DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

Basic Premises of 6 Broad Theoretical Traditions

1. Psychoanalytic: Freud
2. Learning: Skinner, Watson, Vygotsky
The Nature of Scientific Theories 3. Cognitive-Development: Piaget, Vygotsky,
• Theory Kohlberg
o Set of concepts & propositions that 4. Information Processing: Post-modern
a scientist believes to be true about premise of psychology; Computer Analogy
a specific area of investigation. (human mind is just like a computer).
o Set of concepts & propositions 5. Evolutionary: Genetic, Heredity,
designed to organize, describe, & Survivability of genes over the years.
explain an existing set of 6. Ecological: Culture, Environment
observations. Piaget’s Cognitive Development
o Set of related assumptions that
allows scientists to use logical • Basic Principles
deductive reasoning to formulate o Through schemes, children give
testable hypotheses. meaning of the world.
▪ We already have innate
schemes such as blinking,
reflexes, earing, chewing,
sucking.
o Children are adding and fine-tuning
their schemes to adapt to their
environment.
o As the child being developed
progressively, schemes change from
physical to functional, conceptual,
& abstract (hypotheticodeductive
thinking).
• Basic Terms of Piaget’s Theory
o Assimilation: used when new
experiences fit into existing
schemes; required to benefit from
experience
o Accommodation: used when
modification is been applied to
scheme as a consequence of new
 experiences; allows for dealing with o Preoperational Thinking:
completely new experiences. ▪ Appearance is reality:
o Equilibrium: balance between Children believe that an
assimilation and accommodation. object’s appearance tells
o Disequilibrium: more what the object is really
accommodation than assimilation. like.
o Equilibration: ▪ Centration: Narrowly
▪ inadequate schemes are focused type of thought;
replaced w/ more advanced typically have difficulty
& mature schemes. solving conservation
▪ Occurs 3 times during problems.
development resulting in 4
stages of:

o Sensorimotor Thinking:
▪ Object Permanence: ▪ Egocentrism: Cannot
Understanding that objects understand any perspective
exist independently of other than one’s own.
oneself. ▪ Animism: belief that
inanimate objects have
human feelings and
intentions.
o Concrete-operational Thinking:
▪ Children perform mental
operations.
▪ Actions are guided by laws
established by laws
established through
previously acted upon
objects or ideas w/
consistent result.
▪ Thinking is bound to the
concrete here and now.
▪ For most 7=11 yrs old, a
short period of happiness is
always better than its
eternal distress as a
consequence.
 o Formal Operational Thinking ▪ Fixation: Oral (Addiction
o Hypothetico-deductive in smoking and alcohol,
reasoning. stress eating, too talkative)
o Subordinate reality to o Anal Stage (1.5-3 yrs old)
possibility. ▪ Toilet training/societal
o Futuristic thinking demands
▪ Erogenous zone: ANUS
Sigmund Freud: School of Psychoanalysis ▪ Early Phase: Expulsion
• Psychoanalysis: People are driven by (Anal expulsion, impulsive
motives & conflicts that are largely personality)
unconscious. ▪ Late Phase: Retention
(Anal retention, organized
• Focuses on the unconscious
personality)
• Provinces of the Mind
▪ Fixation: E/R personality
o Id: Birth; immediate pleasure
gratification; innate
o Ego: Cognitive processing of what
is in reality; balances id and
superego.
o Superego: Early Childhood: Moral
values introjection.
o Imbalance of the distribution of
psychic energy among id, ego, *
superego will resort to
psychological problems.
• Defense Mechanisms

o Phallic Stage (3-6 yrs old)

▪ Critical period of moral
development
▪ Erogenous Zone:
GENITALS
▪ Where oral and anal
fixations manifest.
▪ Oedipus Complex:
✓ When a bot
discovers penis,
he develops a
sexual attraction
to his mother.
✓ RESULT:
Castration
• Fixation: part of the libido is still suck to an Anxiety: hatred.
early stage which make the development on Jealousy, &
hold competition
• Psychosexual Stages of Development toward his
o Oral Stage (Birth-1.5 yrs old) mother.
▪ Erogenous zone: MOUTH ✓ RESOLUTION:
▪ Early Phase: Sucking Identify his father
▪ Later Phase: Biting ✓ PROBLEM: Go
▪ Over/Underfed, putting through life tyring
things in mouth that are not to prove his
supposed to be put toughness,
 Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

▪ Electra Complex:
✓ The girl desires
the father but
realizes that she
does not have a
penis.
✓ RESULT: Penis
Envy: girl blames
her mother for
being in a
“castrated state” • Everyone moves through the stages because
and this creates of biological maturation & social demands.
great tension • Previous stages influence the next.
between them. • When conflicts arise, people have the
✓ RESOLUTION: opportunity to grow or fail equally.
repressing her • Stages:
desire for her
father &
substituting the
wish for a penis
w/ the wish for a
baby. The girl
then represses her
feelings and
identifies w/ the
mother to take on
the female gender
o Too much thesis: Maladaptive
role.
o Too much antithesis: Malignant
o Latency Stage (6-12 yrs)
(neurotic)
▪ Sexual urges are tamed.
▪ Repression of sexual
conflicts.
▪ Outward diversion of
libido’ Peers & School
works
o Genital Stage (12 yrs above)
▪ Puberty reawakens sexual
instincts.
▪ Establish mature sexual
relationship.
▪ Pursue of biological
reproduction or pursuit of
long-lasting relationships
▪ Failure to achieve may be
from problems in the
previous stage.
o If basic strength is not developed,
quality of next stage will also not be
good.
o 1st stage: Too much trust – tendency
to being gullible
o Identity Vs Role Confusion: Should
settle 3 things (sexuality, ideologies,
careers.)
PSYCHOLOGICAL STSEM OF MORALITY: L
KOHLBERG

Morality

• Moral standard w/ regard to behavior.

• Moral responsibility; conscience
• Moral identity; capability for righ/ wrong
action

Psychological System of Morality

• Kohlberg’s conception of stages entails a

view of moral reasoning as the application of
a moral principle/rule to dilemma in order to
generate a solution.

• Basis of Kohlberg’s theory

 • implies that nurture is everything & that
nature,/ hereditary environment counts for
nothing.
• Well-learned associations between externa
stimuli & observable responses are the
building blocks of development.
• Positive Reinforcement: any stimulus that,
when added to a situation increases the
probability that a given behavior will occur.
• Negative Reinforcement: removal of an
aversive stimulus from a situation,; increases
the probability of a preceding behavior.
• Positive Punishment: presentation of an
aversive stimulus.
• Negative Punishment: removal of a positive
reinforcer.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

• Social Learning as Reciprocal

Determinism
o Notion that the flow of influence
between children & their
environments is a 2-way street; the
environment may affect the child,
but the child’s behavior also
influences the environment.
o Reciprocal Determinism: human
development reflects an interaction
LEARNING among an active person (P), the
person’s behavior (B), and the
Watson’s Behaviorism environment (E).

• Claimed that he could take a dozen healthy Sociocultural Influences:

infants and mold them to be whatever he
• Sociocultural Theory – focused on how
chose regardless of their background/
ancestry. culture (beliefs, values, traditions, & skills of
 a social group) is transmitted from generation Ethology
to generation.
• Acquire new ways of thinking & behavior • Bowlby believed that children display a wode
through cooperative dialogues w/ more variety of programmed behaviors. They also
knowledgeable members of society. claim that each of these responses promotes a
particular kind of experience that will help
• Children master the new skills through their
the individual to survive & develop normally.
interactions w/ more competent people are
• Ethology: study of the evolutionary basis of
often specific to their culture rather than
universal. behavior & the contributions of evolved
responses to the human species’ survival &
Lev Vygotsky development.
• Behavior & development w/ a focus on the
• Cognitive development is shaped by the survival of the individual.
sociocultural context.
• Culture provides tools of thought (how to
approach & solve problems)
• Children as social beings
• Culture & Thought
o Cognitive development varies
society by society (based on tools
available).
o How do children acquire society’s
mental tools? (Interaction w/ parents
& members of the culture).
• Zone of Proximal Development
o Gap between what an individual can
accomplish independently & what
can she accomplish w/ the guidance
& encouragement of a more skilled
partner.

