fact that the expression in the last row is the product of two factors.

Example 3.7.6. Solve x2 + 2x + 4 ≤ 0.

Solution. Completing the square we get (x + 1)2 + 3 ≤ 0. This is never true

since the left hand side must be positive. The solution set is the empty set
φ.
1−x
Example 3.7.7. Solve ≥ 1.
1+x
1−x −2x
Solution. Subtracting 1 we get ≥ 0, i.e, ≥ 0. The numerator is
1+x 1+x
zero when x = 0 and the denominator is zero when x = −1, and we obtain
the diagram in Figure. The solution set is (−∞, −1) ∪ (0, ∞).

−1 0
2x - - +
1+x - + +
2x
+ - +
1+x
Figure 3.3:

2
Example 3.7.8. Solve x < .
x−1

68
 2 2 (x + 1)(x − 2)
Solution. Subtract to get x − x+1 < 0, so < 0. The
x−1 x−1
factors in this quotient change sign at −1, 1, and 2, so we must examine
the intervals (−∞, −1), (−1, 1), (1, 2), and (2, ∞). The diagram is shown in
Figure [Link]. The solution set is (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, 2).

−1 0
x+1 - + + +
x−2 - - - +
x−1 - - + +
(x + 1)(x − 2)
- + - +
x−1

69
Activity 5.5.5

Solve the following inequalities:

a) 3x + 11 < 5
b) 6 − x ≥ 2x + 9
c) 2(7x − 3) ≤ 12x + 16
d) x2 − 3x − 18 ≤ 0
e) 5x2 + 3x ≥ 3x2 + 2
f) (x + 2)(x − 1)(x − 3) ≤ 0
x−3
g) ≥0
x+1
x
h) > 3x
x+1
x+2 x−1
i) <
x+3 x−2
j) x + 4 < 2x − 1 < 5 − 3x

3.7.1 Absolute Values

The absolute value of a number x is the distance from 0 to x on the number

line. For example −3 is 3 units from 0 and 5 is 5 units from 0. The absolute
of −3 is 3 and the absolute value of 5 is 5. We formally define the absolute
value.

Definition 3.7.9. The absolute

 value (or modulus) of x ∈ R is
x if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x if x ≤ 0.

The definition simply means that if x ≥ 0, then |x| = x, while if x < 0,

then |x| = −x. Thus for example , if x = 5, then |5| = 5, while if x = −3,
then | − 3| = 3.
Thus |x| ≥ 0 for all a ∈ R. in word the absolute value of a number is
always zero or positive.

70
 Geometrically, |x| is the distance between x and 0, and the distance be-
tween x and y is |x−y|. Thus the distance from −3 to 0 is |−3−0| = |−3| = 3
and the distance from −2 to 5 is | − 2 − 5| = | − 7| = 7. Note then that
|x| = | − x| for all x ∈ R.

Theorem 3.7.1. Let c > 0. Then |x| < c if and only if −c < x < c.

Proof. The proof has two parts.

1. If |x| < c, then −c < x < c.

2. If −c < x < c, then |x| < c.

We consider two cases x ≥ 0 and x < 0. For each case we prove the two
parts.
We first consider the case x ≥ 0. Suppose x ≥ 0 and |x| < c. Then by
Definition 3.7.9 |x| = x. Thus if |x| < c, then 0 ≤ x < c and so −c < x < c.
On the other hand, suppose x ≥ 0 and −c < x < c. Then we have
0 ≤ x < c. Since by Definition 3.7.9 |x| = x, we have |x| < c.
We now consider the case x < 0. Suppose that x < 0 and |x| < c. Then
by Definition 3.7.9 |x| = −x. Since |x| < c, we have −x < c. Multiplying by
−1 we get x > −c. Since −c < x < 0, we have −c < x < c.
On the other hand, suppose that x < 0 and −c < x < c. Then by
Definition 3.7.9 |x| = −x. Then we have −c < x < 0 and consequently
0 < −x < c. So |x| < c.

The above result remains valid if < is replaced by ≤ throughout.

We illustrate Theorem 3.7.1.

71
 |x| < c, c > 0

g g -
−a 0 a

We also have the following important result:

Theorem 3.7.2. If c > 0, then |x| > c if and only if x < −c, or x > c.

Proof. The method of proof is similar to the one of the previous theorem.

The following Figure illustrates the theorem.

x < −c, or x > c, c > 0

g g -
−a 0 a

Example 3.7.10. Solve |2x − 3| ≥ 2.

Solution. By Theorem 3.7.2 we have 2x − 3 ≥ 2 or 2x − 3 ≤ −2,i.e., 2x ≥ 5

or 2x ≤ 1. So x ≥ 25 or x ≤ 21 or (−∞, 21 ] ∪ [ 25 , ∞) in interval notation.

Example 3.7.11. Solve |3t − 2| < 4.

Solution. By Theorem 3.7.1, we have −4 < 3t − 2 < 4, so −2 < 3t <

6,i.e,t ∈ (− 32 , 2).
1
Example 3.7.12. Solve |x+7|
> 2.

Solution. We multiply by |x + 7| since this is never negative. Thus 1 >

2|x + 7|,i.e,|x + 7| < 12 . Thus − 21 < x + 7 < 12 ,i.e.,− 15
2
< x < − 13
2
or
15 14
x ∈ (− 2 , − 2 ).

The following results are handy in solving some inequalities:

72
 p
Theorem 3.7.3. If x ∈ R, then |x| = (x2 ).

Proof. First suppose that x ≥ 0. Then by Definition 3.7.9, |x| = x and

p
clearly x = (x2 ). Now suppose x < 0. Then by Definition 3.7.9, |x| = −x.
p √ p
So (x2 ) = x · x = (−x)(−x) = −x = |x|.

Corollary 3.7.13. If x ∈ R, then .|x|2 = x2 .

Proof. The proof follows from Theorem 3.7.3.

Theorem 3.7.4. If 0 < a < b, then a2 < b2 .

Proof. Since a, b > 0, we have b + a > 0. Since a < b, we have b − a > 0.

Thus (b − a)(b + a) = b2 − a2 > 0, i.e,a2 < b2 .

Note that without the restriction that both a and b be positive the result
cannot be true. For example, −4 < 1 but (−4)2 > 12 .
1 1
Example 3.7.14. Solve < .
3x − 1 x−3
Solution. Since |3x − 1| > 0 and |x − 3| > 0 we multiply and get |x − 3| <
|3x − 1|. By Theorem 3.7.4 and 3.7.13,we have x2 − 6x + 9 < 9x2 − 6x + 1,
i.e., 8x2 − 8 > 0. Thus x2 − 1 > 0. So (x + 1)(x − 1) > 0 and hence
(−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞).

Activity 5.5.7

Solve the inequalities.

a) |5x − 2| < 6
b) |2x − 3| ≥ 2
1
c) | 2x−3 |<5
d) | x−2
3
|<2
e) |x − 9| > 9

a) Show that a ≥ |a|.

73
 b) Use the result in 2a) to prove the triangle inequality |a + b| ≤
|a| + |b|. [Hint: Expand |a + b|2 = (a + b)2 .]
c) Prove that |a − b| ≥ |a| − |b|. [Hint: Apply the triangle inequality
from 2b) to |a| = |(a − b) + b|]
d) Use Theorem 3.7.3 to show that |ab| = |a||b|.

3.7.2 Indices and Logarithm

[Link] Indices

If a ∈ R and n ∈ N, then an denotes the product of n factors of a. That is

n
|a · a · a{z· . . . · a} = a
n factors

So we have a2 = a · a, a3 = a · a · a and so on. We call the number a the base

and n the exponent or power.
If a ∈ R and n, m ∈ N,

an am = (a · a · . . . · a) (a · a · . . . · a) = a · a · a{z· . . . · a} = an+m
| {z }| {z } |
n f actors m f actors n+m f actors

Thus

an am = an+m for n, m ∈ N

In word to multiply powers with the same base, we add their exponents. For
example, 43 45 = 48 .
Now if m, n ∈ N and m > n, then
n f actors
n
a · a · ... · a
z }| {
a
m
= =a · a · a{z· . . . · a} = an−m
a |a · a ·{z. . . · a}
|
n−m f actors
m f actors

Thus
an
am
= an−m for n, m ∈ N for m > n, a 6= 0. (3.12)

74
In word to divide powers with the same base, we subtract the exponents. For
39
example, 32
= 37 .
Further if m, n ∈ N, we have

(an )m = (a
| · a ·{z. . . · a})
m

n f actors

= (a · a · . . . · a) (a · a · . . . · a) · · · (a · a · . . . · a)
| {z }| {z } | {z }
n f actors n f actors n f actors
| {z }
m groups of f actors

= (a · a · a · . . . · a) = anm
| {z }
nm f actors

Thus
(an )m = anm for n, m ∈ N for a 6= 0. (3.13)

In word to raise a power to a power, we multiply the exponents. For

example, (43 )5 = 415 .
We now define a1 = a.
Could the above rules be true for any m, n ∈ R? We shall now explore this
possibility. For example, 46 4−5 = 4. But from earlier discussion 46 · 1
45
= 4.
6 −5 −5 1
So 4 4 = 4 will be true if 4 = 45
. This observation lead to us to the
following definition.

Definition 3.7.15. If a ∈ R, a 6= 0, and n ∈ N, then a−n = 1

an
.

If (3.12) is true for any integers m and n, then setting m = n, we have

an
an
= an−n = a0 . Clearly the left-hand side is 1 and so this observation lead
us to the following definition.

Definition 3.7.16. If a ∈ R, a 6= 0, then a0 = 1.

1
We want to give a meaning to say 3 2 . Now if (3.13) is true when n is not
1
an integer, then (3 2 )2 = 31 = 3.
√ 1 √
Since ( 3)2 = 3, it is now necessary to define 3 2 = 3. Generally, since
√ 1 √
( n a)n = a, it would be necessary to define a n = n a. But when n is even

75
 √ √ √
and a is negative n
a will not exist. For example, −3 and 4 −3 are not
real numbers. When n is odd and a is negative, it will exist; for example
√3
−8 = −2, since (−2)3 = −8.
1 √
Definition 3.7.17. If a ∈ R, n ∈ N, then a n = n a, provided the right-hand
side exists.
√ √
Note that n a = x means xn = a. If n is even and a > 0, n a is defined
√
to be the positive real solution to the equation xn = a. Thus 16 is defined
to be 4 and not ±4. But if x2 = 16 then x = ±4. This so because x = 4 and
x = −4 both satisfy the equation x2 = 16.
m 1
It follows from the definition that if m, n ∈ N, then a n = (am ) n =
p
n
(am ), provided the nth root exist.
The exponents also satisfy the following properties:

a) (ab)n = an bn
an
b) ( ab )n = bn
(provided 6= 0)

We show that a is true as follows: If n is a positive integer, we get

(ab)n = (ab · ab · . . . · ab) = (a · a · . . . · a) · (b · b · . . . · b) = an bn

| {z } | {z } | {z }
n f actors n f actors n f actors

You asked to show b.

(−z)3 x4 (yz)2
Example 3.7.18. Simplify
32 xy 3 z
−8x4−1 y 3−2 z 2−1 −8x4 yz
Solution. =
9 9
32 · 4−2 · 5
Example 3.7.19. Simplify −4 3
2 · 3 · 25
Solution. Now 4 = 22 , 25 = 52 , so

32 · (22 )−2 · 5 · 24 · 33 · 52 = 32 · 2−4 · 5 · 24 · 33 · 52 = 35 · 20 · 53 = 35 · 53 = 30375

√ √ √
Example 3.7.20. Simplify 8 + 50 + 32.

76
 √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Solution. 8 + 50 + 32 = 2 2 + 5 2 + 4 2 = 17 2

An exponential equation is an equation that contains a variable in an

exponent. For example 3x = 35 . In order to solve exponential equations, we
need to have equations with comparable exponential expressions on either
side of the "equals" sign, so we can compare the power.
1
Example 3.7.21. Solve 9n
= 2710−n

Solution. We have 9−n = 2710−n . Since 9 = 32 and 27 = 33 , we get 3−2n =

330−3n . Thus −2n = 30 − 3n and so n = 30.

Activity [Link]

1. Simplify
322 · 643
a)
1285 · 16
!3 !
a2 b−3 x−2 b−1
b) 3 1
x−1 y 2 a2 y 3

2. Simplify
√ √ √
a) 125 − 45 + 75
√ √ √
b) 3 24 − 3 81 + 3 108

3. Solve for x:
1
a) 2x+1 = 64

b) Solve the simultaneous equations 3x+y = 243, 22x−5y=8.

c) 22x+3 + 2x+3 = 1 + 2x

[Link] Logarithms

Suppose the population of a culture of bacteria is 1000 and this number

doubles each hour. Thus after

77
 • one hour there are 1000 × 2 bacteria

• two hours there are 1000 × 2 × 2 = 1000 × 22 bacteria

• three hours there are 1000 × 22 × 2 = 1000 × 23 bacteria

and so on.
Following the pattern, if N is the population after n hours then

N = 1000 × 2n .

If we ask the question, when is the population equal to 1000, then we need
to solve 2n = 100 to find the time. How do we solve the equation 2n = 100?
Since 23 = 8, we say that log2 8 = 3. This is read as ’the log of 8 to the
base 2 is 3’. To find the logarithm of a number to the base b, we ask the
question ’What power do I raise b to, in order to obtain a?’
We formally define the logarithm.

Definition 3.7.22. Let a > 1. The logarithm of x with base a, denoted by

loga x, is defined by

y = loga x if and only if x = ay .

In word, loga x is the power to which the base a must be raised to give x.
For example,

81 = 34 then log3 81 = 4

1000 = 103 then log10 1000 = 3

Since 1 = a0 for any a 6= 0, by Definition 3.7.22

loga 1 = 0 for any a > 1

Since a1 = a for any a, by Definition 3.7.22

loga a = 1 for any a > 1

78
Theorem 3.7.5. Let a > 0 and x, y > 0. Then

a) loga (xy) = loga x + loga y

b) loga ( xy ) = loga x − loga y

c) loga xb = b loga x

Proof. a) The proof is similar to the one for b).

b) Let loga x = c and loga y = d. By Definition 3.7.22, x = ac and y = ad ,

c
so xy = aad = ac−d . Again by Definition 3.7.22, c − d = loga ( xy ) and so
loga x − loga y = loga ( xy ).

c) Let loga x = c. Then by Definition 3.7.22, x = ac , so xb = (ac )b

and thus xb = acb . Hence by Definition 3.7.22, cb = loga xb , and so
b loga x = loga xb , as required

The following identities exemplify the inverse operations of taking a power

and taking a logarithm:

2loga x = x loga 2x = x; x > 0

More generally,

aloga x = x loga ax = x; a > 1; x > 0

Sometimes a logarithm is written without a base, like this;log 100. This means
that the base is really 10. It is called a common logarithm. Common loga-
rithms can be evaluated using a scientific calculator. Engineers love to use it.
Another base that is often used is e (eulers number) which is approximately
2.71828. This is called a natural logarithm. Mathematicians use this one a
lot.
There are many occasions when we want to change from one base to
another. For example, to find log4 54 we can change from base 4 to base 10
where the calculator can be used.

79
Theorem 3.7.6 (Change of Base Theorem). If x > 0 and a, b > 0 then
loga x = log bx
log a
.
b

Proof. Let y = loga x. Then x = ay . Taking logb of both sides, then logb x =
logb ay = y logb a. Hence y = log bx
log a
. That is loga x = log bx
log a
.
b b

1
Corollary 3.7.23. If a, x > 1 then loga x = logx a
.

Proof. The result follows if we set b = x in Theorem 3.7.6.

For example, we have a table of logarithms to base 10 or a scientific

log10 8
calculator and we wish to find log7 8. By Theorem 3.7.6 log7 8 = log10 7
.
Example 3.7.24. Simplify 4 loga x − 13 loga (x2 + 1) + 2 loga (x − 1).
 
x2 (x−1)2
Solution. By Theorem 3.7.5, loga 2
1 .
(x +1) 3

Example 3.7.25. Use logarithm to solve the equation 2x = 100.

Solution. We posed this question at the beginning of this section. So
log10 2x = log10 100 and we get x log10 2 = 2, i.e x = log2 2 = 6.6439.
10

Example 3.7.26. A sample of a radioactive substance with an initial mass of

100g decays over time, halving every hour. Find a formula for the amount,M g,
present after hours.
Solution. • After 1 hour, the mass is 100 × 12 g.

• After 2 hours, the mass is 100 × 12 × 1

2
= 100 × ( 12 )2 g

• After 3 hours, the mass is 100 × 12 × 21 × 1

2
= 100 × ( 12 )3 g
Following this pattern, there are M = 100 × ( 21 )t g of the radioactive
substance after t hours.
Example 3.7.27. A bank gives an interest rate of 10% per annum. How
long will it take to double one’s income?
Solution. Let P be the initial investment. This amount will be P (1.1)x after
x years. We wish the amount to be 2P , so we have P (1.1)x = 2P . Thus
log10 2 0.30103
(1.1)x = 2. So log10 2 = x log10 1.1, and we get x = log = 0.04140 = 7.271
10 1.1
years.

80
Activity [Link]

1. Simplify

a) log2 (a + b) + log2 (a − b) − 2 log2 c

b) 2(log5 x + 2 log5 y − 3 log5 z)
1
c) 3
loga (2x + 1) + 21 [loga (x − a) − loga (x4 − x2 − 1)]

2. A man invests K650000.00 in a bank at an interest rate of 8.5% per

annum.

a) What is the amount after 2 years?

b) How long will it take for the amount to be K800000.00.

3. The population of a certain city is 112 000 and increases at 4% per

year.

a) Find the population after 6 years.

b) In what year will the population reach 200 000?

4. The rate of radioactivity of a substance is measured by its half-life, the

length of time taken for one half of the substance to decay. The burial
cloth of an Egyptian mummy is estimated to contain 59% of carbon-
14 it contained originally. How long was the mummy buried? (The
half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years.)