HEREDITY, PRENATAL, DEVELOPMENT,

& BIRTH

Nature & Nurture

• Nature: heredity plays the most

important role in bringing about that
feature.
Information-Processing Viewpoint • Nurture: environment is most
• Theorists view cognitive development as the significant in shaping the way we are.
age-related changes that occur on the mind’s • There is a constant interplay between the
hardware (brain & PNS) and software 2 forces, we cannot isolate the root of
(mental processes such as attention, any single behavior as a result solely of
perception, memory, & problem-solving nature or nurture.
strategies) • Almost all human features are:
 o Polygenic: result of many HEREDITY: The Epigenetic Framework
genes.
o Multifactorial: result of many The Human Genome Project
factors, both genetic and • internationally funded effort to map the
environmental. locations of human genes & understand the
• Genetic make up sets up a range of role these genes play in development, health,
possibilities. & illness.
• Genes may or may not be realized • Longitudinal project
depending upon one’s environmental • Genes
experiences. o Segments of chromosomes vary in
• We account NATURE on 1st yr of one’s length
life; BIDIRECTIONAL is the o 46 strands of a chemical substance
interaction between nature and nurture. called DNA contains in the nucleus
• Bidirectional interplay: Environment of each human cell.
affects the expressing of genes just as o Genes is inside the DNA: our
genetic predispositions can impact a genetic information
person’s potentials. Environmental • Understanding the role of genes in health &
circumstances can trigger symptoms of a illness can bring about both harm and good.
genetic disorder.
o Ex.) Diathesis Stress Model of Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins
Psychological Disorders:
• Monozygotic/ Identical Twins
Diathesis is the predisposition;
environment is the stress that o Occur when a single zygote/
triggered the predisposition. fertilized egg split apart in the 1 st 2
weeks of development.
INTELLIGENCE: The Nature Side or The Genetic • Dizygotic/Fraternal Twins
Side o 2 eggs/ ova are released and
fertilized by 2 separate sperm
Nature Side
Genotypes & Phenotypes
• Heritability: statistic that represents
proportion of phenotypic variance that is due • Genotype: Genetic complement coded in
to genetic differences DNA inherited from our parents.
• Intelligence is inherited; in a person’s • Phenotype: expression of genes in
genetics behavioral/ physical traits that we can
o Maternal-effects’ model: estimates measure; Observable features.
of heritability: 80% (Bouchard et • Not 2 people have identical genotypes except
al., 1990) & 50% (Plomin 1990, identical twins.
1995) • Dominant Genes: express themselves in the
phenotype even when paired w/ a different
Nurture Side (Environmental Factors)
version of the gene.
• Environment plays a significant role in a • Recessive Genes: express themselves only
person’s mental ability. when paired w/ a similar version gene
• Education, SES, nutrition, parents’ behavior, • Incomplete Dominance: when dominant
alcohol use, criminal behavior, emotional gene does not entirely suppress the recessive
adaptation, amount of time spent reading/ gene.
even wathing television.
 • Most characteristic are Polygenic: They are
not the result of a single gene; but of several
o Achondroplasia
genes.
▪ Most common form of
Chromosomal Abnormalities & Genetic Disorders disproportionate short
stature.
• Chromosomal abnormality: occurs when a ▪ Individual has abnormal
child inherits too many or too few bone growth resulting in
chromosomes. short stature,
o If the abnormal number occurs on disproportionately short
pair 21/23, individual may have arms and legs, short
certain physical/ other abnormalities fingers, large head, &
(eg. Trisomy 21/ Down Syndrome: specific facial features.
3 pairs rather than 2 on pair 21) ▪ 1 in 15,000/40,000
• Sex-linked chromosomal abnormality: • RECESSIVE Disorders (Homozygous
when the abnormality is on pair 32
o Turner Syndrome: Females
o Klinefelter Syndrome: Males

• Autosomal DOMINANT Disorders

(Heterozygous)
o Trait is from ONE PARENT
(opposite for autosomal recessive; 2
parents)
o Huntington’s Disease:
▪ affects an individual’s
nervous system Behavioral Genetics
▪ nerve cells become
damaged, causing various • Scientific study of the interplay between the
parts on the brain to genetic and environmental contributions to
deteriorate. behavior.
▪ Affect’s movement, • Genotype-Environment Correlations
behavior, & cognition. o Refer to the processes by which
▪ 1 in 10,000 genetic factors contribute to
o Tourette Syndrome variations in the environment.
▪ Tic disorder which results o Genes + Environment & Lifestyle +
in uncontrollable motor & YOU
vocal ticks as well as body
jerking.
▪ 1 in 250
 o Growth during prenatal
development occurs in 2 primary
directions:
▪ Cephalocaudal
Development: from head
to tail.
▪ Proximodistal
Development: midline
outward
o Major structure of the body are
• Genotype-Environment Interactions taking form
o Genetic susceptibility to the o Most vulnerable to damage if
environment. exposed to harmful substances
o Potential Mothers are not often
aware of the risks.
• Fetal Period
o Organism is referred to as a fetus:
▪ Develop hair, nails, teeth &
excretory system &
Prenatal Development: 266-280 days (38-40 weeks)
digestive system
o By the 12th week, the fetus has all its
body parts including external
genitalia.
o Age of viability can be determined
by 6 months

• Germinal Period
o Starts at conception
o Zygote (fertilized egg) contains the Prenatal Brain Development
combined genetic information from • 4 Themes of Brain Development
both parents 1. Familiar Development Principle: vital
o After 5 days of mitosis there are 100 structures and systems develop first.
cells, which is now called 2. Later-developing brain structures
Blastocytes. tend to inhibit earlier-developing
• Embryonic Period ones: as new system develops, it tends to
o Begins once the multi-cellular bring the existing systems more refined
organisms is implanted in the & nuanced control.
uterine wall. 3. Speed & Amount of communications
o Placenta: structure connected to the between: different brain regions
uterus that provides nourishment & increase over the course of development;
oxygen from mother to embryo via several brain regions mature and become
the umbilical cord more sophisticated through processes of
trimming away rather that proliferation
& growth.
Environmental Risks During Prenatal
Development

Teratology

• Study of factors that contribute to congenital

disabilities.
• Factors influencing prenatal risks.

Maternal Factors

• Most women over 35 who become pregnant

are in good health & have healthy
pregnancies.
• Mothers over 35 are more likely to have an
increased risk of:

Teratogens

• Agent that can cause birth

defects/abnormalities in a developing
embryo/fetus upon exposure.
 • Skin to skin
o Refers to the parent, most typically
after birth mother, having skin
contact w/ the newborn.
o Benefits between mother &
infant: psychosocially, physically,
behaviorally, & neurobehaviorally
o Mother & baby can feel lower stress
levels.
• Prenatal Care
o Prenatal Program: individual &
group childbirth setting.
Pregnancy & Childbirth
INFANCY TO TODDLERHOOD
Prenatal Assessment

• The Apgar (Dr. Virginia Apgar, 1952) • Fast but noticeable changes
o Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Physical Development
Activity, Respiration
• Conducted 1 minute & 5 minutes after birth
to assess the newborn’s overall condition.
• 5 measures are assessed:
o Heart rate
o Respiration
o Muscle tone (quickly assessed by a
skilled nurse when the baby is
handed to them or by touching the
baby’s palm)
o Reflex response (the Babinski reflex
is tested).
o Color

The Brain in the 1st 2 Years

• Dendrites: branching extensions that collect

information from other neurons, will undergo
a period of exuberance
• By age 2, A single neuron might have
thousands of dendrites
Assessing the Neonate
• Synaptogenesis: formation of connections
• Skin to skin contact is highly recommended between neurons (connections between
for all infants especially within the first hour neurons & synapses), continues from prenatal
after birth. period.
• Kangaroo Care: stabilize heartbeat, • forms thousands of new connections during
temperature, & breathing of a preterm infant infancy & toddlerhood
 • Synaptic Blooming: period of rapid neural • Gross Motor Skills
growth o voluntary movements
• Followed by Synaptic Pruning: where o use of large muscle groups
neural connections are reduced thereby o typically, large movements of the
making those that are used much stronger. arms, legs, head, & torso.
• Synapse Elimination: occurs in developing o These skills begin to develop first
brain that is shedding unnecessary o Eg. Lift head, prop up body, roll, sit,
connections. crawl, stand, walk
• Another significant change: Development of
Myelin Sheath: coating of fatty tissues
around the axon of the neuron.
• By the 2 yrs, most of the neural activity is
occurring in the Cortex: thin outer covering
of the brain involved in voluntary activity &
thinking.

• Fine Motor Skills

• Lateralization: process where different

functions become localized primarily brain
hemisphere.
Sensory Development
• Neuroplasticity: brain’s ability to change
(physically & chemically), to enhance • Vision
adaptability to environment & to compensate
for an injury.

Motor Development

• Occurs in orderly sequence

o From: reflexive reactions to more
advanced motor functioning.
• Development Principles: • Hearing
o Cephalocaudal (head to tail)
o Proximodistal (midline outward)
 • Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS):
death of a healthy infant occurs suddenly &
unexpectedly, & medical & forensic
investigation findings (including autopsy) are
inconclusive.
• Accidental Suffocation & Strangulation in
Bed: suffocation by soft bedding, another
person rolling on top of or against the infant
• Touch & Pain while sleeping, an infant being wedged
between 2 objects.

Nutrition

• Taste & Smell

Sleep & Nutrition

Sleep

• Infants need sleep

• Variation during the first few years due to
changes that happen woth feedings,
socialization, & cultural patterns.
• Sleep problems can be behavior related COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (Piaget &
(inconsistent routines, refusal to sleep), Sensorimotor Intelligence Infant Memory)
physical (hunger/ diaper change), or medical
Piaget & Sensorimotor (birth-1.5 yrs) Intelligence
(breathing, illness).

• Bed-sharing/ co-sleeping: decision made

based on family customs, environmental
conditions, & culture.
• Simple reflexes: Sucking, rooting Newborn Communication
• Substage 2: Accidentally discovered
movements/habits (circular motion
movement)
• Substage 3: start of assimilation
• In early sensorimotor stage THERE IS
STILL NO object permanence
• Object Permanence: critical milestone
during the sensorimotor period;
understanding that even if something is out of
sight, it still exists.
• Stranger Anxiety: fear of unfamiliar
people; develops at the same time of object
permanence. Babies may demonstrate this by
crying & turning away from a stranger by
clinging to a caregiver, or by attempting to
reach their arms toward familiar faces such as
parents.
• Securely attached baby = independence in
adulthood
• Insecurely attached = need for attention

Infant Memory

• Infant memory is rather fleeting &

fragile. As a result, older children &
adults experience:
• Infantile Amnesia: inability to recall
memories from the first few years of life.
• Infants older that 6 months of age can
retain information for more extended
periods of time
• Joint Attention: ability to focus on
objects/ individuals in social interactions
• Infants pay attention to the stimuli that
seem of interest to significant others.

Linguistic Considerations
Temperament John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

• Innate characteristics of the infant, including • Integrater object relations theory w/

mood, activity level, & emotional reactivity, evolutionary perspective.
noticeable son after birth. • Infused knowledge of ethology (Konrad’s
• Goodness of fit: caregiver’s ability to work idea of early bonding to a mother figure)
well & accurately read the child. Meaning, • Study childhood directly & not rely on
their styles match & communication & distprted retrospective accounts from adults.
interaction can flow. • Theory came from observations of human &
• New York Longitudinal: 3 TYPES OF promate infants.
TEMPERAMENT • 3 stages of Separation Anxiety
o Chess & Thomas (1996) o Protest: when caregivers are out of
o Easy Child: (40%), able to quickly sight, infants cry, resist soothing
adapt to routine & new situations, done by others.
remains calm, is easy to soothe, & o Despair: infants become apathetic,
usually is in a positive mood. quiet, sad, passive, listless.
o Difficult Child: (10%), reacts o Detachment: infants become
negatively to new situations, has emotionally detached from other
trouble adapting to routine is usually people including caregiver
negative in mood & cries frequently. (mother). If caregiver returns, infant
o Slow-to-warm-up Child: (15%), has will disregard/ ignore her. Infants no
a low activity level, adjusts slow to longer upset when caregiver leaves.
new situations & is often negative in • Attachments formed during childhood have
mood. an important impact on adulthood.
• Parenting is bidirectional: Parents affect
children but children also influences parents. Erikson: Trust v Mistrust, Autonomy v Shame &
• Child characteristics such as temperament, Doubt
affect parenting behaviors and roles.

Forming Attachments

Harlow’s Research (SURROGATE MOTHER

EXPERIMENT)

• Harlow took infant monkeys from their

biological mothers
o Gave them inanimate surrogate
mothers.
o 1) simple construction of wire and Mary Ainsworth: The Strange Situation technique
wood
o 2) covered in foam rubber & soft • Technique developed for determining type of
terry cloth attachment style
• The infant monkeys went to the wire mother • sA stranger interact w/ the infant as mother
for food leaves.
• Spent significantly more time with the warm- • Critical behavior: How the infant reacts when
terry cloth mother which provided no food mother returns
but did provide comfort • 3 Attachment Style Ratings:
• The infant’s need for physical closeness & o Secure: when mother returns,
touching is referred to as contact conform infants are happy & initiate contact.
(believed to be the foundation for attachment) Infant are confident in the
• Harlow’s study confirmed that babies have accessibility & responsiveness of
social as well as physical needs. caregiver.
 o Anxious Resistant: infants are • Nutrition
ambivalent: when mother leaves o Appetite: Young children who groe
infants become unusually upset, accustomed to a high fat, very
when mother returns, the seek sweet, and salty flavors may have
contact but rejects being soothed trouble eating foods that have
o Anxious-Avoidant: infants stay subtler flavors such as fruits &
calm when mother leaves, accepts vegetables.
stranger, when mother returns o Eating Habits: Assure that (1) child
ignore & avoid her. will not starve, (2) child will receive
adequate nutrition. Preschoolers can
Measuring Infant Development
experience iron deficiencies if not
given well-balanced nutrition & if
given too much milk.
• Brain Maturation
o Serve & Return Interactions:
repeated interactions that build brain
development.
o Stress, Studying – helps brain, toxic
stress – destroys brain development
o Executive function + self regulation
o The brain continually reorganizes
itself by forming new neural
connections throughout life
• Infancy is a vulnerable stage. It’s not enough (neuroplasticity).
that babies receive good care, the care must • Motor Skill Development
be excellent. o “Look at me”: improves gross
EARLY CHILDHOOD motor skills as they run & jump.
Frequently ask caregivers to observe
• 2-6 yrs old (sometime 2-4). while thye hope/roll down a hill.
• Time of continued rapid growth especially in o “Itsy, Bitsy, Spider”: Fine motor
language & cognition areas. skills involve smaller action
• More control over their emotions & begin to muscles coordination. They’re
pursue activities reflecting personal interests. being reflected in refined activities
• Parents continue to be very important in the such as pouring water into a
child’s development as well as teachers and container, drawing, coloring, &
peers. using scissors.
• Toilet Training
Physical Development o Typically occurs first 2 years (24-36
months).
• Growth in Early Childhood
o Most children have control over
o 3 inches in height each year; 4-5
both bladdes & bowels between 3-4
pounds in weight each year.
yo.
o Age 3: will have all 20 of their
o Some children experience
primary teeth; Age 4: may have
elimination disorders that may
20/20 vision
require intervention (enuresis (pee)
o Children start to lose some of their
and encopresis (poop)).
baby fat, making them less like a
baby.
o Age 6: torso has lengthened & body
proportions have become more like
those of adults.
 • Sexual Development • Cartoons frequently show objects that appear
alive and take on lifelike qualities. Young
children do seem to think that objects that
move may be alive but after age 3, they
seldom refer to objects as being alive.

• Parents play a pivotal role in helping their

children develop healthy attitudes and
behaviors towards sexuality

Cognitive Development

• Self Concept
o Early childhood is a time of forming
an initial sense of self.
o Self Concept: our self description
according to various categories,
such as our external and internal
qualities.
o Self Esteem: evaluative judgement
about who we are.
• George Mead: Symbolic Interactionism
(“I and the Me” self)
o Me: socialized aspect of the person.
Social definition of who we are.
o I: active aspect of the person. Not
concerned w/ how others views us.
• Self Control: multo-faceted phenomenon
o includes response initiation,
response inhibition, & delayed
gratification.
o Response Initiation: ability to not
initiate a behavior before you have
• Types of Conservation evaluated all of the information.
o Response Inhibition: ability to stop
a behavior that has already begun.
o Delayed Gratification: ability to
hold out for a larger reward by
forgoing a smaller immediate
reward.
• Play
o Freud, Vygotsky, & Piaget all saw
play as providing positive outcomes
for children.
o Unoccupied Play: children’s
behavior seems more random &
without a specific goal. This is the
least common form of play.
o Solitary Play: children play by
themselves, do not interact w/
others, nor are they ADOLESCENCE
o B
• Begins with puberty & ends with the
o B
transition to emerging adulthood.
• Age of transformation: physical, cognitive, &
social-relational change
• Every person’s individual timetable for
puberty is different primarily due to heredity.
• Environmental factors such as diet and
exercise exert some influence

Physical Development

• Adolescence is a period of inevitable turmoil

that takes place during the transtition from
childhood to adukthood.
• Adolescence is a period of STURM UND
DRUNG (storm and stress) – Stanley Hall
• Storm: refers to a decreased level of self-
control
• Stress: increased levels of sensitivity

Growth in Adolescence

• Puberty: a period of rapid growth and sexual

menstruation
• Adrenarche: begins at 6-8 yrs old; increased
production of adrenal androgens (skeletal
growth)
• Gonadarche: follows major rush of estrogen
for gorls and testosterone for boys
 • Hormones: play an organizational role o Due to overactive sebaceous (oil-
(priming the body to behave in a certain way producing) glands.
once puberty begins) & an activational role o 5% of adolescents develop acne
(trigerring certain behavioral & physical (because of testosterone)
changes) o Can lead to adolescent to withdraw
• Adolescents experience an overall physical socially, especially if they are self-
growth spurt conscious about their skin or teased.
o For boys puberty starts at 11-15.
The most noticeable changes is
getting facial hair, erection, making
sperm, experiencing wet dreams,
exploring masturbation.
o Growth Spurt: taller, muscular,
deeper voice, acne, pubic hair,
underarm hair
o Testosterone
o Emotional Changes: intense mood
swings, new sexual feelings
interested in romantic/sexual way,
more privacy Cogntive Developmenyt
o For women: 8-13, lasts for 5-7
years. Body starts to grow (breasts,
pubic hair, under arm hair,
ovulation, period, hips wider, acne)

Sexual Development

• The physical growth spurt is followed by the

development of sexual maturity
• Sexual changes are divided into 2 categories:
Primary Sexual Characteristics &
Secondary Sexual Charactersitsics

• The brain undergoes dramatic changes during

adolescence

• female gametes are present at birth but are

immature. Each ovary contains about
400,000 gametes, but only 500 will become
mature eggs.
• Acne
o Consequence of hormonal changes
Psychosocial development • A wonderful yet tumultuous period of
knowing who you are & trying who you are
& trying to know another.
ADULTHOOD & OLD AGE

• Period when opposite factors affect lives.

• Can be a time when a person matures fully
into what who they are.
• Can be a time when life closes in & what was
once possibility is now limitation.
• Derived from the latin word adutus = grown
to full size and length/ matured
• Adults are individuals who have completed
their growth & are ready to assume their
role/status in society.
• Varying from culture to culture: longest
period in human development
• Subdivisions of Adulthood
o Early (18-40)
o Middle (40-60)
o Late (60 +)
o Characteristics:
▪ Period of adjustment (New
life patterns, new social
expectations)
▪ New roles to play
▪ Development of new
attitudes
▪ settling down age.