5. If 250 mg of a radioactive element decays to 200 mg in 48 hours, find

the half-life of the element.

81
Chapter 4

INTRODUCTION TO
COMBINATORICS

4.1 Introduction

This unit introduces the fundamental counting principle which involves find-
ing number of possible ways an event can happen. A formal definition of
permutation as an ordered arrangement is presented alongside combinations
which are unordered collections. Then the discussion proceed with Pascal’s
triangle and then the binomial theorem which are the applications of the
combination concept.

4.2 Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

a) Use the fundamental principle to count a number of ways an event can

happen.

b) Use permutations to count number of ways an event can happen

82
 c) Determine the number of distinguishable permutations in the letter of
word by determining the number of letters in word that repeat.

d) Use Pascal triangle to expand binomial expressions.

e) Apply combination in expansion of binomial expressions.

4.3 Key Terms

Fundamental Counting Principle, factorial, permutation, combination, and

expansion binomial.

4.4 Fundamental Counting Principle (FCP)

In many real-life problems you want to count the number of possibilities. For
instance, suppose you own a small restraint. You offer four types of relish
(beef, chicken, fish and eggs) and three types of main dish meals (nsima, rice
and chips). How many choices do your customers have for a meal?

The problem above can be done by using the fundamental counting prin-
ciple. Because you have 4 choices for relish and 3 choices for main meal, so
the total number of choices is 4 · 3 = 12.

83
Definition 4.4.1. ( The fundamental Counting Principle states that) Let
E1 , E2 , . . . , Ek be a sequence of K events. If for each i, Ei , occurs in m ways,
then the total number of ways the events may take place is the product
m1 , m2 , . . . mi .

A simple version can be by looking at two events. For instance, if one

event can occur in m ways and another event can occur in n ways, then the
number of ways that both events occur is m · n.

Example 4.4.2. : Using the letters; a, b, c and d, Find

a) How many ordered triples can be formed?

b) How many ordered 4-tuples can be formed?

c) How many r-tuples can be formed?

Solution. a) Let (x1 , x2 , x3 ) be the ordered triple symbols that can be

obtained by using only the a, b, c and d. In this repetitions are allowed
since, (a, b, a), (a, a, b) and (b, a, a) are different triples of desired type.
If for i = 1, 2, 3, we let Ei represent the determination of xi in the triple
(x1 , x2 , x3 ), then since repetitions are allowed there are 4 possibilities
for each of E1 , E2 , and E3 . Fence by FCP, the total number of ordered
triples is: 4 · 4 · 4 or 64.

b) Similarly, the number of possible 4-tuples is 4 · 4 · 4 · 4 = 256

c) Evidently the number of r-tuples is the product 4 · 4 · · · · 4, where 4

appears r times. that product equals 4r .

Example 4.4.3. A class consists of 60 girls and 40 boys. In how many

ways can a president, vice-president, treasure, and secretary be chosen if the
treasure must be a girl, the secretary must be a boy, and a student cannot
hold more than one office?

Solution. Let E1 represent the choice of treasure, E2 the choice of secretary

and E3 and E4 the choice for president and vice-president respectively. As a
Fundamental Counting Principle, we let mi denote the number of different

84
ways Ei can occur, for i = 1, 2, 3 and 4> It follows that m1 = 60, m2 = 40,
m3 = 98, and m4 = 97. (why?). By the fundamental Counting Principle,
the number of possibilities is 60 · 40 · 98 · 97 = 22, 814, 400.

Example 4.4.4. : How many 4-digit numbers can be formed using 5, 2, 3, 7, 8?

Solution. There are 4 places and each can be filled in 5 ways with 5,2,3,7,or
8. 54 = 625 numbers ca be formed. 2.5 Factorial This
is a way to determine how many ways you can arrange items. The following
examples show how to use it>

Example 4.4.5. : How many ways can you arrange the letters in the word
BUNDA without repetition of a letter.

Solution. The basic idea is, we can have 5 objects (letters) and the 5 possible
positions they can occupy, as shown below.

Now multiplying all the numbers together, 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · ·1 = 120.

Example 4.4.6. : How many ways can eight different books be arranged?

Solution. We can approach this question in the same way as the previous
one, but there is a shorter way. The factorial function on the calculator
performs this calculation. Factorial function is denoted, ! l.e. n! where n
stands for number of items. Hence, 8! = 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 40320

Definition 4.4.7. 1. n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − r + 1)(n − r)(n − r −

1) · · · 3 · 2 · 1, where n is a whole number.

2. 0! = 1.
1 1 x
Example 4.4.8. If + = , find x.
8! 9! 10!
85
Solution.
1 1 x
+ =
 8! 9! 10!
1 1 x
Therefore 1+ = since (9! = 9 · 8!)
8! 9 10!
 
1 10 x
=
8! 9 10!
10(10!)
x =
9 · 8!
10 · 10 · 9!
=
9!
Hence x = 100

4.5 Permutations

We introduced factorial as a way of counting the number of arrangements of

a given set of objects. For example, consider the set of letter given by;

L = {A, B, C, D, E}

The set of letters in the string ABCD can arrange themselves in a row in
5! = 120 different ways. A basics question would be, how many ways can
three letters be chosen fro set L if a letter would be chosen only once? The
question can be paraphrased in general as follows: How many arrangements
are there of five things taken three at a time? The answer by the fundamental
principle of counting is: 5 · 4 · 3 = 60. The factors begin with 5 and proceed
downward, just as in a factorial product, but do not all the way to 1. (In this
example the product stops when there are three factors). We now generalize
this idea.
A permutation is “a re-arrangement of elements of a set". This means
that any duplication of the collected elements in different orders is fine. A
permutation therefore tends to be a large number.

Example 4.5.1. : Taking the 4 letters, ABCD, write down all the permu-
tations of 3 letters from the 4 letters ABCD

86
Solution. There are different arrangement of 3 letters that can be generated
from the letters ABCD, which are

ABC BAC CAB DAB

ACB BCA CBA DBA

ABD BAD CAD DAC

ADB BDA CDA DCA

ACD BCD CBD DBC

ADC BDC CDB DCB

There are 24 permutations. In other words, there are 24 variations to form of

3 letters from astring of 4 different letters. In permutation the order matters
such that, ABC is a different arrangement from each of the following: ACB,
BCA and CAB etc.

4.5.1 Mathematics of Permutations

The number of permutations, or arrangements, of distinct things taken r

at a time, where, r ≤ n,can be calculated as:

n!
P (n, r) =
(n − r)!
So from the above example, the number of choosing 3 letters from the 4
letter, ABCD, can be calculated as:
4! 4! 4·3·2·1
P (4, 3) = = = = 24
(4 − 3)! 1! 1

So we use permutations only in cases where the order of the items is

important. Also, permutationss apply only in cases where no repetition of
items occurs.

Example 4.5.2. Evaluate each permutation.

87
 4!
a) P (4, 2) = = 4 · 3 = 12
(4 − 2)!
8!
b) P (8, 5) = = 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 = 6720
(8 − 5)!
5!
c) P (5, 5) = = 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 120
(5 − 5)!
Example 4.5.3. : Find r if P (5, r) = P (6, r − 1)

Solution.
5! 6!
=
(5 − r)! (7 − r)!
(7 − r)! 6 · (5!) (5 − r)!
= = 6 ⇒ (7 − r)(6 − r) =6
(5 − r)! 5! (5 − r)!

r2 − 13r + 42 = 6
r2 − 13r + 36 = 0 ⇒ r = 9 or 4

But 1 ≤ r ≤ 5 and 1 ≤ r − 1 ≤ 6 ∴r=4

4.5.2 Guidelines for When to Use Permutations

Permutations are applied only when

1. Repetitions are not allowed, and

2. Order is important

Example 4.5.4. : How many different 4 letter “words" can you make from
the word DAFFODIL?

Solution. The question is definitely one of permutation, since we are inter-

ested in; DAFF, DFFA,FFAD, ADFF [Link] different “words" rather than
being the duplication of the same “combination" of 4 letters. So the number
of permutations is
8! 8·7·6·5·4·3·2·1 8·7·6·5·4·3·2·1
P (8, 4) = = = = 1, 680
(8 − 4)! 4! 4·3·2·1

88
Example 4.5.5. : How many nonrepeating 3-digit numbers can be written
using digits from then set {3,4,5,6,7,8}?

Solution. Repetitions are not allowed, since the numbers are to be nonre-
peating, for example, 663 is not acceptable. Also, order is important, since
476 and 746 are distinct cases. So we use permutations
6!
P (6, 3) = = 6 · 5 · 4· = 120 distinct numbers
(6 − 3)!

The following example uses, the fundamental counting principle.

Example 4.5.6. How many different 4 letter “words" can you make from
the word DAFFODIL?

Solution. The question is definitely one of permutation, since we are inter-

ested in; DAFF, DFFA, FFAD, ADFF etc. as different “words" rather than
being the duplication of the same “combination" of 4 letters So the number
of permutation is
8! 8·7·6·5·4·3·2·1 8·7·6·5·4·3·2·1
P (8, 4) = = = = 1, 680
(8 − 4)! 4! 4·3·2·1
Example 4.5.7. : Suppose certain count numbers are to consist of two
letters followed by four digits and then three more letters, where repetitions
of letters or digits are not allowed within and of the groups, but the last
group of letters may contain one or both of those used in the first group.
How many such counts are possible?

Solution. The task of designing such a number consists of three parts. 3

Determine the first set of two letters 4 Determine the set of four digits 5
Determine the final set of three letters Each part requires and arrangement
without repetition, which is a permutation. Multiply together the results of
the three parts.

P (26, 2) · P (10, 4) · P (26, 3) = 26 · 25} · 10

| {z | · 9{z· 8 · 7} · |26 · 25
{z · 24}
part 1 part 2 part 3

= 650 · 5040 · 15600

= 51, 105, 600, 000

89
4.5.3 Distinguishable Permutation

In indistinguishable objects are simply items (letters) that are repeated in the
original set> For example, if the word MOM was used to form permutations,
the two M’s are indistinguishable from one another since they repeat. Using
MOM some of the arrangements would be duplicates of one another because
of the repeating M. If we are interested in unique arrangements, we must
deal with any letters (objects) that repeat in the original set.

4.5.4 Theorem on Distinguishable Permutation

The number of different permutations of n objects , where there are n1 in-

distinguishable (identical) objects of type 1, n2 indistinguishable objects of
type 2,. . . , and nk indistinguishable objects of type k, denoted as, n1 ,n2n,...,nk

is;
n!
n1 ! · n2 ! · · · nk !
Notice that, n = n1 + n2 + · · · + nk

Example 4.5.8. : How many different 5-letter words can be formed from
the word; APPLE?
5P5 5·4·3·2·1 120
Solution. = = = 60 words
2! 2·1 2
Example 4.5.9. : Find the number of distinguishable permutations of the
letters in the word; MISSISSIPPI

Solution. We have n = 11 letters in total; Let n1 stand for M, n2 stand for

I, n3 stand for S and n4 stand for P. Then the total number of distinguishable
permutations is:
 
n n! 11!
= = = 34650
n1 , n2 , n3 , n4 n1 ! · n2 ! · n3 ! · n4 ! 1! · 4! · 4! · 2!

90
4.5.5 Circular Permutation

So far we have linear permutations> The basic difference between linear per-
mutations and circulations is that every linear arrangement has a beginning
and end, but there is nothing like beginning or ending in circular permuta-
tion. Thus in circular permutations, we consider one object as fixed and the
remaining objects are arranged as in case of linear arrangement.

Definition 4.5.10. Total number of circular arrangement of n distinct ob-

jects is (n − 1)!.

Example 4.5.11. : Let 4 people a, b, c, d be arranged around a round dining

table. In how many ways is this possible?
n! 4!
Solution. Number of circular permutation is = = 6 ways.
n 4

4.6 Combinations

A combination is the arrangement of objects where order does not matter.

For example, from the string of letters, ABCD, the following combinations:
ACB, BCA, BAC, CAB, CBA stand for 1 combination formed by the letters
A, B, C and D. If the letters were standing for names of committee members,
the above combination would represent the same committee chosen from the
representation of their names, ABCD regardless of the order.

4.6.1 Mathematics of Combinations

To find the number of combinations, or subsets, of n distinct things k

n


at a time, where, k ≤ n, denoted, C(n, k) or nCk or k
or Ckn is given by:

P (n, k) n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − k + 1)

C(n, k) = =
k! k(k − 1)(k − 2) · · · 2 · 1

91
 Combining this formula with the factorial formula for permutations gives
a way of also evaluating combinations entirely in terms of factorials.
n!
P (n, k) (n − k)! n!
C(n, k) = = =
k! k! k!(n − k)!

4.6.2 Factorial Formula for Combination

To find the number of combinations, or subsets, of n distinct things k at a

time, where, k ≤ n, is given by:

P (n, k) n!
C(n, k) = =
k! k!(n − k)!
So from the above example, the combination of 3 letters chosen from the
string of 4 letters, ABCD is:
4! 4! 4·3·2·1
C(4, 3) = = = =4
3!(4 − 3)! 3!1! 3·2·1·1
Example 4.6.1. : Evaluate each combination

a) C(8, 6)

b) C(22, 5)
8! 40, 320
Solution. a) C(8, 6) = = = 28
6!2! 720 · 2
22!
b) C(22, 15) = = 170, 544
15!7!

4.6.3 Guidelines for When to Use Combinations

Combinations are applied only when

1. Repetitions are not allowed, and

2. Order is not important

92
Example 4.6.2. Find the number of different subsets of size 2 drawn from
the set {a, b, c, d}. Subset of size 2 must have distinct elements, so repetitions
are not allowed. And since the order in which the elements of a set are listed
makes no difference, we see that order is not important. Use the combination
formula with n = 4 and k = 2.

Solution.
P (4, 2) 4! 4·3·2·1 4·3
C(4, 2) = = = = =6
2! 2!(4 − 2)! 2·1·2·1 2·1

Example 4.6.3. : Find the total number of different arrangements of 9

players from a squad of 16 members.

Solution. The question does not mention, “permutation" or “combination",

so we have to figure out our selves. You will appreciate that the question is
one about combination. In other words, it is asking “to find the number of
combination of 9 players from a squad of 16" Hence:
16! 16!
C(16, 9) = =
9!(16 − 9)! 9!7!

Use a calculator or work out long handed:

16 · 15 · 14 · 13 · 12 · 11 · 10 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1
C(16, 9) =
9·8·7·6·5·4·3·2·1
16 · 15 · 14 · 13 · 12 · 11 · 10
with cancellation, we have: C(16, 9) = Further
7·6·5·4·3·2·1
cancellation, yields: C(16, 9) = 16·15·13·11 = 11, 440 Notice that, according
to the formula of combinations:
8! 40, 320
C(8, 6) = = = 28 is the same as C(8, 2).
6!(8 − 6)! 720 · 2

In general, for all whole numbers n and k, with k ≤ n,

C(n, k) = C(n, n − k)

This fact can be proven.

93
4.6.4 Guidelines for Choosing a Counting Method

 If selected items can be repeated, use the fundamental counting principle.

Example: How many ways can three of eight people line up at a ticket

counter? P (8, 4) = 8 · 7 · 6 = 336

 If selected items cannot be repeated, and order is not important, use

combination.

Example: How many ways can a committee of three be selected from a

group of twelve people ?

12

12 · 11 · 10
C(12, 3) = 3
= = 220
3·2·1

4.6.5 Summary of Permutation and Combination

Both permutation and combinations produce the number of ways of selecting

r items from n items where repetitions are not allowed. Permutations apply
to arrangements (order is important), while combinations apply to subsets
(order is not important). Below are the outline of the similarities and differ-
ences of permutations and combinations as well as the appropriate formula
for each.

94
 Permutation Combination
Number of ways of selecting r items out of n items
Repetitions are not allowed
Order is important Order is not important
Arrangement of n items taken r at a time Subsets of n items taken r at a time

P (n, r)
P (n, r) = n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · [n − (r − 1)] C(n, r) = nr =
r!
n! n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − r + 1)
= =
(n − r)! r(r − 1)(r − 2) · · · 2 · 1
n!
=
r!(n − r)!
Clue words: arrangement, schedule, orderClue words: set, group, sample, selection

Activity One

1. How many ways can 10 tosses of a coin turn out?

2. A multiple-choice quiz has five questions with the answer choices la-
beled A, B, C and D for each question. In how many ways can the five
questions be answered?

3. In how many ways is it possible for 15 students to arrange themselves

among 15 seats in the front row of an auditorium?

4. Suppose 7 students are staying in a hostel and they are allotted 7 beds.
Among them, Fwipi does not a bed next to Majoti because Majoti
snores. Then in how many ways can the beds allowed?

5. In how may ways can an animal trainer arrange 5 lions and 4 tigers in
a row so that no two lions are together?

6. Macros is selecting classes for next year. He plans to take English,

Physics, Mathematics, Biology, Chemistry and Computer Science. His
college has a six-period [Link] how many different ways might the col-
lege arrange his day?

95
 7. In some states, the license plate of a car consists of three letters followed
by three digits.

a) If repetition is not allowed, how many possibilities are there?

b) If repetition is allowed, how many possibilities are there?

8. How many different 7-digit telephone numbers are possible if the first
digit cannot be zero and no digit may repeat?

9. Evaluate the following.

9!
a) × 9! d) P58 g) 20C0 × 10!
6!4!
e) 95 + C55 n



b) P (7, 7) h) n−1
i) n0


c) 9P5 − P77 f) C37

10. How many ways can 5 people sit on a park bench if the bench can only
seat 3 people?

11. Dan has installed a stalled in his room to display some of his trophies.
However Dan has 15 trophies he can display but the shelf only has
space for 8 trophies. How many display arrangement are possible?

12. Suppose 7 people are to compete in a marathon at an Olympic tourna-

ment. Assuming there are no ties, in how many ways could the gold,
silver and bronze medals be warded?