Physical Changes

• Aging is the result of normal wear and tear on

the body.
• Process of physical decline is slow and
gradual.
• Middle Aged Adults: hair starts turning gray
and begins to thin.
• Old Age: muscles and fat have built up over
the years begins to break down.
• People lose weight, become shorter, develop
more wrinkles.
• Particularly in Old Age: Health Problems
 o Most common causes of death may (31-60; Longest stage; time to take assume
be caused by a fast-moving lifestyle responsibility for society)
of young adults
o Heart Disease
o Cancer
o Cirrhosis of the liver
• Sexual Activity does not automatically
decline with age.
• The ability to comprehend new material &
think improves years & experiences.

Theories of Development (60 until the end of life; time of joy, playfulness,
wonder and senility, depression, despair)
Levinson’s Theory of Seasons of Life

Attitudes Towards Aging

• Empty Nest Syndrome

o Grief that many parents feel when
their children move out of home.
May occur after the last child leaves
home.
o Does not have to be traumatic
o Stable marriages make this event
bearable
o Depression
o Mots common in middle aged
women who are more likely to have
had the role of primary carer
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage • Fear of Growing Old: One of the most
common fears in society
(19-30; time of acquisition of intimacy)
o People see old age as being one step
from the grave.
o Many people do not want to use the
word “old” but prefer words such as
“elderly”/ “senior citizens”
• Ageism
o Many people think chronolocial age
is what makes people “old”
o Ageism: Prejudice/ discrimination
against the elederly
o We think that old people suffer from
poor health, live in poverty and are
frequent victims of crime.
 o We also think that the aged Death and Dying
withdraw from life and sit around
doing nothing • Thanatology: study of dying and death
• Changes in Life Situations • 5 Stages of Psychological Adjustment to
o Young people experience positive Death
transitions.
▪ Graduation, marriage,
parenthood
o Older people experience negative
transitions
▪ Retirement, widowhood
• Changes in Sexual Activity
o Mahority of people over the age of
65 continue yo be interested in sex
o Healthy partners enjoy sexual
activities onto their 70’s and 80’s
o Some do not engage in sexual
activity for the ff reasons:
▪ Poor health
▪ Death of a spouse
• Changes in Mental Functioning
o Changes in many of the mental
functions occur as people age but
changes in intelligence & memory
do not occur as much as people think
▪ Crystallized Intelligence:
ability to use accumulated
knowledge and leaning in
appropriate situations.
▪ Fluid Intelligence: ability
to solve abstract relational
problems and generate new
hypothesis
• Senile Dementia
o Term that describes memory loss,
forgetfulness, disorientation of time
& place
• Alzheimer’s Disease
o decline in the ability to think,
impaired attention, altered
personality & doffciulties in relating
to others.
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DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (2nd TERM, 2022-23) | (PSY224) | (December 20, 2022)

OUTLINE
I. Introduction III. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
II. Overview
III. Prenatal Development
IV. Birth
V. Postpartum Period • Course of Prenatal Development
VI. References o Germinal Period
▪ period of prenatal development that
I. INTRODUCTION
takes place in the first two weeks
after conception. It includes the
creation of the zygote, continued
• This section introduces certain stages of prenatal cell division, and the attachment of
development starting from the union of the gametes, the zygote to the uterine wall.
birth, and the post-partum period. Prenatal ▪ Blastocyst: inner layer of cells that
development consists of 2 main periods: the germinal develops during the germinal
and the fetal. The germinal period entails the 1st 2 period. These cells later develop
weeks of conception certain distinct characteristics of into the embryo.
the child can be already seen. On the other hand, fetal ▪ Trophoblast: outer layer of cells
stage delves on the last months of the pregnancy in that develops in the germinal
which the woman gets ready to give birth. Giving period. These cells provide
births entails 3 stages depending on the contractions nutrition and support for the
and the opening of the cervix. This usually lasts long embryo.
hours before the baby is delivered. Lastly, after birth, o Embryonic Period
postpartum depressions could occur since there is a ▪ Period of prenatal development that
sudden change in the mother’s body. occurs two to eight weeks after
conception. During the embryonic
II. OVERVIEW period, the rate of cell
differentiation intensifies, support
systems for the cells form, and
• Prenatal development is divided into three periods: organs appear.
germinal (conception until 10 to 14 days later), which ▪ Mass of cells is now called an
ends when the zygote (a fertilized egg) attaches to the embryo, and three layers of cells
uterine wall; embryonic (two to eight weeks after form
conception), during which the embryo differentiates ▪ Embryo’s endoderm is the inner
into three layers, life-support systems develop, and layer of cells, which will develop
organ systems form (organogenesis); and fetal (from into the digestive and respiratory
two months after conception until about nine months, systems.
or when the infant is born), a time when organ systems ▪ Mesoderm is the middle layer,
have matured to the point at which life can be which will become the circulatory
sustained outside the womb. system, bones, muscles, excretory
• Prenatal care varies extensively but usually involves system, and reproductive system.
health maintenance services with a defined schedule of ▪ Ectoderm is the outermost layer,
visits. which will become the nervous
• Childbirth occurs in three stages. The first stage, which system and brain, sensory receptors
lasts about 6 to 12 hours for a woman having her first (ears, nose, and eyes, for example),
child, is the longest stage. The cervix dilates to about and skin parts (hair and nails, for
10 centimeters (4 inches) by the end of the first stage. example)
The second stage begins when the baby’s head starts ▪ Amnion: part of the prenatal life-
to move through. support system that consists of a sac
• Emotional fluctuations on the part of the mother are containing a clear fluid in which the
common in this period, and they can vary a great deal developing embryo floats.
from one mother to the next. Postpartum depression ▪ Umbilical Cord: Part of the
characterizes women who have such strong feelings of prenatal life-support system that
sadness, anxiety, or despair that they have trouble contains two arteries and one vein
coping with daily tasks in the postpartum period. that connect the baby to the
Postpartum depression occurs in about 10 percent of placenta.
new mothers. The father also goes through a ▪ Placenta: prenatal life-support
postpartum adjustment. system that consists of a disk-
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 shaped group of tissues in which
small blood vessels from the
mother and offspring intertwine. • Teratology & Hazards to Prenatal Development
▪ Organogenesis: Organ formation o Teratogen: agent that can potentially cause
that takes place during the first two a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive
months of prenatal development. and behavioral outcomes. (The word comes
o Fetal Period: Lasting about seven months, from the Greek word tera, meaning
the prenatal period between two months “monster.”).
after conception and birth in typical
pregnancies.

o Prescription & Nonprescription Drugs

▪ Prescription Drugs: Prescription
drugs that can function as
teratogens include antibiotics, such
as streptomycin and tetracycline;
some antidepressants; certain
hormones, such as progestin and
synthetic estrogen; and Accutane
▪ Nonprescription Drugs: high
dosage of aspirin.
o Psychoactive drugs: act on the nervous
system to alter states of consciousness,
modify perceptions, and change moods
▪ Caffeine: large-scale study of
almost 60,000 women revealed that
o Brain Development maternal caffeine intake was linked
▪ By the time babies are born, it has to lower birth weight and babies
been estimated that they have as being born small for gestational
many as 20 to 100 billion neurons. age.
▪ Neurons: Nerve cells that handle ▪ Alcohol:
information processing at the ➢ Fetal Alcohol Spectrum
cellular level in the brain. Disorders: cluster of
▪ Neurons spend time moving to the abnormalities that appear
right locations and are starting to in the offspring of some
become connected. mothers who drink
▪ 4 Important Phases of Brain’s alcohol heavily during
Development during prenatal pregnancy.
period: Neural Tube, ▪ Nicotine: Maternal smoking during
Neurogenesis, Neuronal Migration, pregnancy also has been identified
Neural Connectivity as a risk factor for the development
of attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder in offspring.
▪ Cocaine: cocaine exposure during
prenatal development is associated
with reduced birth weight, length,
and head circumference
▪ Marijuana: prenatal marijuana
exposure was related to lower
intelligence in children
▪ Heroin: The difficulties include
withdrawal symptoms, such as
tremors, irritability, abnormal
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 crying, disturbed sleep, and o Methods of Childbirth
impaired motor control. Many still ▪ Medications: Analgesia (relieves
show behavioral problems at their pain), Anesthesia (used in late first-
first birthday, and attention deficits stage labor and during delivery to
may appear later in development block sensation in an area of the
o Incompatible Blood Types body or to block consciousness),
▪ Blood types are created by Oxytocin (hormone that promotes
differences in the surface structure uterine contractions; a synthetic
of red blood cells. One type of form called Pitoci is widely used to
difference in the surface of red decrease the duration of the first
blood cells creates the familiar stage of labor).
blood groups A, B, O, and AB. ▪ Natural Childbirth: method of
▪ If a pregnant woman is Rh-negative childbirth attempts to reduce the
and her partner is Rh-positive, the mother’s pain by decreasing her fear
fetus may be Rh-positive. If the through information about
fetus’ blood is Rh-positive and the childbirth and instruction in
mother’s is Rh-negative, the relaxation techniques to reduce pain
mother’s immune system may during delivery.
produce antibodies that will attack ▪ Prepared Childbirth: Developed by
the fetus. French obstetrician Ferdinand
o Environmental Hazards: radiation, toxic Lamaze, this childbirth strategy is
wastes, and other chemical pollutants similar to natural childbirth but
o Maternal Diseases: Syphilis, HIV, AIDS includes a special breathing
o Other Parental Factors: Diet & Nutrition, technique to control pushing in the
Age, Emotional States & Stress, Paternal final stages of labor and a more
Factors. detailed anatomy and physiology
• Prenatal Care: involves a defined schedule of visits course.
for medical care, which typically includes screening ▪ Cesarean Delivery: Surgical
for manageable conditions and treatable diseases that procedure in which the baby is
can affect the baby or the mother. removed from the mother’s uterus
• Normal Prenatal Development: Most of the time, through an incision made in her
does not awry. abdomen.
• Breech position: baby’s
position in the uterus that
IV. BIRTH
causes the buttocks to be
the first part to emerge
from the vagina.
• Assessing the Newborn
• The Birth Process
o Stages of Birth o Apgar Scale: widely used method of
▪ First stage is the longest of the assessing the health of newborns at one and
three. Uterine contractions are 15 to five minutes after birth. The Apgar Scale
20 minutes apart at the beginning evaluates an infant’s heart rate, respiratory
and last up to a minute. effort, muscle tone, body color, and refle
▪ The second birth stage begins irritability.
when the baby’s head starts to move
through the cervix and the birth
canal. It terminates when the baby
completely emerges from the
mother’s body.
▪ Afterbirth: third stage of birth,
when the placenta, umbilical cord,
and other membranes are detached
and expelled.
o Childbirth Setting & Attendants
▪ Midwifery: profession that provides
health care to women during
pregnancy, birth, and the o Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assesmnet
postpartum period (NBAS): measure that is used in the first
▪ Doulas: caregiver who provides month of life to assess the newborn’s
continuous physical, emotional, and neurological development, reflexes, and
educational support for the mother reactions to people and objects.
before, during, and after childbirth.
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 o Neonatala Intensive Care Unit Networs
Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS): An
“offspring of the NBAS, the NNNS provides
an assessment of the newborn’s behavior,
neurological and stress responses, and
regulatory capacities.
• Preterm & Low Borth Weight Infants
o Preterm & Small for Date Infants

o Consequences of Preterm Birth & Low

Birth Weight: Survival rates for infants who
are born very early and very small have risen,
but with this improved survival rate have
come an increased rate of severe brain
damage.
o Nurturing Low Births Weight & Preterm
Infants
▪ Kangaroo Care: Treatment for
preterm infants that involves skin-
to-skin contact.

V. POSTPARTUM PERIOD

• Period after childbirth or delivery that lasts for about

six weeks or until the mother’s body has completed its
adjustment and has returned to a nearly prepregnant
state.
• Physical Adjustments
o After delivery, a mother’s body undergoes
sudden and dramatic changes in hormone
production. When the placenta is delivered,
estrogen and progesterone levels drop steeply
and remain low until the ovaries start
producing hormones again.
• Emotional & Psychological Adjustments
o Postpartum Depression: condition
experienced by women who have such strong
feelings of sadness, anxiety, or despair that
they have trouble coping with daily tasks
during the postpartum period.
• Bonding: formation of a close connection, especially
a physical bond, between parents and their newborn in
the period shortly after birth.

VI. REFERENCES

Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development (17th ed.).

McGraw Hill.

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OUTLINE differentiation gradually working from top to

I. Introduction bottom.
II. Overview
III. Physical Growth & Development in Infancy o Proximodistal Pattern: Developmental
IV. Motor Development sequence in which growth starts at the center
V. Sensory & Perceptual Development of the body and moves toward the
VI. References extremities.
I. INTRODUCTION
• Height & Weight
o Growth slows considerably in the second
• This section introduces key developmental stages year of life (London & others, 2017). By 2
during the first months of an infant’s life. years of age, infants weigh approximately 26
Developmental stages ranging from physical to to 32 pounds, having gained a quarter to half
cognitive, and lastly, socioemotional are tackled in the a pound per month during the second year to
said chapter. Physical growth entails ways on how reach about one-fifth of their adult weight. At
babies’ brain could be monitored. Under these are 2 years of age, infants average 32 to 35 inches
EEG, MEG, & fNIRS. By this time, infants’ motor in height, which is nearly half of their adult
activities only ranges from grasping things but they height.
could also perceive the world around them. Other than o Growth is episodic. In infancy, growth spurts
that, breast feeding is also proven to be beneficial to may occur in a single day and alternate with
both the child and the mother as it reduces risks of long time frames characterized by little or no
acquiring certain diseases. growth for days and weeks.
• The Brain

II. OVERVIEW
o Shaken Baby Syndrome: brain and swelling and
hemorrhaging of infants.
• Physical Growth during infancy mostly entails o Electroencephalogram (EEG): measure of the
reflexes, basic walking, and minimal motor skills. brain’s electrical activity, to learn about the
Despite this, babies already have developed a sense of brain’s development in infancy.
perception such as size and shape constancy. o Functional near-infrared Spectroscopy
(fNIRS): uses very low levels of near-infrared
III. PHYSICAL GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
light to monitor changes in blood oxygen, to study
infants’ brain activity; portable and allows the
infants to be assessed as they explore the world
• Patterns of Growth around them.
o Magnetoencephalography (MEG): MEG maps
brain activity by recording magnetic fields
produced by electrical currents and is being used
to assess such perceptual and cognitive activities
as vision, hearing, and language in infants.
o The Brain’s Development

o As individuals develop from infancy through

adulthood, one of the most noticeable
physical changes is that the head becomes
smaller in relation to the rest of the body. The
fractions listed refer to head size as a
proportion of total body length at different
ages.
o Cephalocaudal Pattern: Developmental
sequence in which the earliest growth always
occurs at the top—the head—with physical
growth in size, weight, and feature

S 01 // C 01 ABANA 1 of 5
 development; the brain has
plasticity and is context
▪ Forebrain: portion farthes dependent; and development of
from the spinal cord; includes the brain and cognitive
cerebral cortex. development are closely linked.
▪ Cerebral cortex: coveres
forebrain like a wrinkled cap. • Sleep
▪ The brain has 2 halves (Left:
speech & grammar and Right: o Restores, replenishes, & rebuilds our bodies.
humor and metaphors o 1st Perspective: Evolutionary; all animals sleep,
Hemisphere). There are 4 and this sleep likely is necessary for survival.
lobes that work together. Thus, sleep may have developed because animals
➢ Frontal: voluntary needed to protect themselves at night
movement, thinking, o 2nd Perspective: sleep replenishes and rebuilds
personality, and the brain and body, which the day’s waking
intentionality or activities can wear out.
purpose. o 3rd Perspective: Sleep is critical for brain
➢ Occipital: vision plasticity.
➢ Temporal: hearing, o Typical newborn sleeps approximately 18 hours
language, processing, a day, but newborns vary greatly in how much
& memory. they sleep. The range is 10-21 hours a day.
➢ Parietal: registering o REM Sleep: In REM sleep, the eyes flutter
spatial location, beneath closed lids; in non-REM sleep, this type
attention, and motor of eye movement does not occur, and sleep is
control quieter.
o Shared Sleeping: Varies from culture; sharing
▪ Lateralization: specialization bed, separate room, in a crib.
of function in one hemisphere o Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS):
of the cerebral cortex. condition that occurs when infants stop breathing,
▪ Neuron: nerve cell that handles usually during the night, and die suddenly without
information processing. any apparent reason.
o Sleep and Cognitive Development: The link
between infant sleep and children’s cognitive
functioning likely occurs because of sleep’s role
in brain maturation and memory consolidation,
which may improve daytime alertness and
learning.

• Nutrition

o Nutritionists recommend that infants consume

approximately 50 calories per day for each pound
they weigh—more than twice an adult’s caloric
requirement per pound.
o Caregivers who are not sensitive to
▪ Axon: carries signals AWAY developmental changes in infants’ nutritional
from the cell body. They needs, caregivers who are negligent, and
release neurotransmitters into conditions of poverty can contribute to the
synapses which are tiny gaps development of eating problems in infants.
between neuron’s fibers. o Benefits of breastfeeding
▪ Dendrites: carry signals
TOWARD the cell body. o For Baby:
▪ Myelin Sheath: layer of fat ▪ Fewer gastrointestinal
cells that encases many axons. infections
It insulates axons and helps ▪ Reduced risk of allergies.
electrical signals travel faster ▪ Exclusive breast feeding for
down the axon. three months protects against
▪ Neuroconstructivist View: wheezing in babies, but
belief that biological processes whether it prevents asthma in
and environmental conditions older children is unclear.
influence the brain’s

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 ▪ Less likely to have developed which tell us where we are
ear, throat, and sinus in space; in vestibular
infections. organs in the inner ear that
▪ Less likely to become regulate balance and
overweight or obese in equilibrium; and in vision
childhood, adolescence, and and hearing.
adulthood • Newborn infants cannot
▪ Less likely to develop type 1 voluntarily control their
diabetes in childhood. posture.
▪ Lower rate of SIDS. ▪ Learning to walk
▪ Those who were breast fed • Even young infants can
exclusively at 6 to 8 weeks of make the alternating leg
age were less likely to have ever movements that are needed
been hospitalized through for walking. The neural
early childhood than their pathways that control leg
formula-fed counterparts. alternation are in place
o For Mother: from a very early age, even
▪ Lower incidence of breast at birth or before. Indeed,
cancer. researchers have found that
▪ Reduced ovarian cancer. alternating leg movements
▪ Reduction in type 2 diabetes. occur during the fetal
period and at birth.
IV. MOTOR DEVELOPMENT ▪ The 1st yr: Motor Development
Milestones & Variations