13. Find r if:

a) 5Pr4 = 6Pr−1
5

b) (r + 1)! = 12(r − 1)!

r! r!
c) ÷ =2
2!(r − 2)! 4!(r − 4)!
14. Solve for n:
n n



a) 5
= 13
b) 2n = 11 n3



3

96
 2n n



c) 3
÷ 2
= 12
n n



15. if r−1
= 36, r
= 84, n{r + 1 = 126, find n and r.

16. Determine whether each of the following situation is a Combination or

Permutation.

a) Creating password for a computer site using any 8 alphabet letters.

b) Determining how many ways you can elect a Chairman and Co-
chairman of a committee if you have 10 people to choose from.
c) Voting to allow 10 new members to join a club when there are 25
that would like to join.
d) Finding different ways to arrange a line-up of players of a football
team.
e) Choosing 3 types of soft drinks if there are 9 different types of soft
drinks.

17. Thoko has 3 T-Shirts (red, white, yellow); 2 pairs of jeans (black, blue)
and 2 pairs o shoes (sneaker, Sandals). How many different outfit
combinations can she put together?

18. How many arrangements of the letters in the word SQUARE begin
with SQ?

19. How many different committee of 3 people can be chosen to work on a

project from a group of 7 people?

20. In how many ways can you choose 5 out of 10 friends to invite to a
dinner party?

21. Suppose 1 ≤ r ≤ n. Then prove the following:

n
= r nr



a) (n − r + 1) r−1
b) r nr = n n−1



n−r

n n−1 n−1




21. Suppose 1 ≤ r ≤ n. Then prove that: r
= r
+ .

97
4.7 Pascal’s Triangle

A binomial expression is the sum, or difference, of two terms. Examples of

binomial expressions are: x + 1, 3x = 2y, a2 − b3 .
Expansion of binomial expressions raised to a higher power becomes cum-
bersome. For example to find (x + 1)7 it means performing repeated multi-
plication of x + 1 by itself 7 times. We can expand binomial expression very
quickly using a triangular pattern of numbers, known as Pascal’s triangle.
We start to generate Pascal’s triangle by writing down the number 1.
Then we write a new row with the number 1 twice. i.e.

1 1

Then we generate new rows to form a triangle of numbers. Each row must
begin and end with 1.

• • • • 1 • • • •

• • 1 • ∗ • 1 • •

• 1 • ∗ • ∗ • 1 •

1 • ∗ • ∗ • ∗ • 1

The remaining numbers in each row are calculated by adding together the
two numbers in the row above which lie above-left and below right. So adding
the two 1’s in the second row gives 2, and this number goes in the vacant
space in the third row. The vacant spaces in the fourth row are each found by
adding together the two numbers in the third row down which lie above-left
and above-right. We can continue to build up the triangle in this way to

98
write down as many rows as we wish. This gives;

• • • • • 1 • • • • •

• • • 1 • 2 • 1 • • •

• • 1 • 3 • 3 • 1 • •

• 1 • 4 • 6 • 4 • 1 •

1 5 • 10 • 10 • 5 • 1

You may try to generate Pascal’s triangles for the sixth, seventh, eighth and
ninth rows.
Example 4.7.1. : Use the Pascal’s triangle to expand the binomial expres-
sion.

a) (2x + y)3

b) (1 + p)4

c) (3a − 2b)5

Solution. a) We pick coefficients in the expansion from the relevant row

of the Pascal’s triangle: 1, 3, 3, 1. As we move through the terms in the
expansion from left to right we decrease the power of 2x and increase
the power of y. So,

(2x + y)3 = 1(2x)3 + 3(2x)2 y + 3(2x)1 y 2 + 1y 3

= 8x3 + 12x2 y + 6xy 2 + 6xy 2 + y 3

b) To expand (1 + p)4 , we pick the relevant row of the Pascal’s triangle

beginning 1,4; which is 1,4,6,4,1. So the expansion will be:

(1 − p)4 = 1(1)4 + 4(1)3 p + 6(1)2 p2 + 4(1)1 + 1p4

= 1 + 4p + 6p2 + 4p3 + p4

99
 c) To expand (3a − 2b)5 , we pick the relevant row of the Pascal’s triangle
beginning, 1,5; which is 1,5,10.10,5,1. So the expansion will be:

(3a − 2b)5 = 1(3a)5 + 5(3a)4 (−2b) + 10(3a)3 (−2b)2 + 10(3a)2 (−2b)3

+ 5(3a)(−2b)4 + 1(−2b)5
= 243b5 − 810b4 ab + 1080a3 b2 − 720a2 b3 + 240ab4 − 32b5

4.8 The Binomial Theorem

Expansion of a binomial expansion such as, (1 + x)5 0 would not be quickly

done by using the Pascal’s triangle as this would require the generation of
a large number of rows of the triangle (l.e. a triangle with 50 rows). An
alternative is to use the binomial theorem. The theorem enables us to
expand (a + b)n in increasing powers of b and decreasing powers of a. Thus
using the theorem we can expand the expressions of form: (a + b)2 , (a + b)3 ,
. . . ,(a + b)50 , . . . when the power is positive. Of course the theorem can be
used when n is negative or fractional and this is useful in more advanced
applications, but these conditions are beyond the scope of this level.

Theorem 4.8.1 (The Binomial Theorem). When n is a positive whole num-

n(n − 1) n−2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3 n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n
ber (a+b)n = an +nan−1 b+ a b+ a b +
2! 3! 4!
· · · + bn Alternative form of the binomial theorem (a + b)2 = n0 an b0 +


n n−1 1
a b + n2 an−2 b2 + · · · + nk an−k bk + · · · + n−1
n
+ nn a0 bn No-




1 n−1

1
ab
tice that the binomial theorem can also be expressed in sigma summation
n  
n
X n k n−k
notation as (a + b) = a b
k=0
k

Proof. The proof uses mathematical induction. For each positive integer
n, let Pn denote the statement given in the Binomial Theorem. Step (i) If
n = 1, the statement reduces to (a + b)1 = a1 + b1 . Thus P1 is true

Step (ii) Assume that, Pk is true, for k ∈ N. Then the induction hypothe-
k(k − 1) k−2 2 k(k − 1)(k − 2) · · · (k − r + 2) k−r+1 r−1
sis is (a+b)k = ak +kak−1 b+ a b +· · · + a b
2! (r − 1)!

100
k(k − 1)(k − 2) · · · (k − r + 1) k−r r
a b +· · ·+kabk−1 +bk Where we have shown
r!
both the rth and (r + 1)th terms in the expansion. If we multiply both sides
of the equation by (a + b), we obtain:
h k(k − 1) k−1 2 k(k − 1)(k − 2) · · · (k − r + 1) k−r+1 r
(a + b)k+1 = ak+1 + kak b + a b + ··· + a b
2! r!
2 k−1
i h k(k − 1)(k − 2) · · · (k − r + 2) k−r+
+ · · · + ka b + ab + ak b + kak−1 b2 + · · · +
k
a
(r − 1)!
i
+ · · · + kabk + bk+1

Where the terms in the first pair of brackets result from multiplying the right
side of the hypothesis by a and the terms in the second pair of brackets result
from multiplying by b. Rearranging and combining terms we have:
h k(k − 1) i
k+1 k+1 k
(a + b) =a + (k + 1)a b + + ak−1 b2 + · · ·
2!
h k(k − 1)(k − 2) · · · (k − r + 1) k(k − 1)(k − 2) · · · (k − r + 2) i
+ + ak−r+1 br + · · ·
r! (r − 1)!
+ (1 + k)abk + bk+1

It can further be shown that if the coefficients are simplified, then we

obtain statement, Pn with (k + 1) substitute for n. Thus Pk+1 is true and,
therefore Pn holds for every positive integer n.

The formula above represents a finite series, since it stops after a finite
number of terms and the last term is bn .

Example 4.8.1. : Find the binomial expansion of (1 − x)3

Solution. We use the theorem, replacing a with 1 and b with (−x) and
letting n = 3
3(3 − 1) 3(3 − 1)(3 − 2)
(1 − x)3 = 1 + 3(−x) = (−x)2 + (−x)3
2! 3!
= 1 − 3x + 3x2 − x3

Example
 4.8.2.
10 : Find the first four terms in ascending order of the expan-
1
sion 1 + y
3

101
Solution. Letting n = 3. This gives:
 10  y  10(10 − 1)(10 − 2)  y 3
1
1+ y = 1 + 10 + + ···
3 3 3! 3
y  40
= 1 + 10 + 5y 2 + y 3 + · · ·
3 9
Example 4.8.3. : Find the first three terms in ascending order of the ex-
pansion (w − 5z)14 .

Solution. Letting n = 14. This gives,

14(13) 12
(w − 5z)14 = w14 + 14w13 (−5z) + w (−5z)2 + · · ·
2!
14 13 12 2
= w − 70w z + 2275w z − · · ·
 
14 70 2275 2
=w 1 − z + 2 z − ···
w w

[Link] Activity Two

1. Use Pascal’s Triangle to write the expansion of the following.

 y 6
a) (a + b)7 b) (2x + 3)5 c) x −
x
2. Use the binomial theorem to expand.
 8
4 b
a) (1 − 3x) b) 3a −
2
 x 12
3. Find the first four terms in the expansion of 2 +
3
u 10
4. Find the sixth term in the expansion of − 2v
2
5. Find the last three terms in the expansion of (1 + x)32

6. Find the coefficient of x5 in the expansion of (1 + 4x)9

7. Find thee coefficient of x7 in the expansion of (1 − x)8

102
Chapter 5

FUNCTIONS

5.1 Introduction

In our everyday life we come across different types of relations between the
objects. The concept of relation has been developed in mathematical form.
The word function was introduced by Leibnitz in 1694. Function is a special
type of relation. Each function is a relation but each relation is not a function.
In this chapter we shall discuss relation between two sets, the conditions
under when a relation becomes a function, different types of function and
their properties.

5.2 Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

a) define relation, function and give examples thereof.

b) find domain and range of a function.

c) define and give examples of different types of functions (one-one, many-

one, onto, into and bijection)

d) determine whether a function is one-one, many-one, onto or into.

103
 e) draw the graph of functions.

f) define and give examples of odd and even functions.

g) determine whether a function is odd or even or neither.

h) define and give examples of functions like modulus function, the great-
est integer function, polynomial functions, logarithmic and exponential
functions.

i) define composition of two functions.

j) define the inverse of a function.

k) state the conditions for the inverse to exist.

5.3 Key Terms

Relation, Function

5.4 Relation

Consider the following example :

A = { Mary, Alice, Sandra,Farida}
B = {David, Ivan, Musa}
Suppose David has two sisters Mary and Alice, Ivan has one sister Sandra,
and Musa has one sister Farida. If we define a relation R " is a sister of"
between the elements of A and B then clearly.
Mary R David, Alice R David, Sandra R Ivan, Farida R Musa.
After omiting R between two names these can be written in the form of
ordered pairs as :
(Mary, David), (Alice, David), (Sandra, Ivan), (Farida, Musa).
The above information can also be written in the form of a set R of ordered
pairs as

104
 R = {(Mary, David), (Alice, David), (Sandra, Ivan), (Farida, Musa}
Clearly R ⊆ A × B, i.e. R = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B and aRb}
If A and B are two sets then a relation R from A to B is a sub set of A × B.
If

(i) R = φ , R is called a void relation.

(ii) R = A × B, R is called a universal relation.

(iii) If R is a relation defined from A to A, it is called a relation defined on

A.

(iv) R = {(a, a)∀a ∈ A} , is called the identity relation.

5.4.1 Domain and Range of a Relation

If R is a relation between two sets then the set of its first elements of all
the ordered pairs of R is called Domain and set of second elements of all the
ordered pairs of R is called range, of the given relation.
Consider previous example given above.
Domain = { Mary, Alice, Sandra,Farida}
Range = {David, Ivan, Musa}
We can represent this relation diagrammatically as below.

# #
Mary w wDavid
Alice w
wIvan
Sandra w
Farida w wMusa
"! "!

Example 5.4.1. Given that A = {2, 4, 5, 6, 7}, B = {2, 3}. R is a relation

from A to B defined by

R = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B and a is divisible by b}

105
find

(i) R,

(ii) Domain of R,

(iii) Range of R,

(iv) Represent R diagrammatically.

Solution. (i) R = {(2, 2), (4, 2), (6, 2), (6, 3)},

(ii) Domain of R = {2, 4, 6},

(iii) Range of R = {2, 3},

(iv) R is as below:

# #

2 w w2
4 w
5 w
6 w
w w3
7
"! "!

Activity 5.4

1. If A = {4, 6, 8, 10}, B = {2, 3, 4, 5} and R is a relation defined from A

to B where

R = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B and a is a multiple of b}.

Find

(i) R

106
 (ii) Domain of R
(iii) Range of R .

2. If R be a relation from N to N defined by

R = {(x, y) : 4x + y = 12, x, y ∈ N}.

Find

(i) R
(ii) Domain of R
(iii) Range of R .

5.5 Functions

Consider the relation

f : {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3), (d, 5)}

# #
f
a w - w1
w2
b w -
w3
c w
-
w4
d w - w5
"! "!
A B

In this relation we see that each element of A has a unique image in B.

This relation f from set A to B where every element of A has a unique
image in B is defined as a function from A to B. So we observe that in a
function no two ordered pairs have the same first element.
We also see that there exist an element in B, i.e., 4 which does not have
its preimage in A. Thus here:

107
 a) b)

X Y X Y
# # # #

1 w w2 1 w -
- w3

 w4
w w w
2 -
-1 2 -
w-1
R
3 w w4 3 w - w2

"! " !" ! "!

(i) the set B will be termed as co-domain and

(ii) the set {1, 2, 3, 5} is called the range.

Symbolically, this function can be written as

f : A → B.

Example 5.5.1. State whether each of the following relations represent a

function or not.

108
Solution. a) This relation is defined by the set of ordered pairs
{(1, 4), (2, −1), (3, 2)} . Notice that for each x in the domain there is
only one corresponding y in the range. Therefore, this relation is a
function.

b) This relation is defined by the set of ordered pairs

{(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, −1), (3, −2)}. When x = 1 there are two possible
range elements: y = 3 and y = 4. Therefore, this relation is not a
function.

Example 5.5.2. Which of the following relations are functions from A to

B. Write their domain and range. If it is not a function give reason ?

a) {(1, −2), (3, 7), (4, −6), (8, 1)}, A = {1, 3, 4, 8}, B = {−2, 7, −6, 1, 2}

b) {(1, 0), (1, −1), (2, 3), (4, 10)}, A = {1, 2, 4}, B = {0, −1, 3, 10}

Solution.

(a) It is a function. Domain= {1, 3, 4, 8}, Range ={−2, 7, −6, 1, 2}

(b) It is not a function. Because first two ordered pairs have same first
elements.

Example 5.5.3. Which of the following relations from R to R are functions?

a) y = 3x + 2

b) y < x + 3

c) y = 2x2 + 1

Solution. a) Here corresponding to every element x ∈ R, ∃ a unique

element y ∈ R. Therefore it is a function.

b) For any real value of x we get more than one real value of y. Therefore
it is not a function.

c) For any real value of x, we will get a unique real value of y. Therefore
it is a function.

109
Activity 5.5

1. State whether the following relation represent a function or not.

X Y
# #

2 w - w12

6 w -
w
13
-
7 w w10

"! "!

2. Which of the following relations are functions from A to B ?

(a) {(1, −2), (3, 7), (4, −6), (8, 11)}, A = {1, 3, 4, 8}, B = {−2, 7, −6, 11}
(b) {(1, 0), (1, −1), (2, 3), (4, 10)}, A = {1, 2, 4}, B = {1, 0, −1, 3, 10}
(c) {(a, 2), (b, 3), (c, 2), (d, 3)}, A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {2, 3}

3. Which of the following relations defined from R to R are functions ?

(a) y = 2x + 1
(b) y > x + 3
(c) y = x2 + 1

5.5.1 Evaluating a function

Functions are often denoted by letters such as f, g, h, and others. If f is

a function, then for each number x in its domain the corresponding image
in the range is designated by the symbol f (x) read as “f of x” or as “f at
x.” We refer to f (x) as the value of f at the number x; f (x) is the number

110
that results when x is given and the function f is applied; f (x) is the output
corresponding to x or the image of x.
Sometimes it is helpful to think of a function as a machine. If x is in
the domain of the function f , then when x enters the machine, it is accepted
as an input and the machine produces an output f (x) according to the rule
of the function. Thus, we can think of the domain as the set of all possible
inputs and the range as the set of all possible outputs.
A function may be evaluated at different values of x by substituting x-
values from the domain into the function.

Example 5.5.4. Given the function defined by g(x) = 3x2 + x − 5, find

g(0), g(2), g(4) and g(−2).

Solution. We substitute the values 0, 2, 4, and −2 for x.

Thus g(0) = −5, g(2) = 3(2)2 + 2 − 5 = 9, g(4) = 3(4)2 + 4 − 5 = 47, g(−2) =
3(−2)2 − 2 − 5 = 5.

5.5.2 finding domain and range of a function

Consider a function defined by the equation y = f (x). The domain of f is

the set of all x-values that when substituted into the function, produce a real
number. The range of f is the set of all y-values corresponding to the values
of x in the domain. To find the domain of a function defined by y = f (x),
keep these guidelines in mind.

• Exclude values of x that make the denominator of a fraction zero.

• Exclude values of x that make a negative value within a square root.

Example 5.5.5. Find the domain of each of the following functions :

1
(a) y =
x
1
(b) y =
(x + 2)(x − 3)

111
Solution. (a) Here we can see that x can take all real values except 0
because the corresponding image, i.e., 10 is not defined.
Therefore Domain R − {0}[Set of all real numbers except 0]
Note : Here range =R − 0.

(b) Value of y does not exist for x = −2 and x = 3.

Therefore Domain =R − {−2, 3}.

Example 5.5.6. Find the domain of each of the following functions :

√
(a) y = x−2
p
(b) y = (2 − x)(4 + x)

Solution. (a) In order to have real values of y, we must have x − 2 ≥, i.e.,

x ≥ 2.
Therefore Domain of the function will be all real numbers ≥ 2.

(b) In order to have real values of y, we must have (2 − x)(4 + x) ≥ 0.

We can achieve this in the following two cases :
Case I : (2 − x) ≥ 0 and (4 + x) ≥ 0. This implies x ≤ 2 and x ≥ −4
Therefore Domain consists of all real values of x such that −4 ≤ x ≥ 2.
Case II : (2 − x) ≤ 0 and (4 + x) ≤ 0. This implies 2 ≤ x and x ≤ −4.
But, x cannot take any real value which is greater than or equal to 2
and less than or equal to -4 . Therefore from both the cases, we have
Domain =−4 ≤ x ≤ 2 ∀ x ∈ R

Activity 5.5.2
2x + 1
1. Let f (x) = 3x2 +2x−4, and f (x) = . Find f (0), f (−1), −f x, f (2x), f (x+
3x − 5
1), f (x + h).

2. Find the domain of each of the following functions x ∈ R:

(a) y = 9x + 3

(b) y = x2 + 5

112
 1
(c) y = 3x−1

1
(d) y = (x−3)(x−5)
√
(e) y = 6−x
p
(f) y = (x − 3)(x − 5)

5.5.3 One-to-one and onto functions

Definition 5.5.7. Let f : X → Y . Then f is one-to-one (or injective) if

whenever x1 6= x2 then f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ).

X Y X Y
# # # #
a w -f w1 f
a w - w1

b w w
-
-
2 w
b w2
w w3 -
c c w
-

"! " !" ! "!

One-to-one Not one-to-one

Example 5.5.8. Prove that the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = 4+3x

is one-to-one.

Solution. For a function to be one-to-one f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) whenever x1 6=

x2 , ∀ x1 , x2 ∈ domain. Now suppose x1 6= x2 . Then 3x1 6= 3x2 and so
4 + 3x1 6= 4 + 3x2 . This means that f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) and f is one-to-one.

Example 5.5.9. Prove that the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = x2 is

not one-to-one.

113
Solution. Now 1 6= −1, but f (1) = f (−1). This means that f is not one-to-
one.
We can draw the graph of f . Then f will be one-to-one if and only if each
horizontal line cuts the graph of f at most once.

y
6

-
-1 1 x

Definition 5.5.10. Let f : X → Y. Then f is onto (or surjective) if for each

y ∈ Y there corresponds a point x ∈ X such that f : x → y.

X Y X Y
# # # #

a w -f w1 a w -f w1
w2
w
b w w
-
b w3
-
2

c w - w4 c w - w3

"! " !" ! "!

Not onto Onto

Example 5.5.11. Prove that the function f : R → R defined by f (x) =

3x + 2 is onto.

Solution. We must show that for any value of y there exists a value of x
such that f : x → y. Let y = f (x). We have y = 3x+2 or x = y−23
. Therefore
for each y there exists x such that f : x → y. Thus f is onto.

114
Example 5.5.12. Prove that the function defined by f (x) = x2 + 1 is not
onto.

Solution. Observe that f (0) = 1 and f (x) ≥ 1 ∀ x. So there is no value of x

such that f (x) = 21 . Thus f is not onto.
y
6

-
x

Geometrically, given f : R → R, then f is onto if each horizontal line

cuts the graph of f at least once.

y y

6 6

Onto Not Onto

- -
x x

A function which is both one-to-one and onto is said to be a bijective

function.

Activity 5.5.3

1. Determine whether each of the following functions are onto or not.

115
 a) f : R → R defined as f (x) = 115x + 49
b) f : R → R defined as x2 + 3

2. Determine whether each of the following functions are one-to-one or

not.

a) f : R → R defined as x2 + 3
b) f : N → N defined as x2 + 2x

5.5.4 Even and Odd functions

Definition 5.5.13. A function f is said to be an even function if f (−x) =

f (x) for each x in the domain of f .

Definition 5.5.14. A function f is said to be an odd function if for each x

f (−x) = −f (x) for each x in the domain of f .

y
6
y
6

- -
x x

The graph of an even function

The graph of an odd function

Example 5.5.15. Determine whether each of the following functions is even,

odd, or neither.

a) f (x) = x2 − 3

b) g(x) = x3 − 2

116
 c) h(x) = 2x3 − x

Solution. a) Replace x by −x in f (x) = x2 − 3. Then

f (−x) = (−x)2 − 3 = x2 − 3 = f (x).

Since f (−x) = f (x) we conclude that f is an even function.

b) Replace x by −x in g(x) = x3 − 2. Then

g(−x) = (−x)3 − 2 = −x3 − 2

Since g(−x) 6= g(x)and g(−x) 6= −g(x) = −(x3 − 2) = −x3 + 2 we

conclude that g is neither even nor odd.

c) Replace x by −x in h(x) = 2x3 − x. Then

h(−x) = 2(−x)3 − (−x) = −(2x3 − 2) = −h(x).

Since h(−x) = −h(x) we conclude that h is an odd function.

Activity 5.5.4

Determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd, or neither.

1. f (x) = 2x4 − x2

2. f (x) = 3x3 + 5
x
3. h(x) =
x2 −1
√
4. h(x) = x

5. f (x) = x − x3

117
 A B C
# # #

a f f (a) g g(f (a))

w - w - w

"! "! "!

-
g◦f

5.5.5 Composite functions

Suppose f : A → B and g : B → C. If we begin with an element a ∈ A, we

get f (a) ∈ B. Since the domain of g is B, and f (a) ∈ B we can find g(f (a)).
Graphically one can represent this as given below :
We observe that for each element a ∈ A there corresponds a unique element

g(f (x)). The new function mapping X to Z denoted by g ◦ f is called the

composition of g with f .
Let f (x) = 3x + 1 and g(x) = x2 + 2.

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))

= f (x2 + 2)

= 3(x2 + 2) + 1

= 3x2 + 7

118
and

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))

= g(3x + 1)

= (3x + 1)2 + 2

= 9x2 + 6x + 3.

Clearly (f ◦ g)(x) 6= (g ◦ f )(x).

Similarly,

(g ◦ g)(x) = g(g(x))

= g(x2 + 2)

= (x2 + 2)2 + 2

= x4 + 4x2 + 6

(f ◦ f )(x) = f (f (x))

= f (3x + 1)

= 3(3x + 1) + 1

= 9x + 4.

√
Example 5.5.16. If f (x) = x2 + 3 and g(x) = x + 2, find f ◦ g and g ◦ f.

119
Solution.

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
√
= f ( x + 2)
√
= ( x + 2)2 + 3
=x+5

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))

= g(x2 + 3)
√
= x2 + 5

Activity 5.5.5

For each of the following functions write f ◦ g, g ◦ f, f ◦ f and g ◦ g.

a) f (x) = x2 − 4, g(x) = 2x + 5.
1
b) f (x) = x2 + 2, g(x) = 1 − 1−x
, x 6= 1.

5.5.6 Inverse Functions

Suppose f : R → R is given by x + 2. The f is simply the rule "add 2".

Clearly the reverse procedure is the rule "subtract 2". We denote this by
f −1 , called the inverse of f .

Definition 5.5.17. Let g : X → Y . Then, provided it exists the inverse of

f if the function f −1 : Y → X such that if g : x → y, then g −1 : y → x.

Pictorially it is represented as below:

Please remember the notation f −1 does not mean 1
f (x)
.

120
 X Y
# #

x f y
w - w

-
f −1
"! "!

Example 5.5.18. Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = 3x. Then f :

1 → 3, f : 2 → 6, f : 3 → 9 and f : 0.5 → 1.5. By Definition 5.5.17,
f −1 : 3 → 1, f −1 : 6 → 2, f −1 : 9 → 3 and f −1 : 1.5 → 0.5. Clearly f is the
rule "multiply by 3" and f −1 the rule "divide by 3".

We show why the phrase "provided it exists" in Definition 5.5.17 is

needed.

X Y Y X
# # # #
−1
a w -f w1 1 w -f wa

b w - w2
2 w -
-
w
b
-
c w w3 3 w wc

"! " !" ! "!

121
 In the diagram above, f −1 does not represent a function, because element
3 of set Y is not associated with any element of X. Also note that the element
2 of Y does not have a unique image. To get around this problem we need
the following results:

Theorem 5.5.1. If g : X → Y is both one-to-one and onto then g −1 : Y →

X is a function.

In general, provided g −1 is a function, the following results hold:

Theorem 5.5.2. If g is one-to-one and onto then

i) g −1 (g(x)) = x;

ii) g(g −1 (y)) = y;

iii) (g −1 )−1 = g.

Proof. i) Suppose g(x) = y. Then g −1 (y) = x. Hence g −1 (g(x)) =

g −1 (y) = x. The proofs of ii) and iii) are similar.

Example 5.5.19. Let f (x) = x + 3. Find f −1 .

Proof. Let y = f −1 (x). Then x = f (y) = y + 3. So y = x − 3 = f −1 (x).

Example 5.5.20. Let f (x) = x+3 and g(x) = x2 . Find (f ◦g)(x), g −1 (f −1 (x))
and (f ◦ g)−1 (x).
√
Solution. Let y = g −1 (x); x = g(y) = y 2 . Hence y = x = g −1 (x), x > 0.
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (x2 ) = x2 + 3.
√
g −1 (f −1 (x)) = g −1 (x − 3) = x − 3, x ≥ 3.
Now let (f ◦ g)−1 (x) = y, i.e (f ◦ g)(y) = x. So x = y 2 + 3 and so y =
√
x − 3 = (f ◦ g)−1 (x).

Evidently, (f ◦ g)−1 (x) = g −1 (f −1 (x)). However this is not always true.

We now give conditions when this is generally true.

122
Theorem 5.5.3. If f and g are both one-to-one and onto then (f ◦ g)−1 =
g −1 ◦ f −1 .

Proof. Let g(x) = y and f (y) = z. Then (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (y) = z.

Thus (f ◦ g)−1 = x. Also g −1 (y) = x and f (x) = y. So (g −1 ◦ f −1 )(z) =
g −1 (f −1 (z)) = g −1 (y) = x. Hence (f ◦ g)−1 (z) = (g −1 ◦ f −1 )(z).

If a function is not one-to-one and onto, it has no inverse function. Some-

times, though, an appropriate restriction on the domain of such a function
will yield a new function that is one-to-one and onto. Then the function
defined on the restricted domain has an inverse function.
For example let f (x) = x2 . If f is a function from R to R then f is not onto
since, for example we cannot find a number x ∈ R such that f (x) = −0.5.
But, if f is a function from R to R+ = {x ∈ R|x ≥ 0, } then f is onto.
Still f is not one-to-one. If f is a function from R+ to R+ , then it becomes
√
one-to-one. Now f −1 exists and indeed f −1 (x) = x.

f (x) = x2 f (x) = x2

y y
6
6

1 1

-
-1 1
-
1 x
x

f : R → R not 1 − 1 and onto f : R+ → R+ , 1 − 1 and onto

123
Activity 5.5.5

1. Find the inverse of each of the following functions (if it exists):

a) f (x) = 1 − 3x
b) f (x) = x3 − 1
2
c) g(x) =
3+x
x+1
d) g(x) = , x 6= 0.
x
2
2. Let f and g be defined by f (x) = 3x − 7 and g(x) = , x 6= 0.
x
a) (f ◦ g)(x)
b) f −1 (x)
c) g −1 (x)
d) (g ◦ f )(x)

124
5.5.7 Graphs of Functions

[Link] Linear Functions

We call a function f of the form f (x) = mx + b a linear function because its

graph is the graph of the equation y = mx + b, which represents a line with
slope m and y-intercept b. A special case of a linear function occurs when
the slope is m = 0. We call the function f (x) = b, where b is a given number,
a constant function because all its values are the same number, namely, b.
Its graph is the horizontal line y = b.

In the diagram we have the graphs of y = 4 and y = 2x + 2.

y y
y = 2x + 2
6 6
y=4

- -
x x

[Link] Quadratic Functions

We call a function f of the form f (x) = ax2 + bx + c a quadratic function

or parabola. We consider the graph of y = x2 . We observe that y ≥ 0 for
all x ∈ R. Thus the point (0, 0) lies on the graph. Now when x = ±1; y =
1; x = ±2, y = 4; x = ±3, y = 9. We obtain a curve which is in the standard
form of a parabola.

125
 y
y = x2
6

-
x

[Link] Piecewise Defined Functions

A piecewise defined function is defined by different formulas on different parts

of its domain. The graph of such a function consists of separate pieces. We
consider the following function:

−2 if x < 0

f (x) =
x 2

if 0 ≤ x < 2.

The graph of this function is split int two pieces.

y
6 e(2, 4)

-
2 x
e -2

[Link] Absolute Value Function

We recall that

x if x ≥ 0

|x| =
−x if x < 0.


Note that if y = |x|, y ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R. So the point (0, 0) lies on the
graph. If x ≥ 0, then y = x and the graph is part of the line y = x, if x < 0,
then y = −x and the graph is part of the line y = −x.

126
 y
y = |x|
6

-
0 x

The absolute value function is an even function.

[Link] Greatest Integer Function (Step Function)

The greatest integer function (step function) is defined by

[[x]] = greatest integer less than or equal to x.

Its graph is in the form of steps.

For example, [[1]] = 1, [[0.5]] = 0, [[π]] = 3, [[2.5]] = 2, [[−0.5]] = −1, [[−3.5]] =
−4.
y
Let us draw the graph of y = [[x]], x ∈ R.
6
[[x]] = 1 1≤x<2
[[x]] = 2 2≤x<3 3 t c
2 t c
[[x]] = 3 3≤x<4
1 t c
[[x]] = 0 0≤x<1 t c -
[[x]] = −1 −1≤x<0 3 2 1t 0 c1 1 2 3 4 x
[[x]] = −2 − 2 ≤ x < −1 t c 2
3

The domain of the step function is the set of real numbers while the range
is the set of integers.

[Link] Exponential Functions

Recall the following example:

Suppose the population of a culture of bacteria is 1000 and this number
doubles each hour. Thus after

• one hour there are 1000 × 2 bacteria

127
 • two hours there are 1000 × 2 × 2 = 1000 × 22 bacteria

• three hours there are 1000 × 22 × 2 = 1000 × 23 bacteria

and so on.
Following the pattern, if N is the population after n hours then

N = 1000 × 2n .

We can draw a graph of 1000 × 2x against time x.

1000

-
0 x

128
 This example lead us to consider functions of the form f (x) = ax , called
exponential functions.

Let us consider the the graph of f (x) = ax for various values of a.

x -2 -1 0 1 2 3
1 1
3x 9 3
1 3 9 27
1 1
2x 4 2
1 2 4 8
1x 1 1 1 1 1 1
3−x 9 3 1 1
3
1
9
1
27

y
−x
y=3 6y = 3x y = 2x

y = 1x
1

-
0 x

129
 Note that ax > 0 for all x.

[Link] Logarithmic Functions

Consider now f (x) = y = ax . Then f : R → (0, ∞) and it is both one-to-

one and onto. Hence f −1 : (0, ∞) → R exists and f −1 (y) = x. We shall
write this inverse as f −1 (y) = loga x. Since in general f (x) = y if and only if
y = f −1 (x), we have y = ax if and only if x = loga y; a > 1.
The expression f −1 (y) is called the logarithm of y to base a. Observe
that the range of f is (0, ∞) the domain of f −1 is also (0, ∞). Thus loga y is
defined only for y > 0.
As y = ax and x = loga y are inverse functions, their graphs are also
symmetric w.r.t. the line y = x. The graph of the function x = loga y can
be obtained from that of y = ax by reflecting it in the line y = x.

y
6y = 3x
y=x

1 y = 3−x

-
0 1 x

130
Activity 5.5.7

1. Sketch the graphs of

a) y = −2;
b) x = −3;
c) x = y;
d) y = 3x − 2;
e) 3x − 2y = 6.

2. Sketch the graphs of


1 if x ≤ 1

a) y =
x + 1 if x > 1.


2 if x ≤ −1

b) y =
x2 if x > −1.


if x < −2



 4


c) y = x2 if − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2




−x + 6 if x > 2.


3. Show that f (x) = |x| is an even function.

4. Sketch the graphs of

a) y = |x + 1|
b) y = [[x]] − 2.

5. Sketch the graphs of

a) y = 2−x ;
b) y = 4x ;
c) y = 1 + 3x ;

131
d) x = log2 y;
e) x = log4 x2 .

132
Chapter 6

GRAPHS AND
INTERPRETATION

6.1 Introduction

This unit discusses about the graphs of different functions and how different
graphs can be transformed to new ones. The main graphical transformations
of horizontal and vertical shifts are elaborated besides the horizontal and
vertical stretch and compression of different graphs. In the discussion the
transformation are applied on polynomial, trigonometric, modulus, logarith-
mic and exponential functions as well as greatest integer function and conics.
An outline of each of these functions is given prior to graphing the function.

6.2 Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

a) sketch graphs of different functions.

b) use appropriate technology to investigate graphical transformations.

133
 c) understand how complicated functions can be built up from transfor-
mations of simple functions.

d) predict the graph of functions after various transformation.

6.3 Key Terms

polynomial, monomial, vertical shift, horizontal shift, odd function, even

function and symmetry.

6.4 Graphs of Polynomials

6.4.1 Polynomial Functions

A polynomial function of degree n is the function of the form p(x) = an xn +

an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 Where n is a non-negative integer and an 6= 0 The
numbers: an , an−1 , . . . a1 , a0 are called coefficients of the polynomial. The
number a0 , is called the constant coefficient or constant term. The number
an is the leading coefficient (the coefficient of the highest power) and the
an xn is called the leading term.
The graphs of polynomials of degree 0 or 1 are straight lines and graphs
of polynomials of degree 2 are parabolas. Graphs of polynomial functions are
smooth curves with no breaks or corners. As the degree of the polynomial
increases, the graphs become more complex. The behavior of a polynomial is
the description of what happen as x becomes large in the positive or negative
direction.