• The Dynamics Systems View

o perspective on motor development that seeks
to explain how motor behaviors are
assembled for perceiving and acting
• Reflexes
o Built-in reactions to stimuli that govern the
newborn’s movements, which are automatic
and beyond the newborn’s control.
▪ Rooting Reflexes: A newborn’s
built-in reaction that occurs when
the infant’s cheek is stroked or the ▪ Development in the 2nd yr
side of the mouth is touched. In • In the second year of life,
response, the infant turns his or her toddlers become more
head toward the side that was motorically skilled and
touched, in an apparent effort to find mobile. Motor activity
something to suck. during the second year is
▪ Sucking Reflex: newborn’s built-in vital to the child’s
reaction to automatically suck an competent development,
object placed in its mouth. The and few restrictions, except
sucking reflex enables the infant to for safety, should be placed
get nourishment before he or she has on their adventures.
associated a nipple with food and • 18 to 24 months, toddlers
also serves as a self-soothing or self- can walk quickly or run
regulating mechanism. stiff for a short distance,
• Gross Motor Skills balance on their feet in a
o Large muscle activities such as moving squatting position while
one’s arms and walking. playing with objects on the
o Grasping Reflex: neonatal reflex that floor, walk backward
occurs when something touches the infant’s without losing their
palms and the infant responds by grasping balance, stand and kick a
tightly ball without falling, stand
▪ Development of posture and throw a ball, and jump
• Posture is a dynamic in place.
process that is linked with • Fine Motor Skills
sensory information in the o Motor skills that involve more finely tuned
skin, joints, and muscles, movements, such as finger dexterity.
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 o Palmar Grasp: infants grip with the whole o Color Visions: By 8 weeks, and possibly
hand. as early as 4 weeks, infants can
o Pincer Grip: toward the end of the first year, discriminate between some colors.
infants also grasp small objects with their o Perceptual Constancy
thumb and forefinger. ▪ Sensory stimulation is changing
o Perceptual-motor coupling: necessary for the but perception of the physical
infant to coordinate grasping. world remains constant.
▪ Size Constancy: recognition
that an object remains the same
VI. SENSORY & PERCEPTUAL MOVEMENT
even though the retinal image
of the object changes as the
observer moves toward or away
• Sensation: product of the interaction between from the object.
information and the sensory receptors—the eyes, ears, ▪ Shape Constancy: recognition
tongue, nostrils, and skin. that an object’s shape remains
the same even though its
orientation to the observer
o Perception: interpretation of what is sensed. changes.

• Ecological View o Perception of Occluded Objects

o view that perception functions to bring ▪ In the first two months of
organisms in contact with the environment postnatal development, infants
and to increase adaptation. don’t perceive occluded objects
o Affordances: Opportunities for interaction as complete; instead, they
offered by objects that fit within our perceive only what is visible
capabilities to perform functional activities. o Depth Perception
• Visual Perception ▪ Research have found that
infants could perceive depth.
o At birth, the nerves and muscles and lens
of the eye are still developing. As a o Other Senses
result, newborns cannot see small things
that are far away. The newborn’s vision
➢ Hearing: During the last two months of
is estimated to be 20/240 on the well-
pregnancy, as the fetus nestles in its
known Snellen chart used for eye
mother’s womb, it can hear sounds such
examinations, which means that a
as the mother’s voice, music, and so on
newborn can see at 20 feet what an adult
➢ Touch & Pain: Newborns do respond to
with normal vision can see at 240 feet.
touch. A touch to the cheek produces a
▪ Ways of studying Newborn’s
turning of the head; a touch to the lips
Perception
produces sucking movements
o Visual Preference Method: method
➢ Smell: Newborns can differentiate
used to determine whether infants can
odors; The expressions on their faces
distinguish one stimulus from another by
seem to indicate that they life the way
measuring the length of time they attend
vanilla & strawberries smell but do not
to different stimuli.
life the way rotten eggs and fish smell.
o Habituation: Decreased responsiveness
➢ Taste: Sensitivity to taste is present even
to a stimulus after repeated presentations
before birth; Human newborns learn
of the stimulus.
tastes prenatally through the amniotic
o Dishabituation: Recovery of a
fluid and in breast milk after birth.
habituated response after a change in
stimulation.
o High-Amplitude Sucking: assesses an o Intermodal Perception: ability to relate and
infant’s attention to sound; infants are integrate information from two or more sensory
given a nonnutritive nipple to suck, and modalities, such as vision and hearing.
the nipple is connected to a sound- o NATURE, NURTURE, AND PERCEPTUAL
generating system. DEVELOPMENT
o The Orienting Response and Eye-
Tracking: technique that can be used to ▪ Nativists
determine whether an infant can see or ✓ Nature proponents.
hear is the orienting response, which ✓ the ability to perceive the
involves turning one’s head toward a world in a competent,
sight or sound. organized way is inborn or
innate

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 ▪ Empiricists: emphasize learning
and experience are called

o Perceptual-Motor Coupling
➢ Children perceive in order to move and
move in order to perceive. Perceptual
and motor development do not occur in
isolation from each other but instead are
coupled.

VII. REFERENCES

Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development (17th ed.).

McGraw Hill.

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OUTLINE o Accommodation: concept of adjusting

I. Introduction schemes to fit new information and
II. Overview
III. Piaget’s Theory of Infant Development experiences.
IV. Learning, Attention, Remembering, & Conceptualizing o Organization: concept of grouping isolated
V. Language Development behaviors and thoughts into a higher order,
VI. References more smoothly functioning cognitive system.
o Equilibration: mechanism that Piaget
I. INTRODUCTION
proposed to explain how children shift from
one stage of thought to the next
• This section introduces key developmental stages
during the first months of an infant’s life. Stages • The Sensorimotor Stage
ranging from cognitive to socioemotional are tackled o lasts from birth to about 2 years of age;
in the said chapter. By this point, Piaget’s infants construct an understanding of the
sensorimotor theory is tested and further expounded. world by coordinating sensory experiences
Object permanence is proven to be evident among with motoric actions
infants as language is at its minimal peak. Babies only o SUBSTAGES:
communicate through their cries and babbling. Lastly,
Language development is usually influenced by
biological factors such as damage to Broca’s and
Wernicke’s area or by environmental factors in which
techniques such as recasting, expanding, and labeling
are used.

II. OVERVIEW

• Piaget’s theory delves on basic reflexes of a child. It ▪ Object Permanence:

comprises of 6 substages that details reflexive understanding that objects and
behaviors. events continue to exist even when
• Infants don’t blindly imitate everything they see and they cannot directly be seen, heard,
often make creative errors. or touched
• Babies’ cries are their usual way of communicating
what they need from their caregivers. Along with this,
III. LEARNING, ATTENTION, REMEMBERING, &
babies also produce cooing sounds to relay emotion. CONCEPTUALIZING
• Infants can understand basic things even though they
still cannot speak.

• Conditioning
II. PIAGET’S THEORY OF INFANT DEVELOPMENT o Skinner’s Theory of Operant
Conditioning: the consequences of a
• Piaget’s theory is a general, unifying story of how behavior produce changes in the probability
biology and experience sculpt cognitive development. of the behavior’s occurrence.
Piaget thought that, just as our physical bodies have • Attention
structures that enable us to adapt to the world, we build o focusing of mental resources on select
mental structures that help us adjust to new information.
environmental demands. Piaget stressed that children o 1st yr of life: orienting/investigative
actively construct their own cognitive worlds; process: involves directing attention to
information is not just poured into their minds from the potentially important locations in the
environment environment (that is, where) and recognizing
• Cognitive Processes objects and their features (such as color and
o Schemes: actions or mental representations form) (that is, what).
that organize knowledge. o 3-9 months: Sustained Attention: allows
o Assimilation: using existing schemes to deal infants to learn about and remember
with new information or experiences.
S 01 // C 01 Group 0: ABANA 1 of 3
 characteristics of a stimulus as it becomes meaningful sentences using a finite set of
familiar. words and rules.

▪ Habituation: decreased • Language’s System

responsiveness to a stimulus after
repeated presentations of the
stimulus
▪ Dishabituation: increase in
responsiveness after a change in
stimulation.
▪ Joint Attention: Process that
occurs when individuals focus on
the same object and are able to track
another’s behavior, one individual
directs another’s attention, and
reciprocal interaction takes place.
• How Language Develops
• Memory o Recognizing Language Sounds: from birth
o Retention of information over time. up to about 6 months of age, infants are
o Encoding: process in which information is “citizens of the world”: They recognize when
transferred to memory. sounds change most of the time, no matter
o Implicit Memory: memory without what language the syllables come from.
conscious recollection—memories of skills o Babbling & Other Vocalizations:
and routine procedures that are performed ▪ Crying – Different types of cries
automatically. signal different things.
o Explicit Memory: conscious remembering ▪ Cooing - gurgling sounds that are
of facts and experiences. made in the back of the throat and
usually express pleasure
• Imitation during interaction with the
o Infants don’t blindly imitate everything they caregiver; Babies first coo at about
see and often make creative errors. He also 2 to 4 months.
argues that beginning at birth there is an ▪ Babbling - strings of consonant-
interplay between learning by observing and vowel combinations, such as “ba,
learning by doing (Piaget emphasized ba, ba, ba.” Infants’ babbling
learning by doing). influences the behavior of their
caregivers, creating social
▪ Deferred Imitation: Imitation that interaction that facilitates their own
occurs after a delay of hours or days. communicative
development.
• Concept Formation & Categorization
o Concept: Cognitive groupings of similar o Gestures: Infants start using gestures, such
objects, events, people, or ideas. as showing and pointing, at about 7 to 15
o Perceptual categorization: categorizations months of age with a mean age of
based on similar perceptual features of approximately 11 to 12 months.
objects, such as size, color, and movement, as o First Words:
well as parts of objects, such as legs for ▪ Infants understand their first words
animals. earlier than they speak to them.
▪ At 5 months of age, infants
recognize their name when someone
V. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT says it.
▪ Receptive Vocabulary: words child
understands
▪ Spoken/Expressive Vocabulary:
• Defining Language words the child uses.
o form of communication, whether spoken, ▪ Vocabulary Spurt: Rapid increase
written, or signed, that is based on a system in vocabulary that begins at
of symbols. Language consists of the words approximately 18 months
used by a community and the rules for ▪ Overextension: tendency to apply a
varying and combining them. word to objects that are
o Infinite Generativity: ability to produce and inappropriate for the word’s
comprehend an endless number of

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 meaning by going beyond the set of ▪ Insecure Disorganized: Babies
referents an adult would use. who show insecurity by being
▪ Underextension: tendency to apply disorganized and disoriented.
a word too narrowly; it occurs when
children fail to use a word to name a
VI. REFERENCES
relevant event or object.
o 2-word Utterances:
▪ By the time children are 18 to 24 Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development (17th ed.).
months of age, they usually speak in McGraw Hill.
two-word utterances.
▪ use of short and precise words
without grammatical markers such
as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other
connectives.