Remark 6.4.1. : Polynomial functions of the form f (x) = xn , f (x) = (x +

k)n , are called power functions. A monomial function is power function with
one term.

Notation. x → ∞ means “x becomes large in the positive direction" x → ∞

134
 means “x becomes large in the negative direction" For any polynomial,
the end behavior is determined by the term that contains the highest power
of x.

6.4.2 Linear Functions Graphs

Before looking at graphs of polynomial of degree n ≥ 2, we will have a quick

review of linear function graphs. The graph of the equation y = mx + b is
a line. The equation is called linear because its graph is a line. By letting
x = 0, we obtain y = m(0) + b and y = b.
So the line crosses the y-axis (or y-intercept) at (0, b)> The steepness or
slope of the line is m. The slope of a non-vertical line is the number of units
the line rises (or falls) vertically for each unit of horizontal change from left
to right, as shown in the figure below.

A linear equation that is written in the form y = mx + b is said to be written

in slope-intercept form. The Slope-Intercept Form of The Equation of
a Line

The graph of the line y = mx + b

whose slope is m and whose y-intercept is (0, b)

Example 6.4.2. Sketch the graph of each linear equation.

(a) y = 2x + 1 (b) y = 3 (c) x + y = 3

135
Solution. (a) b = 1, hence the y-intercept is (0, 1). The slope m = 2, so
the line rises 2 units for each unit. The line rises to the right, as shown
in figure (a)below.

(b) The equation can be written as a slope-intercept form as, y = (0)x + 3.

Here the y−intercept is (0, 3) and the slope is Zero. A zero slope im-
plies that the line is horizontal. That is it does not rise of fall, as shown
in figure (b) below.

(c) Writing the equation in slope-intercept form, we have, y = −x + 3 ⇒

y = (−1)x + 3. So the y-intercept is (0, 3) and the slope m = −1, thus
the line falls one unit for each unit. For each unit the line moves to the
right, as shown in figure (c) below.

[Link] Finding the Slope of a Line

The slope m of a line passing through two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is
y2 − y1
m=
x2 − x1
Where x2 6= x1

[Link] Point-Slope Form of the Equation of a Line

y2 − y2
Since slope is given by: m = , this means that any other point (x, y)
x2 − x1
of the same ratio of rise over run, which is the gradient. Hence we have the

136
ratio:
y − y1 y2 − y1
= = m → y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
x − x1 x2 − x1
This equation is called the Point-Slope Form of the Equation of the Line.

Example 6.4.3. : Find the slope of the line passing through each pair of
the points.

a) (−1, 2) and (2, 2)

b) (0, 4) and (1, −1)

Solution. a) Letting (x1 , y1 ) = (−1, 2) and (x2 , y2 ) = (2, 2), the slope is,
2−2
m= =0
2 − (−1)
b) Letting (x1 , y1 ) = (0, 4) and (x2 , y2 ) = (1, −1), the slope is, m =
−1 − 4
= −5
1−0
Example 6.4.4. Write the linear function f for witch, f (1) = 3 and f (4) =
0.

Solution.
y2 − y1 f (1) − f (4) 3−0 3
m= = = = = −1
x2 − x1 1−4 1−4 −3
Writing the point-slope form of the equation of a line:

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
y − 3 = −1(x − 1)
f (x) = −x + 4

[Link] Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

1. Two nonvertical lines are parallel if and only if their slopes are equal.
that is , m1 = m2 .

2. Two nonvertical lines are perpendicular if and only if their slopes are
1
negative reciprocals of each other. That is, m1 = −
m2

137
Example 6.4.5. : Find the slope intercept forms of the equations of the
lines that pass through the point (2, −1) and are (a) parallel to and (b)
perpendicular to the line 2x − 3y = 5.
2 5 2
Solution. In slope-intercept form, the equation is, y = x− , clearly m =
3 3 3

(a) So the line that is passing through (2, −1) and is parallel to 2x−3y = 5
2
has the slope m = . Now we can find the equation of this line by,
3
2
y − (−1) = (x − 2)
3
2 4
y = x− −1
3 3
2 7
Thus y = x−
3 3

2
(b) Any line perpendicular to 2x − 3y = 5, has the slope of − . So if such
3
a line passes through (2, −1) its equation is given by,
2
y − (−1) = − (x − 2)
3
2
Thus y =− x+2
3

Before looking into graphs of polynomials in general we will start by tak-

ing a closer look on quadratics function graphs, otherwise known as parabo-
las.

[Link] Even and Odd Functions

Definition 6.4.6. : A function f with domain X is

a. Even if f (−x) = f (x) for every x in X

b. Odd if f (−x) = −f (x) for every x in X

Example 6.4.7. : Show whether the following function is even or odd.

138
 (a) f (x) = 3x4 − 2x2 + 5 (b) g(x) = 2x5 − 2x3 + 5x

Solution. Let x ∈ R be arbitrary

(a) f (x) = f (x) = 3x4 − 2x2 + 5 and f (−x) = 3(−x)4 − 2(−x)2 + 5 =

3x4 − 2x2 + 5 Clearly f (−x) = f (x), hence f (x) is even.

(b)

g(−x) = 2(−x)5 − 2(−x)3 + 5(−x)

= −2x5 + 2x3 − 5x
= −(2x5 − 2x3 + 5x)
= −g(x)

Therefore g(x) is odd

[Link] Graph Symmetry

Many graphs have symmetry with them. Symmetry is useful in graphing

equations since if we know one portion of the graph we also know remaining
portion of the graph. In this section we will look at three types of symmetry.

[Link] Symmetry with Respect to the y-axis

The graph of y = f (x) is symmetric with respect to the y-axis i for any point
(x, y) on the graph, the point (−x, y) is also on the graph. In other words,
f (−x) = f (x), for all x in the domain of f . Thus even functions graphs are
symmetric about the y-axis.

[Link] Symmetry with Respect to the Origin

The graph of y = f (x) is symmetric with respect to the origin, if for any
point (x, y) on the graph, the point (−x, −y) is also on the graph> In other
words, F (−x) = −f (x), for all x in the domain of f . Thus odd functions
graphs are symmetric about the origin.

139
[Link] Symmetry with Respect to the x-axis

The graph of an equation is symmetric with respect to the x-axis, if for every
point (x, y) on the graph, the point (x, y) is also in the graph. Illustration of
three symmetries

Figure 6.1: Illustration of three symmetries

6.4.3 Quadratic Function Graphs: Parabola

A quadratic function is of the form f (x) = ax2 + bx + c Where a, b, c ∈ R and

a 6= 0. The graph of f is a “∪" shaped curve called a parabola. All parabolas
are symmetric with respect to a line called axis of symmetry or axis of the
parabola. The point where the axis intersects the parabola is the vertex of
the parabola.

[Link] Effect of “a" on the Graph of f

If a > 0, the graph of f (x) = ax2 +bx+c, is a parabola that opens upwards. If
a < 0, the graph of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, is a parabola that opens downwards.

140
 The simplest form of a quadratic function is: f (x) = ax2 . The graph i
a parabola whose vertex is (0, 0). If a > 0, the vertex is the point with the
minimum y−value on the graph and if a < 0, the vertex is the point with
the maximum y-Value on the graph.
The other effect of a is the dilation of the graph. When sketching the
graph of f (x) = ax2 , it is helpful to use the graph of f (x) = x2 as a reference.
We shall consider the case where a > a only for argument sake. If 0 < a < 1
the graph of f (x) = ax2 flattens out by a factor of a and is wider than the
graph of f (x) = x2 . On the other hand if a > 0 and a > 1 the graph of
f (x) = ax2 steepens by a factor of a.

Example 6.4.8. : Sketch the following graphs.

1
(a) f (x) = x2 (b) f (x) = 2x2
3
1 2
Solution. (a) Comparing f (x) = x with f (x) = x2 , it means we are
3
1
multiplying the values of y by a factor of , so the graph widens up.
3
(b) Similarly comparing f (x) = 2x2 with f (x) = x2 , it means we are
multiplying the value of y by a factor of 2, so the graph is narrower
parabola.

Note 1. Note that the coefficient a determines how widely the parabola
given by f (x) = ax2 opens. If |a| is small, the parabola opens more widely
than if |a| is large.

141
[Link] Transformation of Quadratic Graphs and symmetry

[Link] Vertical and Horizontal Shifts

Suppose c is a positive real number. Vertical and horizontal shifts in the

graph of y = f (x) are represented as follows.

a) The graph of g(x) = f (x) + c can be obtained by shifting the graph of

y = f (x) upward by c units.

b) The graph of g(x) = f (x) − c can be obtained by shifting the graph of

y = f (x) downward by c units.

c) The graph of g(x) = f (x − h) can be obtained by shifting the graph of

y = f (x) to the right by c units.

d) The graph of g(x) = f (x − h) can be obtained by shifting the graph of

y = f (x) to the left by c units.
Example 6.4.9. : Check out how the graph of f (x) = x2 can be transformed
to produce the graph of,

(a) f (x) = −x2 + 1 (b) g(x) = (x + 2)2 − 3

Solution. (a) To realize the graph of f (x) = −x2 + 1 from the graph of
f (x) = x2 we carry out the following transformations; reflection in the
x-axis and then shifting the graph upward by 1 unit.

(b) To realize the graph of g(x) = (x + 2)2 − 3 from the graph of f (x) = x2
we carry out left shift by 2 units and then downward shift by 3 units.

142
[Link] Standard Form of a Quadratic Function

The standard form of a quadratic is f (x) = a(x−h)2 +k This form is essential

for sketching parabolas because it identifies the vertex of the parabola as
(h, k) and the line of symmetry is the vertical line x = h. If a > 0 the
parabola opens upwards and if a < 0 the parabola opens downwards. We
will employ the process of completing the square to realize a standard form
of a quadratic function.

Example 6.4.10. : Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2x2 + 8x + 7

Solution. Applying completing the square we have, f (x) = 2(x + 2)2 − 1

Now we have realized a standard form of the quadratic function. Thus the
parabola of the function opens upwards, since a = 2 > 0, its vertex is
(−2, −1) and x = −2 is the axis of symmetry. Comparing the transformation
of the graph of f (x) = 2(x + 2)2 + 1 are, left shift by 2 units and downward
shift by 1 unit relative to the graph of f (x) = 2x2 . The x-intercept is found

143
by solving the equation, ax2 + bx + c = 0. If ax2 + bx + c does not factor,
you can use the quadratic formula to find the x-intercept. Notice that it is
possible for a parabola not to have x-intercept.

Example 6.4.11. : Given the quadratic function f (x) = −x2 + 6x − 8, find

a) The vertex

b) The x-intercepts

c) Sketch the parabola

Solution

a) Completing the square in order to realize standard form of the quadratic

function

f (x) = −x2 + 6x − 8

= −[(x − 3)2 + 8 − 9]

= −(x − 3)2 + 1

Hence the vertex is (3, 1) and the parabola opens downwards.

144
 b) To determine the x-intercepts we solve, −x2 + 6x − 8 = 0.

−x2 + 6x − 8 = 0
−(x2 − 6x + 8) = 0
x2 − 6x + 8 = 0
(x − 2)(x − 4) = 0

Thus x = 2 or x = 4, hence the x-intercepts are (2, 0) and (4, 0).

c) Below is the graph of the parabola, f (x) = −x2 + 6x − 8 in relation to

the parabola f (x) = −x2 .

Example 6.4.12. : Write the standard form of the equation of a parabola

whose vertex is (1, 2) and passes through the point (3, −6).

Solution. Since the standard form is: f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k, where the
vertex is (h, k). Then the equation has the form f (x) = a(x − 1)2 + 2.
Because the parabola passes through (3, 6), it means that f (3) = −6 Thus
for, f (x) = a(x − 1)2 + 2, we have

f (3) = −6 = a(3 − 1)2 + 2 and a = −2

Therefore, the equation of the parabola is f (x) = −2(x − 1)2 + 2

145
[Link] The Minimum and Maximum Values of Quadratic Func-
tions

By completing the square of a general quadratic function, f (x) = ax2 +bx+c,

the standard form is
2 
b2
 
b
f (x) = a x + + c−
2a 4a
 
−b −b
So the vertex is , , which implies that:
2a 2a

−b
1. If a > 0, f has a minimum at x = The minimum value of f is
  2a
−b
f
2a
−b
2. If a < 0, f has a maximum at x = The maximum value of f is
  2a
−b
f
2a

Activity One

1. Each pair of points listed below determines the graph of a linear func-
tion. For each pair give the following:

a) The slope (gradient) of the graph

b) The x-intercept and the y-intercept of the graph
i. (0, 5) and (2, 13)
ii. (−3, 12) and (0, 10)
iii. (2, −1) and (−2, 3)

2. For each pair of point in (1) above determine the slope-intercept form
of the equation of the line between the points.

3. The population of a city increases from 23, 400 to 27, 800 between 2002
and 2006. Find the rate of change of the population during this time
span.

146
4. Sketch a graph for each function on a separate set of coordinate axes.
2
a) y = 1 + x c) y − 3x = 4
3
b) y = 2x − 3 d) 2x − y = 6

5. Give the equation of the line passing through the point (1, −5) that is
parallel to y = 12 − 8x.

6. Give the equation of the line passing through the point (−12, −1) that
2
is perpendicular to y = x = 1.
5
7. Sketch the graph of each function. Compare the graph of each function
with the graph of y = x2 .
1
a) f (x) = x2 c) h(x) = (x − 1)2 e) f (x) =
3
1
− (x + 1)2 + 1
3
b) g(x) = −2x2 d) k(x) = (3x)2 + 2 f) g(x) =
2
[−2(x + 1)] + 4

8. Identify the vertex, axis of symmetry, and x-intercept for the following
quadratic function and then sketch their graphs.
1
a) f (x) = −(x2 + 2x − 3) c) f (x) = x2 − 5 e) f (x) =
2
2
2x − x + 1
3 2
b) f (x) = −4x2 + 24x − 41 d) f (x) = (x + 6x − 5) f)
5
7
f (x) = (x2 + 12x − 45)
10
9. Write the standard form of the equation of a parabola that has the
indicated vertex and whose graph passes through the given point.

a) Vertex: (−2, 5), point: (0, 9) c) Vertex: (4, −1), point:

(2, 3)
 
1 2
b) Vertex: − , , point: (−2, 0) f) Vertex: (6, 6), point:
  4 3
61 3
,
10 2

147
 10. Find two quadratic functions, one that opens upward and one that
opens downward, whose graphs have the given x-intercepts. (there are
many correct answers).

a) (1,
 0), (3,
 0) c) (−5, 0), (5, 0) e) (−3, 0),
1
− ,0
2
 
5
b) − , 0 , (2, 0) d) (0, 0), (10, 0) f) (4, 0),
2
(8, 0)

6.4.4 Graphs of General Polynomial Functions

Before we start sketching polynomials, we first look at the effect of multiplic-

ity (repeated zeros) on the graph of the polynomial.

Definition 6.4.13. : Multiplicity is the number of times a factor of a func-

tion is repeated. For instance both, f (x) = xn and g(x) = (x − k)n have
multiplicity n.

[Link] The Effect of Multiplicity of a Polynomial

When the polynomial f (x) = xn has an even multiplicity, meaning that n

is an even integer, the graph of f (x) touches the x-axis but does not cross
it. Whereas when f (x) = xn has an odd multiplicity, meaning that n is an
odd integer, the graph of f (x) crosses the y-axis. Furthermore, by looking at
n being either even or odd, we can determine the left and right hand (end)
behavior of the graph of f .

1. If f (x) = axn and n is even, have four scenarios:

a. f (x) = axn → ∞ as x → ∞ a > 0

b. f (x) = axn → ∞ as x → −∞ a > 0
c. f (x) = axn → −∞ as x → −∞ a < 0

148
 d. f (x) = axn → −∞ as x → ∞ a < 0

2. If f (x) = axn and n is odd, we have four scenarios:

a. f (x) = axn → ∞ as x → ∞ for a > 0, and

b. f (x) = axn → −∞ as x → −∞ for a > 0
c. f (x) = axn → ∞ as x → −∞ for a < 0
d. f (x) = axn → −∞ as x → ∞ for a < 0

Illustration f → −∞ Direction of the graph of f for an even multiplicity

n Direction of the graphs of f for an odd multiplicity

Example 6.4.14. : Basic Power function graphs (parent graphs), for n even
and odd.

149
[Link] Turning Points and Intercepts

a. Turning Points The turning point is the point where function changes
direction from increasing to decreasing of from decreasing to increasing.
If a function has a degree of n, then it has at most n − 1 turning points.
On the other hand, if the graph of a polynomial function has t number
of turning points, then the function has at least a degree of t + 1.

b. Intercepts Intercepts are points where the graph crosses the axes.
The x-intercept is the point where y = 0 l.e. f (x) = 0 whereas the y-
intercept is the point where x = 0 l.e. f (0). For f (x) = xn a polynomial
of degree n, it has at most n intercepts.

Example 6.4.15. : What is the most number of turning points the following
polynomial functions could have?

a) f (x) = 5x + 2x − 6x3 + 3

b) g(x) = 4x3 + 6x11 − x10 + x12

c) h(x) = 2x3 (4x5 + 3x)

Solution. Sine most number of turning points of any given polynomial of

order n is n − 1, then:

a) For f (x) = 5x+2x2 −6x3 +3, most number of turning points is 3−1 = 2

150
 b) For g(x) = 4x3 + 6x11 − x10 + x12 , most number of turning points is
12 − 1 = 11

c) For h(x) = 2x3 (4x5 + 3x), most number of turning points is 8 − 1 = 7

[Link] Zeros of a polynomial

If P (x) is a polynomial function, then c is called a zero of P (x) if P (c) = 0.

In other words, the zeros of P (x) are the solutions or roots of the polynomial
equation P (x) = 0. The following statements are equivalent for P (x).

1. c is a zero of P (x).

2. c is a solution of the equation P (x) = 0.

3. x − c is a factor of P (x).

4. x = c is an x-intercept of the graph of P (x).

[Link] Intermediate Value Theorem for Polynomial

If P (x) is a polynomial function and P (a) and P (b) have opposite signs, then
there exists at least one value c between a and b for which P (c) = 0.

[Link] Steps for Graphing Polynomial Functions

1. Use the leading term to determine the end behavior.

2. Find the zeros of the function by solving f (x) = 0. Any real zeros are
the first coordinates of the x-intercepts.

3. Use the x-intercept (zeros) to divide the x-axis into intervals and choose
a test point in each interval to determine the sign o all function values
in that interval.

4. Find f (x). This gives the y-intercept of the graph.

151
 5. If necessary, find additional function values to determine the general
shape of the graph and then draw the graph.

6. As a partial check use the fact that the graph has at most n − 1 turning
points. Multiplicity of zeros can also be considered in order to check
where the graph crosses or is tangent to the x-axis. Then sketch a
smooth curve passing through the points and having the required end
and behavior.

Example 6.4.16. : Graph the polynomial function f (x) = 2x3 + x2 − 8x − 4

Solution. 1. The leading term is 2x3 . The degree, 3, is odd, the coeffi-
cient, 2, is positive. Thus the end behavior of f is; f → ∞ as x → ∞
and f → −∞ as x → −∞.

2. To find the zero, we have f (x) = 0. Here we can use factoring by

grouping.

2x3 + x2 − 8x − 4 = 0
x2 (2x + 1) − 4(2x + 1) = 0
(2x + 1)(x2 − 4) = 0
(2x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 2) = 0
 
1 1
The zeros are: − , −2 and 2. Thus the x-intercept are − , 0 ,
2 2
(−2, 0) and (2, 0).
 
1
3. The zeros divide the x-axis into four intervals: (−∞, −2), −2, − ,
  2
1
− , 2 and (2, 0). We choose a test value for each interval and find
2
f (x).

152
 Interval test Value, x Function Value, f (x) Sign of f (x) Location of points

on graph

(−∞, −2) −3 −25 − Below x-axis

 
1
−2, − −1 3 + Above x-axis
2
 
1
− ,2 1 −9 − Below x-axis
2

(2, ∞) 3 35 + Above x-axis

4. To determine the y−intercept, we find f (0):

f (x) = 2x3 + x2 − 8x − 4
f (0) = 2(0)3 + (0)2 − 8(0) − 4 = −4

The y-intercept is (0, −4).

5. We find few additional points and complete the graph.

x f (x)

−2.5 −9

−1.5 3.5

1.5 −7

The degree of f is 3. The graph of f can have at most 3 x-intercepts

and at most 2 turning points. Each zero has a multiplicity of 1; thus
1
the graph crosses the x-axis at −2, − and 2. So the graph has the
2
end behavior described in step 1 above.

153
 Then we can sketch the graph based on the information found.

Example 6.4.17. : Describe the right and left hand behavior of the graphs
of each of the following functions.

(a) f (x) = −x3 + 4x

(b) f (x) = x4 − 5x2 + 4

(c) f (x) = x5 − x

Solution. (a) Because the degree is odd and the reading coefficient is neg-
ative, the graph rises to the left and falls to the right, l.e. f → ∞ as
x → −∞ and f → −∞ as x → ∞.

(b) Because the degree is even and the leading coefficient is positive, the
graph rises to both the left and right, l.e. f → ∞ as x → −∞ and
f → ∞ as x → ∞.

(c) Because the degree is odd and the leading coefficient is positive, the
graph falls to the left and rises to the right, l.e. f → ∞ as x → ∞ and
f → −∞ as x → −∞.
Sketching of the graphs of the polynomials is illustrated below respec-
tively.

Example 6.4.18. : Using the intermediate value theorem, determine, if

possible, whether the function has a zero between a and b.

a) f (x) = x3 + x2 − 8x; a = −4, b = −1

b) f (x) = x3 + x2 − 8x; a = 1, b = 3

154
Solution. a) We find f (a) and f (b) and determine where they differ in
sign.
f (−4) = (−4)3 + (−4)2 − 8(−4) = −16
and
f (−1) = (−1)3 + (−1)2 − 8(−1) = 8
By the intermediate value theorem, since f (−4) and f (−1) have oppo-
site signs, then f (x) has a zero between −4 and −1.

b) In a similar manner we have,

f (1) = (1)3 + (1)2 − 8(1) = −6

and
f (3) = (3)3 + (3)2 − 8(3) = 12
By the intermediate value theorem, since f (1) and f (3) have opposite
signs, then f (x) has a zero between 1 and 3.
This can be verified by following the steps for sketching graph of the
polynomial as shown below.

6.4.5 Graph Relationships with the Basic Function

f (x) The vertical and horizontal transformations of graphs covered on quadratic

function graphs are also applicable on general functions. In relation to the

155
graph of f (x), the following transformations, l.e. f (x + c), f (cx), cf (x) and
f (x) + c can be carried out to obtain related graphs. We can perform these
transformations of any graph. In this section we shall demonstrate these
transformation on the following function: sine, cosine, tangent, modulus,
logarithmic, power function, largest integer part and different function and
conics.

[Link] General Graph Transformations

For a given function y = f (x), the following are possible transformations:

1. Vertical Shift: y = f (x) + c

The graph of y = f (x) is shifted c-units up if c > 0 and c-units down
if c < 0.

2. Horizontal Shift: y = f (x − c)
The graph of y = f (x) is shifted h-units right if c > 0 and h-units
down if c < 0.

3. Stretch/Compress: y = cf (x)
The graph is vertically stretched using a factor of |c| if |c| > 1 and it
is compressed using a factor of |c| if |c| < 1.

156
 4. Reflection: y = −f (x)
The graph is reflected across the x-axis.

5. Reflection: y = f (−x)
The graph is reflected across the y-axis.

Activity Two

1. Sketch the graph of y = xn as well as giving the transformation of the

function.

a) y = x3
i. f (x) = (x − 3)3 iii. f (x) = x3 − 3
1
ii. f (x) = − x3 iv. f (x) = (x − 3)3 − 3
5
4
b) y = x
i. f (x) = (x + 3)4 iii. f (x) = x4 + 3
1
ii. f (x) = (2x)4 + 1 iv. f (x) = (x − 3)4
2
2. Describe the right-hand and left-hand behavior of the graph of each of
the following polynomial functions
1
a) f (x) = x3 + 4x c) f (x) = (3x4 − 2x + 5)/4
5
7
b) f (x) = 1 − x6 d) f (x) = − (x3 + 5x2 − 7x + 1)
8
3. For each of the given polynomial functions; (i) find all the real zeroes
of the polynomial function, (ii) determine the multiplicity of each zero
and the number of turning points of the graph of the function.

a) f (x) = x2 − 36 c) f (x) = x5 − 6x + 9x e) f (x) =

4 3 2
x − x − 30x
b) f (x) = 81 − x2 d) 3x4 + 9x2 + 6 f) f (x) =
x3 − 4x2 − 25x + 100

157
6.4.6 Sine, Cosine and Tangent Functions

Before we look at graphs of trigonometric functions, we will start by looking

at the basic concepts of trigonometry.

[Link] Angle and Degree Measure

An angle has three parts: initial ray, a terminal ray, and a vertex(the
point of intersection of the two rays), as shown in the figure below. An angle
\begin{figure}[H]
\includegraphics[scale=0.8 ]{F_4}
is in standard position if its initial ray coincides with the positive x-axis and
\vspace{-20pt}
\end{figure}
its vertex is the origin. It is common practice to use θ (The Greek lowercase
theta) to represent both an angle and its measure.

Positive angle is measured in anticlockwise manner and negative angle in

clockwise manner. For the Figure (a) below shows an angle whose measure
is −45o . You cannot assign a measure to an angle by simply knowing where
its initial and terminal rays are located. To measure an angle you also know
how the terminal ray was involved. For example, Figure (a) shows that
the angle measuring −45o has the same terminal ray as the angle measuring
315o . Such angles with the same initial side and terminal side are called
coterminal angles. In general, if θ is any angle, then

θ + n(360), where n is any nonzero integer

is coterminal with θ.

158
[Link] Radian Measure

The radian measure of an angle, θ is the ratio of the arc length, s to the
s
radius of the cicle, r, i.e. θ = . If the arc length subtended by angle θ is
r
equal to the radius (i.e. when s = r), then θ has a measure of 1 radian.

Notice that an angle measured in radians is unit -less since by definition

radian is defined ar a ration. Therefore, of an angle measure is written with
no degree symbol, it is assumed to be in radians. Though it is not essential
it is often customary to write ‘’radians or ‘rads’ after an input measured in
radians, especially when doing conversions and canceling units.

[Link] Converting Angles Between Degrees and Radians

a) One full revolution measures 2π or approximately 6.28 radians. Thus

2π radians = 360o . Therefore it follows that:
π π π
π radians = 180o ; radians = 90o ; radians = 60o ; radians = 45o ;
2 3 4
π o
radians = 30
6

159
 b) It is absolutely essential that you know the equivalent degree and radian
measures for all standard angles. This is not difficult if you think of
every standard angle as a multiple of one of the four special angles: 30◦ ,
1π 2π 3π
45◦ , 60◦ and 90◦ . For example, if 30◦ = , then 60◦ = , 90◦ =
6 6 6
1π 2π 3π
etc. If 45◦ = , then 90◦ = , 135◦ = , and so on.
4 4 4
Example 6.4.19. Convert the following angles from degree measure to ra-
dian measure.

(a) 120◦

(b) 225◦
π
Solution. We multiply by to convert to radian measure. So;
180◦
π 2π
(a) 120◦ × ◦
=
180 3
π 5π
(b) 225◦ × ◦
=
180 4
Example 6.4.20. : Convert the following inputs from radian measure to
degree measure.

7π 4π 5π
(a) rads (b) − rads (c) rads
4 3 6
180◦
Solution. We multiply by; to convert to degree measure. So;
π

7π 180◦ 4π 180◦
(a) × = 315◦ (b) − × = −240◦ (c)
4 π◦ 3 π
5π 180
× = 150◦
6 π

The diagram below show the relationship between degrees and radians for
standard angles:

160
[Link] Applications of Radian Measure

[Link] Arc Length

The length(s) of the arc intercepted on a circle of radius (r) by a central

angle θ (measured in radians) is given by the product of the radius and the
angle, i.e.
s = rθ

Example 6.4.21. : Find the length of the arc intercepted by a central angle
θ = 135◦ in a circle of radius r = 71.9 cm.

Solution. First converting θ to radians, we have;

π 3π
θ = 135◦ × ◦
rads = rads
180 4
3π
Thus the arc length is; r = r θ = 71.9 × cm = 169 cm (rounded to 3 s.f)
4
Example 6.4.22. : A small gear and a large gear are merged. An 80◦
rotation of the small gear causes the large gear to rotate 50◦ . Find the radius
of the large gear if the small gear has a radius of 11.7 cm

Solution. The arc length s represents the distance traveled by a point on

the rim of the wheel. since the two wheels rotate together, s will be the same
for both wheels.
π 4π 4π
For the small wheel, θ = 80◦ × ◦
= rads and s = r θ = 11.7 × cm =
180 9 9
161
16.3363 cm
π 5π
For the large wheel, θ = 50◦ × ◦
=
180 18
5π
Thus we can solve the following; s = r θ = 16.3363 cm = ⇒ r =
18
18
16.3363 cm × = 18.720 cm
5π
The radius of the larger wheel is 18.7 cm (rounded to 3 s.f)

[Link] Area of a Sector of a Circle

Consider a particle moving at a constant speed along a circular arc of radius

r. If s is the arc length of the arc traveled in time t, then the linear speed v
of the particle is :

arc length s
Linear speed, v = =
time t

If θ is the angle (in radian measure) corresponding to the arc length, s,

then the angular speed ω (lower case omega) of the particle is:
central angle
Angular speed w =
time
θ
=
t
Example 6.4.23. : The blades of a wind turbine are 116ft long. The pro-
peller rotates at 15 revolutions per minute.

a) Find the angular speed of the propeller in radians per minute.

b) Find the linear speed of the tips of the blades.

Solution. a) Since each revolution generates 2π radians, it follows that
propeller turns, (15)(2π) = 30π radians per minute, the angular speed
is:
θ 30π rads
w= = = 30π rads/min
t 1 min
b) The linear speed is:
s rθ (16)(30π)ft
v= = = ≈ 10.933 ft/min
t t 1min

162
[Link] Area of a Sector of a Circle

A sector of a circle is the portion of the interior of the circle intercepted by

a central angle.

The area (A) of a sector of a circle of radius r with central angle θ (mea-
sured in radians) is given by
1
A = r2 θ
2
Example 6.4.24. : Find the area of a sector with radius 18.3 cm and the
central angle θ = 125◦ . (Round to the nearest tenth).
1
Solution. The formula A = r2 θ requires that θ be measured in radians.
2
Converting θ to radians, we have,
π 25π
θ = 125◦ × ◦
=
180 36
1 25π 334.89 25π
Then, A = (18.3)2 × = × = 365.3083
2 36 2 36
The area of the sector is; 365.3 cm2

6.4.7 Trigonometric Functions

Consider the following right angled triangle, given below where θ as our
reference angle. The ratios of sides of a right triangle occur often enough
in practical applications to warrant their own names. So we define the six
rations as trigonometric functions as follows: sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent,
secant and cosecant, abbreviated; sin, cos, tan, sec and cosec.

163
Definition 6.4.25. (The Six Trigonometric Functions) Right triangle defi-
π
nitions, where 0 < θ <
2
Opposite Adjacent Opposite
sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ = ,
Hypotenus Hypotenus Adjacent
Hypotenus Hypotenuse Adjacent
csc θ = , sec θ = , cot θ =
Opposite Adjacent Opposite

Consider the circle with radius r and where θ is any angle, given below
to define the circular definitions of the trigonometric function.

y x y r r x
sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ = , csc θ = , sec θ = , cot θ =
r r x y x y
Note 2. i. Since −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 i.e. |x| ≤ 1, then | cos θ| ≤ 1. Similarly,
| sin θ| ≤ 1.
sin θ
ii. It follows from the definition that: tan θ = , (cos θ 6= 0). Further-
cos θ
cos θ 1 1
more; cot θ = , sec θ = , csc θ =
sin θ cos θ sin θ
iii. Since x2 + y 2 = 1, by Pythagoras theorem, then;

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 (1)

164
 Note: sin2 θ = (sin θ)(sin θ) = (sin θ)2 , sin2 θ 6= sin(θ2 )

2 cos2 θ 1
iv. Dividing (1) by sin θ (when sin θ =6 0), it follows that 1+ 2 =
sin θ sin2 θ
Thus
csc2 θ = 1 + cot2 θ (2)
Similarly dividing (1) by cosθ , follows that;

sec2 θ = 1 + tan2 θ (3)

v. If φ = θ + 2π, then the point P 0 on the circle determined by φ will be

the same as the point P determined by θ. In fact, φ is the same as
θ with one rotation added on (φ and θ are coterminal angles). Then,
sin φ = sin θ, (since P 0 = P ) cos φ = cos θ etc. Indeed if n is any
integer, then,

sin(θ + 2nπ) = sin θ, cos(θ + 2nπ) = cos θ, etc for n ∈ Z.

π
vi. Directly from definitions; sin 0 = 0, cos 0 = 1, tan 0 = 0, sin = 1,
2
π π
cos = 0, tan is undefined, sin π = 0, cos π = −1, tan π = 0,
2 2
3π 3π 3π
sin = −1, cos = 0, tan is undefined.
2 2 2
vii. Summary of the signs of trigonometric functions, in relation to the
quadrant an angle lies.

165
 π π π π π
viii. If θ = , then x = y = sin = cos . Since sin2 + cos2 = 1 Then,
4 4 4 4 4
2 π π π 1 π
2 sin = 1. So sin = cos = √ and tan = 1
4 4 4 2 4

i.e.

ix. Consider the equilateral triangle whose sides are all 1 unit long, as
shown below.

π π
If θ = (= 60◦ ), then, angle BAM = =angle CAM (=30◦ ).
3 6
s  2 √
1 3
Thus, AM= 12 − = , (Pythagoras theorem)
2 2
√
π AM 3 π BM 1 π AM √
Hence, sin = = , cos = = , tan = = 3
3 AB 2 3 AB√ 2 3 BM
π 1 π 3 1
In similar fashion, sin = , cos = and tan √
6 2 6 2 3

166
 Table of Value of Standard Angles

In deg (θ) 0◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦

π π π π 3π
In rads(θ) 0 π
6 4 3 2 2
√
1 1 3
sin θ 0 √ 1 0 −1
2 2 2
√
3 1 1
cos θ 1 √ 0 −1 0
2 2 2
1 √
tan θ 0 √ 1 3 unde f 0 unde f
3

x. Let P be a point on a unit circle (circle with radius 1) with coordinates

(x, y) and let angle AOP = θ, i.e. x = cos θ, y = sin θ. Suppose Q
is the point with coordinates (x, −y). Obviously, angle AOQ = −θ.
Hence; cos(−θ) = cos θ, sin(−θ) = − sin θ, tan(−θ) = − tan θ

√
π π 1 π 3
For example, sin − = − sin = − , cos − = , etc
6 6 2 6 2

Once the value of any trigonometric function are known from θ = 0 to

π
θ = , all the values can be calculated.
2

167
[Link] Rotation of Angles

Now we will take a look at how certain geometric operations can help simplify
the use of trigonometric functions of any angle, and how some basic relations
between those functions can be made. The operations to be considered are
rotation and reflection.
Figure below, shows an angle θ in Quadrant I (or QI) which is rotated
90 around the origin, resulting in the angle θ + 90◦ in QII. Notice that the
◦

complement of θ in the right angle in QI is the same as the supplement of

the angle θ + 90◦ in QII, since the sum of θ, its complement, and 90◦ is equal
to 180◦ . This is why the other angle in the right triangle in QII is θ.