• Biological & Environmental Influences

o Biological Influences: 2 areas in the brain
involved in language:
▪ Broca’s Area - area in the left
frontal lobe of the brain involved in
producing words
▪ Wernicke’s Area - region of the
brain’s left hemisphere involved in
language comprehension
▪ Aphasia - loss or impairment of
language processing; damage in the
aforementioned areas (Broca –
difficulty producing words
correctly; Wernicke’s - poor
comprehension and often produce
fluent but incomprehensible
speech.)
▪ Language Acquisition Device:
Chomsky’s term that describes a
biological endowment enabling the
child to detect the features and rules
of language, including phonology,
syntax, and semantics.

o Environmental Influences
▪ Interaction View: emphasizes that
children learn language in specific
contexts.
▪ Child-Directed Speech
(Parentese): language spoken with
a higher-than-normal pitch, slower
tempo, and exaggerated intonation,
with simple words and sentences.
▪ Recasting: rephrasing something
the child has said that might lack the
appropriate morphology or contain
some other error.
▪ Expanding: adding information to a
child’s incomplete utterance.
▪ Labeling: naming objects that
children seem interested in
▪ Insecure Resistant: Babies who
often cling to the caregiver, then
resist the caregiver by fighting
against the closeness, perhaps by
kicking or pushing away

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 R2: Chapter 6
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (2nd TERM, 2022-23) | (PSY224) | (January 3, 2023)

OUTLINE ▪ Biology’s importance to emotion is

I. Introduction apparent in the changes in a baby’s
II. Overview
III. Emotional & Personality Development emotional capacities. Certain
IV. Social Orientation/ Understanding regions of the brain that develop
V. Social Contexts early in life (such as the brain stem,
VI. References hippocampus, and amygdala) play a
role in distress, excitement, and
I. INTRODUCTION
rage, and even infants display these
emotions.
▪ Cognitive processes, both in
• This section introduces key developmental stages immediate “in the moment”
during the first months of an infant’s life. contexts, and across childhood
Developmental stages ranging from physical to development, influence infants’ and
cognitive, and lastly, socioemotional are tackled in the children’s emotional development.
said chapter. Physical growth entails ways on how Attention toward or away from an
babies’ brain could be monitored. Under these are experience can influence infants’
EEG, MEG, & fNIRS. By this time, infants’ motor and children’s emotional responses.
activities only ranges from grasping things but they ▪ Social relationships provide the
could also perceive the world around them. Other than setting for the development of a rich
that, breast feeding is also proven to be beneficial to variety of emotions. When toddlers
both the child and the mother as it reduces risks of hear their parents quarreling, they
acquiring certain diseases. Lastly, theories made by often react with distress and inhibit
Piaget and Erikson provides claims on how personality their play.
is developed during this stage of life. o Early Emotions
▪ Primary Emotions: Emotions that
II. OVERVIEW are present in humans and other
animals and emerge early in life;
examples are joy, anger, sadness,
fear, and disgust.
• Physical Growth during infancy mostly entails ▪ Self-Conscious Emotions:
reflexes, basic walking, and minimal motor skills. Emotions that require self-
• Babies’ cries is their usual way of communicating awareness, especially consciousness
what they need from their caregivers. Along with this, and a sense of “me”; examples
babies also produce cooing sounds to relay emotion include jealousy, empathy, and
• Physical comfort and sensitive care, according to embarrassment
Erikson (1968), are key to establishing a basic sense of o Emotional Expression & Social
trust in infants. The infant’s sense of trust, in turn, is Relationships
the foundation for attachment and sets the stage for a ▪ Cries and smiles are two emotional
lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and expressions that infants display
pleasant place to be when interacting with parents.
These are babies’ first forms of
emotional communication
II. EMOTIONAL & PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ▪ Crying: Crying is the most
important mechanism newborns
have for communicating with their
• Emotional Development world.
✓ Basic Cry: rhythmic
o Emotions: Feeling, or affect, that occurs pattern usually consisting
when a person is in a state or interaction that of a cry, a briefer silence, a
is important to him or her. Emotion is shorter inspiratory whistle
characterized by behavior that reflect that is higher pitched than
(expresses) the pleasantness or the main cry, and then a
unpleasantness of the state a person is in or brief rest before the next
the transactions being experienced. cry.
o Biological, Cognitive, & Environmental ✓ Anger Cry: variation of the
Influences basic cry, with more excess

S 01 // C 01 Group 0: ABANA 1 of 4
 air forced through the o Self-Regulation: variations in the extent or
vocal. effectiveness of an individual’s ability to
✓ Pain Cry: sudden control his or her emotions.
appearance of a long, o Chess & Thomas’ Classification
initial loud cry without ▪ Easy Child: child who is generally
preliminary moaning, in a positive mood, quickly
followed by breath establishes regular routines in
holding. infancy, and adapts easily to new
▪ Smiling: Smiling is a key social experiences.
signal and a very important aspect of ▪ Difficult Child: child who tends to
positive social interaction in react negatively and cry frequently,
developing a new social skill engages in irregular daily routines,
✓ Reflexive Smile: smile that and is slow to accept change.
does not occur in response ▪ Slow-to-warm-up child: child who
to external stimuli. It has a low activity level, is somewhat
happens during the first negative, and displays a low
month after birth, usually intensity of mood.
during sleep. o Kagan’s Behavioral Inhibition
✓ Social Smile: smile in ▪ focuses on the differences between a
response to an external shy, subdued, timid child and a
stimulus, which early in sociable, extraverted, bold child.
development is typically a ▪ shyness with strangers (peers or
face. adults) as one feature of a broad
▪ Fear: One of a baby’s earliest temperament category called
emotions is fear, which typically inhibition to the unfamiliar.
first appears at about 6 months of ▪ Inhibited children react to many
age and peaks at about 18 months. aspects of unfamiliarity with initial
✓ Stranger Anxiety: infant’s avoidance, distress, or subdued
fear and wariness of affect, beginning at about 7 to 9
strangers; it tends to appear months of age.
during the second half of ▪ Inhibition shows considerable
the first year of life. stability from infancy through early
✓ Separation Anxiety: childhood.
infant’s distressed crying ▪ If parents had a childhood history of
when the caregiver leaves behavioral inhibition, their children
o Emotion Regulation & Coping who had a high level of behavioral
▪ From early in infancy, babies put inhibition were at risk for
their thumbs in their mouths to developing anxiety disorders
soothe themselves. But at first, o Rothbart & Bates’ Classification
infants mainly depend on caregivers ▪ Extraversion/surgency: approach,
to help them soothe their emotions, pleasure, activity, smiling, and
as when a caregiver rocks an infant laughter. Kagan’s uninhibited
to sleep, sings lullabyes to the children fit into this category.
infant, gently strokes the infant, and ▪ Negative affectivity: These
so on. children are easily distressed; they
▪ Later in infancy, when they become may fret and cry often. Kagan’s
aroused, infants sometimes redirect inhibited children fit this category.
their attention or distract themselves ▪ Effortful Control: “attentional
in order to reduce their arousal. By focusing and shifting, inhibitory
2 years of age, toddlers can use control, perceptual sensitivity, and
language to define their feeling low-intensity pleasure
states and the context that is
upsetting them.