Using the figure above, we have the following relations, by definition;

x −y x
sin(θ+90◦ = = cos θ, cos(θ+90◦ = = − sin θ tan(θ+90◦ ) = = − cot θ
y r −y

[Link] Reference Angles

Definition: Let θ be an angle in standard position. Its reference angle, is

the acute angle θ0 formed by the terminal side of θ and the horizontal axis
(i.e.x-axis).

Example 6.4.26. : Find the reference angle of the following:

168
 11π
(a) θ = 300◦ (b) θ = 2.3 (c) θ =
4
Solution. (a) Since 300◦ lies in quadrant IV, the angle it makes with the
x-axis, θ0 = 360◦ − 300◦ = 60◦

Hence the reference angle is 60◦ .

Illustration

π
(b) Because 2.3 lies between ≈ 1.5708 and π = 3.1416, it follows that it
2
is in Quadrant II and its reference angle is θ0 = π − 2.3 ≈ 0.8416
11π 3π 3π
(c) Notice that θ = = 2π + and and coterminal angles. Hence
4 4 4
3π 3π π
we consider , Now the reference angle θ0 = π − = .
4 4 4
Example 6.4.27. : Evaluate each of the trigonometric function.

3π
(a) sin
4
11π
(b) tan
6
4π
(c) cos
3
3π
Solution. (a) Since lie in Quadrant II, then its reference angel is, θ0 =
4
3π π 3π π 1
π− = and sine is positive in quadrant II. So. sin = sin = √
4 4 4 4 2

169
 11π
(b) Similarly, since lies in quadrant IV, then its reference angle is
6
11π π
θ0 = 2π − = and tangent is negative in Quadrant IV. So,
6 6
11π π 1
tan = − tan = √
6 6 3
4π 4π π
(c) lies in Quadrant III, then the reference angle is θ0 = −π = ,
3 3 3
4π π 1
and cosine is negative in quadrant III. Hence, cos = − cos = −
3 3 2

[Link] Trigonometric Identities

1 − cos θ
Example 6.4.28. : Prove the identity, (cot θ − csc θ)2 =
1 + cos θ

Proof. We start with one side and show that it is equal to the other side.
We consider L.H.S:
 2
2 cos θ 1
(cos θ − csc θ) = −
sin θ sin2 θ
1
= (cos θ − 1)2
sin θ
(cos θ − 1)2
= 2
trig. identity sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
1 − cos θ
(cos θ − 1)2 )
= difference of two squares
(1 − cos θ)(1 + cos θ)
cos θ − 1
= R.H.S
1 + cos θ

Example 6.4.29. : Prove the identity: cot x + tan x = sec x csc x

170
Proof. Consider L.H.S
1 sin x
cot x + tan x = +
tan x cos x
cos x sin x
= +
sin x cos x
cos2 x + sin2 x
=
sin x cos x
1
=
sin x cos x
1 1
= ·
sin x cos x
= sec x csc x R.H.S

[Link] Solving Trigonometric Equations

I. The equation sin θ = a

Notice that if θ1 lying in the Quadrant I is a solution to sin θ = a, then

also θ2 lying in Quadrant II is to sin θ = a where θ2 = π − θ1 . Therefore
any angle that is coterminal to θ1 and θ2 , will be a solution to the equation
sin θ = a. So in general, the solution to the equation sin θ = a are

θ = θ1 + 2nπ or θ = (π − θ1 ) + 2nπ

Where n is an integer, because there are infinitely many other coterminal

angles for θ1 and θ2 , hence infinitely many solutions to the equation, the
figure below shows this situation.

II. The equation cos θ = a

If θ1 lying in the Quadrant I is a solution to cos θ = a, then also θ2 lying in

Quadrant IV is to θ, where θ2 = −θ. Therefore any angle that is coterminal

171
to θ1 and θ2 , will also be a solution to the equation cos θ = a. So in general,
the solution to the equation cos θ = a are:

θ = ±θ1 + 2π

Because there are infinitely many coterminal angle for θ1 and θ2 = −θ1 which
are θ1 + 2nπ and −θ1 + 2nπ respectively, hence there are also infinitely many
solutions to the equation, cos θ = [Link] figure below shows this situation.

III. The equation tan θ = a

In a similar manner, if θ1 lying in the Quadrant I is a solution to tan θ = a,

then also θ2 lying in Quadrant III is to tan θ = a, where θ2 = θ1 + π.
Therefore any angle that is coterminal to θ1 and θ2 , will also be a solution to
the equation tan θ = a. So in general, the solution to the equation tan θ = a
are:
θ = θ1 + nπ

172
Note 3. If a solution of a trigonometric equation is given in specific terms
i.e. θ = θ1 , it is called the principle solution to the equation.

Example 6.4.30. : Solve the following equations:

(a) 2 sin x = 1
√
(b) sin x + 2 = − sin x

(c) 2 cos 3t − 1 = 0

(d) tan θ = 1.
1 1
Solution. (a) 2 sin x = 1 implies sin x = But sin x = has solutions;
2 2
π 5π
x = and x = , in the interval, [0, 2π) and these are principle
6 6
1 π
solutions. The general solution for sin x = are x = + 2nπ and
2 6
5π
x= + 2nπ, where n is an integer.
6
√
√ √ − 2
(b) sin x + 2 = − sin x implies 2 sin x = − 2 and sin x = Thus x,
2
must fall in Quadrant III or IV, since sin x < 0. The principle solutions
5π 7π
are x = and x = and the general solutions are:
4 4
5π 7π
x= = 2nπ and x = + 2nπ
4 4

173
 1
(c) 2 cos 3t = 0 implies cos 3t = In the interval [0, 2π), we know that,
2
π 5π
3t = and 3t = . Hence we have,
3 3
π π 5π 5π 2nπ
3t = + 2nπ ⇒ t = and 3t = + 2nπ ⇒ t = +
3 2nπ 3 9 3
9+
3
5π π π 2nπ
Notice that, = − , so the solution can be written as; t = ± + .
9 9 9 3
π π
(d) tan θ = 1. We know tan = 1. So θ = , is the principle solution.
4 4
π
Hence the general solution is θ = + nπ
4

6.4.8 Graphing the Trigonometric Functions

We can also graph trigonometric functions just like any other functions. In
our graphs we shall consider radians for the angle measure. We shall first
graph a sine function, by using the unit circle, shown below to describe hoe
the graph is created. A unit circle has radius 1, in the xy-plane consisting of
all the points (x, y) which satisfy the equation x2 + y 2 = 1.

As we can see from the figure above, that any point on the unit circle has
coordinates (x, y) = (cos θ, sin θ), where θ is the angle that the line segment
from the origin to (x, y) makes with the positive x-axis. so as the point (x, y)
around the circle, its y-coordinate is sin θ.

174
[Link] The Graph of sine Function

Thus we get a correspondance between the y-coordinates of points on the

unit circle and the values f (θ) = sin θ, this is shown by the horizontal lines
from the unit circle to the graph of f (θ) = sin θ in the figure below for the
π π π
angles: θ = 0, , , , . . . , 2π.
6 3 2

since the trigonometric functions repeat every 2π radians (360◦ ), we get,

for example, the following graph of the function y = sin x for x in the interval
[−2π, 2π]. Before sketching the graph it is necessary to locate the key points
of a trigonometric function. The table below shows the maximum points, the
minimum points and the intercepts.

5π 3π π π 3π 5π
x − −2π − −π − 0 π 2π
2 2 2 2 2 2

sin x −1 0 1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1 0 1

In general the basic properties of a sine function are depicted in the following
figure.

175
[Link] The Graph of Cosine Function

To graph the cosine function we could again draw the unit circle idea (using
the x-coordinate of a point that moves around the circle), but there is an
easier way. Recall that, cos x = sin(x + 90◦ , for all x. So cos 0◦ has the same
value as sin 90◦ , cos 90◦ has the same value as sin 180◦ , cos 180◦ has the same
values sin 270◦ and so on. In other words the graph of cosine function is just
π
the graph of the sine function shifted to the left by 90◦ = radians, as shown
2
below.

176
[Link] The Graph of Tangent Function

sin x
The graph of the tangent function, we use tan x = to get the following
cos x
graph:

Recall that the tangent is positive for angle in QI and QIII, and is negative
in QII and QIV, this is well depicted in the graph above. The tangent function
π π 3π 5π
is undefined when cos x = 0, l.e. at odd multiples of, ; x = ± , ± , ± ,
2 2 2 2
etc and these points are vertical asymptotes for the tangent functions. We
can determine whether the tangent values increase to infinity or decrease
sin x
to negative infinity by examining the ration at that particular point.
cos x
Notice that the graph of tangent function repeats every π radians, l.e. two
times faster than the graph of sine and cosine repeats.
The graph of the remaining trigonometric functions can be determined
by looking at the reciprocal of sine, cosine and tangent. For example, using
1
csc x = we can just look at the graph of y = sin x and invert the values.
sin x
We will get vertical asymptotes when sin x = 0, that happen at multiples
π of: x = 0, ±π, ±2π etc. The figure below show the graph of y = csc x
and y = sin x (the dashed curve) for reference. In the same manner we can

177
graph the function y = sec x, with the graph of y = cos x (the dashed curve)
as reference, the figure below shows this scenario. note that the vertical
π 3π
asymptotes are: x = ± , ± etc. Notice also that the graph is just the
2 2
π
graph of the cosecant shifted to the left by radians.
2

1
The graph of y = cot x can also be determined by using cot x = .
cot x
Alternatively, we can use the relation cot x = − tan(x + 90◦ ). So the graph

178
of the cotangent function is just the graph of the tangent function shifted
π
to the left by radians and then reflected about the x-axis. The graph of
2
cotangent is shown below.

6.4.9 Properties of graphs of Trigonometric Function

The transformation of functions includes the shifting, stretching and reflec-

tion of the respective graphs. The same rules apply when transforming
trigonometric functions, which we learned in the original “transformation
of polynomial functions graphs". a function f (x) is periodic if there exists a
number p > 0 such that x + p is the domain of f (x) whenever x is, and if
the following relation holds:

f (x + p) = f (x) for all x

There could be many numbers p that satisfy the above requirements. If

there is a smallest such number p, then we call that number the period of
the function f (x).

179
[Link] Amplitude and Period

Let a, b ∈ R for b > 0 and y = a sin bx and y = cos bx, then:

The amplitude given by |a| represents half the distance between the
maximum and minimum values of function. The period o each function is
2π
given by .
b

[Link] Translations of Sine and Cosine Curves

Let a, b, c ∈ R for b > 0 and c > 0 and y = a sin(bx − c) and y = cos(bx − c),
c
then the graph of each of the functions is shifted to the left and right by
b
c c c
units when < 0 and 0 respectively. the number is called the phase
b b b
2π
shift. The period is and amplitude is |a|. The left and right end points
b
of one-cycle interval can be determined by solving the equations bx − c = 0
and bx − c = 2π

a. Vertical and Horizontal Shifts

Suppose c > 0. We can carry out the following transformations on a

trigonometric function y = f (x), to obtain the graph of;

i. y = f (x) + c, by shifting the graph of y = f (x) up by c units

ii. y = f (x) − c, by shifting the graph of y = f (x) down by c units

iii. y = f (x − c), by shifting the graph of y = f (x) to the right by c units

iv. y = f (x + c), by shifting the graph of y = f (x) to the left by c units

a. Vertical and Horizontal Stretches/Compressions

180
 Suppose c > 0. We can carry out the following transformations on a
trigonometric function y = f (x), to obtain the graph of:

i y = cf (x), by stretching the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a factor of

c
1
ii. f (x), by compressing the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a factor of c
c
iii. y = f (cx), by compressing the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a
factor of c
x
iv. y = f ( ), by stretching the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a factor
c
of c
1 π
Example 6.4.31. : Analyze the graph of y = sin(x − ) algebraically.
2 3
1 2π
Solution. The amplitude is and the period is = 2π. By solving
2 1
π π
x − = 0 and x − = 2π we can determine the interval corresponding to
3 3 h π 7π i
one-cycle of the graph as , .
3 3
Example 6.4.32. : sketch the functions, y = sin x, y = sin x + 4 and
π
y = sin x = on the same coordinate plane.
2
Solution. We already know the sketch of y = sin x from the discussion
above. To obtain the curve y = sin x + 4, we shift the curve y = sinx  up by 4
π
units (vertical shift). Whilst in order to obtain the graph of y = sin x + ,
2
π
we shift the graph of y = sin x to the left by units (horizontal shift). See
2
the figure below to appreciate this situation.

Notice that this is the same thing as the curve of y = cos x (why?).

Example 6.4.33. : Sketch the functions, y = cos 2x and y = 3 cos 2x on the

same coordinate plane.

181
Solution. We shall use the basic function, y = cos x to obtain the graphs of
the other two functions. To obtain the graph of y = cos 2x, we compress the
graph of y = cosx by factor 2 horizontally. On the other hand, in order to
obtain the graph of y = 3 cos 2x, we further stretch the graph of y = cos 2x
by a factor of 3 vertically.

[Link] Reflections

To obtain the graphs of

182
 a) y = −f (x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the x-axis

b) y = f (−x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the y-axis

Example 6.4.34. : Given that the dashed curve represents the unction
y = sin x, determine whether the following statement is TRUE or FALSE.

The solid curve (not dashed curve) on the following graph represents both
y = − sin x and y = sin(−x).

Solution. TRUE- The solid curve does represent both y = − sin x and y =
sin(−x). In this particular situation the reflection about the x-axis is the
same as the reflection about the y-axis.

[Link] Activity Three

1. Determine two coterminal angles for each of the following angles (one
positive and the other negative).
5π 7π 5π 2π
(a) (c) (e) (g)
3 4 2 3
5π 13π 7π
(b) (d) (f) 2π (h)
6 2 6
2. for each angle given in (1) above determine its corresponding reference
angle.

3. Determine the quadrant in which each angle lies, i.e. given angles are
given in degree and radians s specified.

183
 (a) 18◦ (d) 230◦ (g) 300◦ (j) −520◦
π 11π 9π
(b) 740◦ (e) rad (h) rad (k) rad
4 8 8
5π
(c) rad (f) −1 rad (i) 2.25 rad (l) 6.02 rad
4
4. Convert angle measure from degrees to radians. Round to 3 decimal
places.

(a) 45◦ (c) 87.4◦ (e) −216.35◦ (g) −48.27◦

(b) 532◦ (d) 345◦ (f) −0.83◦ (h) 0.54◦

5. Convert angle measure from radians to degrees. Round to 3 decimal

places.
5π 13π
(a) (c) (e) −1 (g) 3.147
11 2
15π 7π
(b) (d) (f) −0.57 (h) 6.02
8 4
6. A sprinkler in a golf is set to play water over a distance of 15 m and to
rotate through an angle 150. Find the area of the region that can be
irrigated by the sprinkler.

7. A cr is moving at a rate of 65 km per hour, and the diameter of its

wheel is 0.762m.

a) Find the number of revolutions per minute the wheels are rotating.
b) Find the angular speed of the wheels in radians per minute.

8. Find the values of the six trigonometric functions of θ in the given

quadrant.
15 4
a) tan θ = − , θ lies in Quadrant II d) cos θ = − , θ lies
8 3
in Quadrant III
8
b) cos θ = , θ lies in Quadrant III e) cot θ = −3, θ lies
17
in Quadrant III

184
 3
c) sin θ = , θ lies in Quadrant III f) sec θ = −2, θ lies
4
in Quadrant III

9. Find the values of the six trigonometric functions of θ in the given

quadrant.
3π 3π
a) sin π c) csc e) sec
2 2
7π 23π 10π
b) cos d) cot − f) tan
6 4 3
10. Prove each of the following identities.
csc θ cos θ
a) cos2 θ = d) sin x − sin x cos2 x =
tan θ + cot θ
sin3 x
sin2 x
b) sin4 x − cos4 x = 1 − 2 cos2 x e) =
cos2 x + 3 cos x + 2
1 − cos x
2 + cos x
cos x tan2 x − 1
c) − tan x = sec x f) 1 − 2 cos2 x =
1 − sin x tan2 x + 1
11. Solve each of the equations on the interval [−2π, 2π].
√
2 3
a) tan x = 1 c) csc x = − e) sec x =
3
−2
b) sin 2x sin x = cos x d) cos 2x − 3 cos x + 2 = 0 f)
cos x = 2 sin2 x − 1

12. Describe the relationship between the graphs of f (x) and g(x). Con-
sider amplitude, period and shifts.

a) f (x) = sin x, g(x) = sin(x − π) e) f (x) = cos x,

g(x) = cos(x + π)
b) f (x) = cos 2x, g(x) = − cos 2x f) f (x) = sin x,
g(x) = sin(x − π)
c) f (x) = sin 3x, g(x) = sin(−3x) g) f (x) = sin x,
g(x) = sin 4x

185
 d) f (x) = sin 2x, g(x) = 3 + sin 2x h) f (x) = cos 4x,
g(x) = −2 + cos 4x

13. Sketch the graph for each pair of function in (12) above on the same
set of coordinates axes. (include two full periods).

6.4.10 Graph of Modulus Functions and their Transfor-

mations

Definition
 6.4.35. : The modulus function f (x) = |x| means, f (x) =
x, x≥0
. So the graph of f (x) is given by:
−x, x < 0

Just s we applied the graph transformations on quadratic function graphs,

so we can apply the same to the modulus function graph.

Example 6.4.36. Given f (x) = |x|

a) Describe the transformations needed to get from f to g(x) = |x+3|−4.

b) Sketch the graph of g(x).

Solution. a) We follow the following transformations: From the graph of

f (x) = |x|, shifts to the left by 3 units, to get to y = |x + 3|. Then the
graph of y = |x + 3|, shifts down by 4 units, to get to g(x) = |x + 3| − 4

b) The graphs of the functions below show these relationships.

186
6.4.11 Graph of Exponential functions and their Trans-
formations

Definition 6.4.37. if a > 0, the exponential function f with base a is defined

by
f (x) = ax
where a is any real number.

Considering the basic graph of f (x) = ax we notice that:

a. If a > 1 and x1 < x2 for x1 , x2 ∈ R then ax1 < ax2 , ∀x ∈ [x1 , x2 ]. That
is f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) throughout its domain, hence f (x) is increasing in
that interval.

b. If 0 < a < 1, then f is decreasing.

[Link] Basic Exponential Function Graphs

We can realize different exponential function graphs by any combination of

transformation.

Example 6.4.38. Given f (x) = ax−1)

a) Describe the transformations needed to get from f to h(x) = −ax−1 − 3

187
 Figure 6.2: Illustration o basic exponential graphs

b) Sketch the graph of h(x).

Solution. a) We follow the following transformations: From the graph of,

f (x) = ax−1 negate the y-coordinates, thus reflecting about the x-axis,
to get to y = −f (x) = −ax−1 . Then the graph of y = −ax−1 , shifts
down by 3 units to get h(x) = −ax−1 − 3.

b) The graph of the functions below show these relationships.

188
6.4.12 Graph of Logarithmic Functions and their Trans-
formations

Recall that if x = ay then loga x = y, for x > 0. Furthermore the following

end behavior of a logarithmic function can be verified using a calculator, that:

As x → 0+ , y → −∞ and x → ∞, y → ∞. Notice that as the input

approaches zero from the right, the output of the function grows very large
in the negative direction, indicating a vertical asymptote at x = 0.
The figure below shows the graph of y = loga x and − loga x on the same
system of axes.

Example 6.4.39. Given y = loga x

a) Describe the transformation needed to get from y to g(x) = 2 loga (x1 )

b) Sketch the graph of g(x)

Solution. a) We follow the following transformations:

From the graph of y = loga x stretch vertically by a factor of 2 units

189
 followed by a horizontal shift of 1 unit to the right to get g(x) =
2 loga (x − 1).

b) The figure below shows the transformation of the graphs of y = loga x

to the graph g(x) = 2 loga (x − 1).

6.4.13 Greatest Integer Function and its Graphs

Functions whose graphs resemble sets of stair steps are known as steps func-
tions. There are two kinds of step functions which are, the greatest integer
function (or flow function) and the least integer function( or ceiling function).

Definition 6.4.40. f (x) is greatest integer function if ∀x ∈ [n, n+1), f (x) =

n for n ∈ Z.

Notation. The following notations are used for greatest integer function bxc
or kxk

Definition 6.4.41. : f (x) is a least integer function if ∀x ∈ (n − 1, n),

f (x) = n for n ∈ Z.

Notation. The following notations are used for least integer function dxe or
]x[

190
Example 6.4.42. : Given f (x) = bxc + 1. Evaluate the function when
x = −1, x = 7.5 and x = −6.3

Solution. For x = −1, the greatest integer ≤ −1 is −1, so f (−1) =

b−1c + 1 = −1 + 1 = 0

for x = 7.5, the greatest integer ≤ 7.5 is 7, so f (7.5) = b7.5c+1 = 7+1 = 8

for x = −6.3, the greatest integer ≤ −6.3 is −7, so f (−6.3) = b−6.3c +

1 = −7 + 1 = 6

The greatest integer function is the integer that lies to the left of the
given number on a number line.

[Link] graph of greatest integer Function

Using the definition f (x) = bxc gives a step function graph:

Example 6.4.43. :How can the graph of the greatest integer function f (x) =
bxc move to get, g(x) = bx − 3c.

Solution. We get the graph of g(x) = bx − 3c from f (x) = bxc by shifting

3 units to the right. Illustrate how this graph looks like.

Activity Four

1. Discuss how the graph of each of the following functions is related to

the basic modulus function y = |x|.

a) f (x) = −|x − 8| c) f (x) = −|x + 5|

1 2
b) f (x) = |x + 3| − 2 d) − |x| + 3
5 3
2. For each function in (1) above sketch the graph of f (x) that show the
basic graph y = |x| has transformed.

191
3. discuss how the graph of each of the following functions is related to
the basic exponential function (parent function) y = ax , where a > 0.

a) f (x) = ax + 7 c) f (x) = (−3a)x+1 + 7

2
b) f (x) = −3ax+1 − 4 d) f (x) = − ax + 7
3
4. For each function in (3) above sketch the graph of f (x) that show how
the basic graph y = ax has transformed.

5. discuss how the graph of each of the following function is related to the
basic logarithmic function y = logxa , where a > 0.

a) f (x) = loga x − 5
c) f (x) = loga (3 − 7x)
b) f (x) = 2 loga (x + 1) − 5
d) f (x) = loga 2x − 5

192
 6. For each function in (5) above sketch the graph of f (x) that show how
the basic graph y = loga x has transformed.

7. Evaluate the function for the indicated values.

a) f (x) = bxc
i. f (2.1)
ii. f (−3.2)
 
7
iii. f
2
iv. f (−5.6)
b) f (x) = b3x − 1c
i. f (2.1)
ii. f (−1)
 
21
iii. f −
2
iv. f (−3.6)

8. Sketch the graph of each of the following functions.

a) f (x) = −bxc
b) f (x) = bx + 1c
c) f (x) = bxc − 2
d) f (x) = −bxc + 6

6.4.14 Conic Sections Graphs and their Transformations

Parabola, circles, ellipses and hyperbolas are all curves that are formed by the
intersection of a plane and a double-napped cone. Therefore, these shapes
are called conic sections or simply conics, since they result from intersecting
a cone with a plane.

193
6.4.15 Standard Equations of Conic Sections

[Link] Parabola

A parabola is a set of points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed

point F called the focus and a fixed line called the directrix. Figure below
illustrate this definition. Notice that the point halfway between the focus and
the directrix lies on the parabola; it is called the vertex. The line through
the focus perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis of the parabola.

We obtain particular simple equation for a parabola if we place its vertex

at the origin O and its directrix parallel to the x-axis as the figure below
illustrates. If the focus is the point (o, p), then the directrix has the equation
y = −p. If P (x, y) is any point on the parabola, then the distance from P to

194
the focus is:
p
|P F | = x2 + (y − p)2 (1)

By using the formula or distance between two points. But the distance
from |y + p|. The figure above illustrates the case where p > 0. The defining
property of parabola is that these distances are equal. Simplifying (1) above
we obtain.
x2 = 4py (2)

Definition 6.4.44. : An equation of the parabola with focus (0, p) and

y = −p is, x2 = 4py.

1
If we let a = , then the standard equation (2) becomes y = ax2 . It
4p
opens upward if p > 0 and downward if p < 0. The graph is symmetric with
respect to the y-axis because y(x) = y(−x). If we interchange x and y in (2),
we obtain
y 2 = 4px (3)

This is an equation of a parabola with focus (p, 0) and directrix (inter-

changing x and y to reflecting about diagonal line y = x). The prabola
opens to the right if p > 0 and to the left if p < 0. In this case the graph is

195
symmetric with respect to the x-axis.

Illustration

Example 6.4.45. : Find the focus and directrix of the parabola y 2 +10x = 0
and sketch the graph.

Solution. Writing the equation as y 2 = −10x and compare it with the

5
standard equation of a parabola, we see that, 4p = −10, so p = − . Thus
  2
5 5
the focus is (p, 0) = − , 0 and the directrix is x = .
2 2

[Link] Ellipses

An ellipse is the set of all points in the plane, the sum of whose distances
from two fixed points F1 and F2 is a constant. These two points are called
the foci (plural for focus). One of Kepler’s laws is that the orbits in the

196
solar system are ellipse with the sun at the one focus. In order to orbit the
simplest equation for an ellipse, we place the foci on the x-axis at the points
(−c, 0) and (c, 0), so that the origin is halfway between the foci, as shown in
the figure below.

let the sum of the distances from a point on the ellipse to the foci be
2a > 0. Then P (x, y) is a point on the ellipse when

|P F1 | + |P F2 | = 2a

Thus
p p
(x + c)2 + y 2 + (x − c)2 + y 2 = 2a

Squaring both sides and simplify, we have:

(a2 − c2 )x2 + a2 y 2 = a2 (a2 − c2 )

197
From triangle F1 F2 P in the figure above, we see that 2c < 2a, so, c < a and
therefore, a2 − c2 > 0. For convenience. let, b2 = a2 − c2 . Then the equation
of the ellipse becomes b2 x2 + a2 y 2 = a2 b2 or if both sides are divided by a2 b2 ,

x2 y 2
+ 2 =1 (4)
a2 b

Since b2 = a2 − c2 < a2 , it follows that b < a. The x-intercepts are found

x2
by setting y = 0. Then 2 = 1 or x2 = a2 , so x = ±a. The corresponding
a
points (a, 0) and (−a, 0) are called the vertices of the ellipse and the segment
joining the vertices is called the major axis. To find the y-intercept we set
x = 0 and obtain y 2 = b2 , so y = ±b. Equation is unchanged if x is replaced
by −x or y is replaced with −y, so the ellipse is symmetric about axes. No-
tice that if the foci coincide, then c = 0, so a = b and the ellipse becomes a
circle with radius r = a = b. So the general equation of a circle is x2 +y 2 = a2

The ellipse

x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1, a ≥ b > 0 (5)
a2 b

has foci (±c, 0), where c2 = a2 − b2 and vertices (±a, 0)

The ellipse

x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1, a ≥ b > 0 (6)
b2 a

has foci (0, ±c), where c2 = a2 − b2 and vertices (0, ±a)

Example 6.4.46. : Sketch the graph of 9x2 + 16y 2 = 144 and locate the
foci

198
 x2 y2
Solution. Dividing both sides of the equation by 144, + = 1. The
16 9
equation is now in the standard form for an ellipse, so we have a2 = 16,
b2 = 9, a = 4 and b = 3. The x-intercepts are ±4 and the y-intercepts are
√ √
±3. Also c2 = a2 − b2 = 7, so c = 7 and the foci are (± 7, 0). See the
graph below.

Example 6.4.47. :find the equation of the ellipse with foci (0, ±2) and
vertices (0, ±3).

Solution. Using the notation in (6), we have c = 2 and a = 3. Then we

obtain, b2 = a2 − c2 = 9 − 4 = 5, so an equation of the ellipse is
x2 y 2
+ =1
5 9
This can be written s, 9x2 + 5y 2 = 45.

[Link] Hyperbolas

A hyperbola is the set of all points in the plane difference of whose distances
from two fixed points F1 and F2 (the foci) is a constant. The figure illustrate
this definition. Notice that the definition of hyperbola is similar to that of
an ellipse; the only change is that the sum of difference of distance. In fact
the deviation, of the equation of a hyperbola is also similar to the one given
earlier for an ellipse. It is left as an exercise, to show tht when the foci are on
the x-axis (±c, 0), and the difference of the distance is |P F1 | − |P F2 | = ±2a,
then the equation of the parabola is
x2 y 2
− 2 =1 (7)
a2 b
199
Where c2 = a2 + b2 . Notice that the x-intercept again are ±a and the
points (a, 0) and (−a, 0) are the vertices of the hyperbola. But if we put
x = 0 in equation (7) we get y 2 = −b2 , which is impossible, so there is
no y-intercept. The hyperbola is symmetric with respect to both axes. To
analyze the hyperbola further we look at the equation.
x2 y2
= 1 + ≥1
a2 b2
√
This shows that x2 ≥ a, so |x| = x2 ≥ a. Therefore we have x ≥ a or
x ≤ −a. This means that the hyperbola consists of two parts, called its
branches. When we draw a hyperbola
  it is useful 
to first
 draw its asympotes,
b b
which are dashed lines y = x and y = − x shown in the figure
a a
below. Both branches of the hyperbola approach the asymptotes, that is,
they come arbitrary close to the asymptotes.

The hyperbola

x2 y 2
− 2 = 1, has foci (±c, 0), (8)
a2 b
 
2 2 2 b
where c = a + b , vertices (±a, 0), and asymptotes y = ± x
a

If the foci of the parabola are on the y-axis, then by reversing the roles

200
of x and y we obtain the following information.

The hyperbola

y 2 x2
− 2 = 1, has foci (0, ±c), (9)
a2 b
 
b
where c2 = a2 + b2 , vertices (0, ±a), and asymptotes y = ± x
a

201
 Illustration

Example 6.4.48. : Find the foci and asymptotes of the hyperbola 9x2 −
16y 2 = 144 .

Solution. Dividing both sides by 144.

x2 y 2
− =1
16 9
Ehich is of the form given in (8) with a = 4 and b = 3. Since c2 = 16+9 = 25,
3 3
the foci are (±5, 0). The asymptotes are lines y = x and y = − .
4 4
Example 6.4.49. : find the foci and equation of the hyperbola with vertices
(0, ±1) and asymptote y = 2x.
b 1 5
Solution. Using (9), we see that a = 1 and = and c2 = a2 + b2 = .
r ! a 2 4
5
The foci are 0, ± and the equation of the hyperbola is y 2 − 4x2 = 1.
2

6.4.16 Transformations of Conics

Just as we have seen with parabola, ellipses (circle) and hyperbola can also
be transformed in various ways, which are; vertical translation, horizontal

202
translation, vertical shrinking and horizontal stretching, these transforma-
tions correspond to f (x) + c, f (x + c), f (cx), cf (x) respectively. We shall
not look into them in detail again but just pick now. to recall the mentioned
transformations a review on the quadratic functions graph is recommended.

6.4.17 Shifted Conics

We shift conics by taking the standard equation (2), (3), (5), (6), (8) and (9)
and replace x and y by x − h and y − k.

Example 6.4.50. : Find an equation of the ellipse with foci (2, −2), (4, −2)
and vertices (1, −2), (5, −2)

Solution. The major axis is the line segment that join the vertices (1, −2), (5, −2)
and has length 4, so a = 2. The distance between the foci is 2, so c = 1.
Thus, b2 = a2 − c2 = 3. Since the center of the ellipse is (3, −2), we replace
x and y in (5) by x − 3 and y + 2 to obtain
(x − 3)2 (y + 2)2
+ =1
4 3
As the equation of the ellipse.

Example 6.4.51. : Sketch the conic 9x2 − 4y 2 − 72x + 8y + 176 = 0 and

find its foci.

Solution. We complete the square s follows:

4(y 2 − 2y) − 9(x2 − 8x) = 176

4(y 2 − 2y + 1) − 9(x2 − 8x + 16) = 176
4(y − 1)2 − 9(x − 4)2 = 36
(y − 1)2 (x − 4)2
− = 1
9 4
This i in the form (9) except that x and y are replaced by x − 4 and y − 1.
Thus a2 = 9, b2 = 4 and c2 = 13. The hyperbola is shifted 4 units to the
√ √
right and 1 unit upward. The foci are (4, 1 + 13), (4, 1 − 13) and the
3
vertices are (4, 4), (4, −2). The asymptotes are y − 1 = ± (9x − 4). The
2
hyperbola is sketched below.

203
Activity Five

1. find the standard form of the equation of the parabola with the given
characteristic(s) and vertex at the origin.

a) Focus: (−2, 0)
b) Focus: (0, −2)
 
1
c) Focus: 0,
2
 
3
d) Focus; − , 0
2
e) Directrix: y = 1
f) Directrix: y = −2
g) Directrix: x = −1
h) Directrix: x = −1
i) Directrix: x = 4

2. Find the standard form of the equation of the parabola with the given
characteristic(s) and vertex at the origin.

a) Passes through the point (4, 6); horizontal axis

204
 b) Passes through the point (−2, −2); Vertical axis
 
1
c) Passes through the point −2, ; vertical axis
4
 
1
d) Passes through the point , −4
2
3. Find the vertex and focus of the parabola and sketch
1
a) y = x2
2
2
b) y = 3x
c) x2 + 12y = 0
d) y 2 = −6x
e) x + y 2 = 0
f) y = −4x2

4. Find the center and vertex of the ellipse and sketch its graph.
x2 y 2
a) + =1
25 16
x2 y2
b) + =1
121 144
x2 y 2
c) + =1
36 7
x2 y2
d) + =1
100 49 2
item[e)]4x + 9y 2 = 36
9x2 9y 2
f) + =1
25 16
5. Find the center and radius of the circles.

a) x2 + y 2 + 4x − 10y = 0
b) x2 + y 2 = y − 4x
c) 2x2 + 2y 2 + 4x − 8y = 0
d) 3x2 + 3y 2 − 6x + 12y + 11 = 0

205
6. Find the standard form of the equation of the hyperbola with the given
characteristics.
1 1
a) Vertices: (±6, 7); asymptotes: y = − x + 7, y = x + 7
2 2
√
b) Vertices: (0, 0), (0, −4); passes through the point (2, 2( 5 − 1))
c) Vertices: (−10, 3), (6, 3); foci: (−12, 3), (8, 3)
d) Vertices: (2, 2), (−2, 2); foci: (4, 2), (−4, 2)
e) Foci: (0, 0), (8, 0); asymptotes: y = ±2(x − 4)
f) Foci: (3, ±2); asymptotes: y = ±2(x − 3)

7. Identify the conic by writing its equation in standard form. Then sketch
its graph and describe the transformation.

a) x2 − 6y + 2y + 9 = 0
b) 6x2 + 16y 2 − 16x + 24y − 3 = 0
c) y 2 − 12y − 8x + 20 = 0
d) x2 + 9y 2 + 10x + 18y + 25 = 0
e) x2 + y 2 − 2x − 4y + 5 = 0
f) 4x2 + y 2 − 16x + 51 = 0

206
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207