• Temperament o Biological Foundations & Experience

o Involves individual difference in behavioral ▪ Physiological characteristics have
styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of been linked with different
responding. temperaments.
o Reactivity: variations in the speed and ▪ inhibited temperament is associated
intensity with which an individual responds with a unique physiological pattern
to situations with positive or negative that includes high and stable heart
emotions. rate, high level of the hormone
S 01 // C 02 Group 0: ABANA 2 of 4
 cortisol, and high activity in the the wrapping off a package, or
right frontal lobe of the brain. deciding what to eat
▪ Contemporary view - temperament
is a biologically based but evolving
III. SOCIAL ORIENTATION/UNDERSTANDING ATTACHMENT
aspect of behavior; it evolves as the
child’s experiences are incorporated
into a network of self-perceptions
and behavioral preferences that • Social Orientation/Understanding Attachment &
characterize the child’s personality. Its Development
o Gender, Culture, & Temperament o Social Orientation: infants as young as 6
▪ Parents might react differently to an months of age show an interest in each other,
infant’s temperament depending on their interaction with peers increases
whether the baby is a boy or a girl. considerably in the last half of the second
▪ Behavioral inhibition is more highly year. Between 18 and 24 months of age,
valued in China than in North children markedly increase their imitative
America, and researchers have and reciprocal play, such as imitating
found that Chinese children are nonverbal actions like jumping and running.
more inhibited than Canadian o Locomotion: The development of these gross
infants are. motor skills results from factors such as the
o Goodness of fit & Parenting development of the nervous system, the goal
▪ Goodness of fit: match between a the infant is motivated to reach, and
child’s temperament and the environmental support for the skill. Once
environmental demands with which infants have the ability to move in goal
the child must cope directed pursuits, the rewards from these
• Personality Development pursuits lead to further efforts to explore and
o enduring personal characteristics of develop skills.
individuals. o Joint Attention: occurs when caregiver and
o Trust infant focus on the same object. Joint
▪ Erikson proposed that infants learn attention and gaze-following help the infant
trust when they are cared for in a to understand that other people have
consistent, warm manner. If the intentions
infant is not well fed and kept warm o Social Referencing: used to describe
on a consistent basis, a sense of “reading” emotional cues in others to help
mistrust is likely to develop. determine how to act in a particular situation;
▪ The issue of trust versus mistrust is helps infants to interpret ambiguous
not resolved once and for all in the situations more accurately, as when they
first year of life. It arises again at encounter a stranger and need to know
each successive stage of whether to fear the person.
development and can have positive o Infants’ Social Sophistication & Insight:
or negative outcomes This sophistication and insight is reflected in
o The Developing Sense of Self infants’ perceptions of others’ actions as
▪ Signs of self-recognition began to intentionally motivated and goal-directed and
appear among some infants when their motivation to share and participate in
they were 15 to 18 months old. By that intentionality by their first birthday.
the time they were 2 years old, most • Attachment & its Development
children recognized themselves in o Attachment: close emotional bond between
the mirror. In sum, infants begin to two people.
develop a self-understanding called o Social referencing: “Reading” emotional
self-recognition at approximately cues in others to help determine how to act in
18 months of age. a particular situation.
o Independence o Freud emphasized that infants become
▪ Important issue in the 2nd yr of life. attached to the person or object that provides
▪ Autonomy builds as the infant’s oral satisfaction.
mental and motor abilities develop. o Physical comfort also plays a role in Erik
At this point in development, not Erikson’s (1968) view of the infant’s
only can infants walk, but they can development.
also climb, open and close, drop, ▪ Physical comfort and sensitive care,
push and pull, and hold and let go. according to Erikson (1968), are key
Infants feel pride in these new to establishing a basic sense of trust
accomplishments and want to do in infants. The infant’s sense of
everything themselves, whether the trust, in turn, is the foundation for
activity is flushing a toilet, pulling attachment and sets the stage for a
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 lifelong expectation that the world against the closeness, perhaps by
will be a good and pleasant place to kicking or pushing away
be. ▪ Insecure Disorganized: Babies
o Ethological perspective of British who show insecurity by being
psychiatrist John Bowlby stresses the disorganized and disoriented.
importance of attachment in the first year of • Caregiving Styles & Attachment
life and the responsiveness of the caregiver; o Securely attached babies have caregivers
Both infants and primary caregivers are who are sensitive to their signals and are
biologically predisposed to form consistently available to respond to their
attachments. infants’ need. These caregivers often let their
babies have an active part in determining the
onset and pacing of interaction in the first
year of life.
o Caregivers of resistant babies tend to be
inconsistent; sometimes they respond to their
babies’ needs and sometimes they don’t. In
general, they tend not to be very affectionate
with their babies and show little synchrony
when interacting with them. Caregivers of
disorganized babies often neglect or
▪ Attachment does not emerge physically abuse them.
suddenly but rather develops in a
series of phases, moving from a • Developmental Social Neuroscience & Attachment
baby’s general preference for o Connections between attachment and the
human beings to a partnership with brain involve the neuroanatomy of the brain,
primary caregivers. neurotransmitters, and hormones.
▪ Infants develop an internal o Oxytocin & Dopamine: formation of
working model: simple mental maternal bond. Oxytocin - likely candidate in
model of the caregiver, their the formation of infant-mother attachment.
relationship, and the self as
deserving of nurturant care.
V. SOCIAL CONTEXTS
• Individual Differences in Attachment
o Strange Situation; Mary Ainsworth;
observational measure of infant attachment
that requires the infant to move through a • The Family
series of introductions, separations, and o Constellation of subsystems—a complex
reunions with the caregiver and an adult whole made up of interrelated, interacting
stranger in a prescribed order. parts—defined in terms of generation,
o Ainsworth argues that secure attachment in gender, and role.
the first year of life provides an important o Reciprocal Socialization: Socialization that
foundation for psychological development is bidirectional; children socialize parents,
later in life. The securely attached infant just as parents socialize children.
moves freely away from the mother but keeps ▪ Transactional: reciprocal
track of where she is through periodic interchanges and mutual influence
glances. processes
o Developmental Cascade Model: Involves ▪ Scaffolding: Practice in which
connections across domains over time that parents time interactions so that
influence developmental pathways and infants experience turn taking with
outcomes. the parents; these interactions allow
▪ Based on Strange Situation, babies infants to be more skillful than they
are either Securely Attached or would be if they had to rely only on
Insecurely Attached. their own abilities.
▪ Securely Attached Babies: Babies
who use the caregiver as a secure
base from which to explore the VI. REFERENCES
environment.
▪ Insecure Avoidant Babies: Babies Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development (17th ed.).
who show insecurity by avoiding McGraw Hill.
the caregiver.
▪ Insecure Resistant: Babies who
often cling to the caregiver, then
resist the caregiver by fighting
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 R2 CHAPTER 7
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (2nd TERM, 2022-23) | (PSY224) | (January 5, 2023)

OUTLINE o The Brain

I. Introduction ▪ By the time children reach 3 years of
II. Overview
III. Physical Changes age, the brain is three-quarters of its
IV. Cognitive Changes adult size. By age 6, the brain has
V. Language Development reached about 95 percent of its adult
VI. Early Childhood Education size.
VII. References
▪ Myelination: process by which the
I. INTRODUCTION
nerve cells are covered and
insulated with a layer of fat cells,
which increases the speed at which
information travels through the
• This stage in development tackles the child’s
nervous system.
transformation from toddlerhood to beginning
schooling. Biological changes such as improvement of • Motor & Perceptual Development
motor skills, perceptual skills, as well as the physical o Gross Motor Skills
size of the brain are observed during this point. Other ▪ preschool child no longer has to
than that, in terms of cognition, children are more make an effort simply to stay
likely to be situated on the concepts of egocentrism upright and to move around. As
and centration- most of which are from the 2nd stage in children move their legs with more
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. In terms of confidence and carry themselves
their language development, this chapter presents more purposefully, moving around
transition from basic saying of words into fully in the environment becomes more
formulating simple sentences. automatic.
▪ At 3 years of age, children enjoy
simple movements, such as
II. OVERVIEW hopping, jumping, and running back
and forth, just for the sheer delight
of performing these activities.
• Growth Hormone Deficiency could occur at this
▪ At 4 years of age, children are still
stage if critical changes in height and weight are not
enjoying the same kind of activities,
observed.
but they have become more
• The brain also changes in size, reaching almost 95%
adventurous.
of its full adult counterpart.
▪ At 5 years of age, children are even
• Motor skills have dramatically improved as children more adventuresome than when
could jump, hop, and climb on objects. In terms of they were 4. It is not unusual for
perception their eye muscles are developed, and self-assured 5-year-olds to perform
vision problems may arise in some cases. hair-raising stunts on practically any
• Centration and Egocentrism dominates the cognition climbing object.
of children under this stage as they still are not able to o Fine Motor Skills
realize that the world does not think like themselves. ▪ At 3 years of age, although children
• Language development is also an important key as have had the ability to pick up the
this stage is the steppingstone for shaping their tiniest objects between their thumb
literacy. By the late years under this developmental and forefinger for some time, they
phase, children begin schooling and this usually marks are still somewhat clumsy at it.
the end of early childhood. ▪ By 4 years of age, children’s fine
motor coordination has improved
III. PHYSICAL CHANGES substantially and become much
more precise.
• Body Growth & Change ▪ By age 5, children’s fine motor
o Height & Weight coordination has improved further.
▪ The average child grows 2½ inches Hand, arm, and body all move
in height and gains 5 to 10 pounds a together under better command of
year during early childhood. the eye.
▪ Growth Hormone Deficiency: o Perceptual Development
Absence or deficiency of growth ▪ When children are about 4 or 5
hormone produced by the pituitary years old, their eye muscles
gland to stimulate the body to grow usually are developed enough that

S 01 // C 01 ABANA 1 of 4
 they can move their eyes efficiently IV. COGNITIVE CHANGES
across a series of letters.
▪ Signs of vision problems in
children: rubbing the eyes, blinking
or squinting excessively, appearing
irritable when playing games that
require good distance vision,
shutting or covering one eye, and
tilting the head or thrusting it
forward when looking at something.
• Sleep
o Experts recommend that young children get
11 to 13 hours of sleep each night.
o Most young children sleep through the night
and have one daytime nap. Not only do
children need a certain amount of sleep, but
also uninterrupted sleep.
• Nutrition & Exercise
o Overweight Young Children
▪ Young children’s eating behavior
improves when caregivers eat with
children on a predictable schedule,
model choosing nutritious food,
make mealtimes pleasant occasions,
and engage in certain feeding styles.
▪ Sensitive/responsive caregiver
feeding style, in which the caregiver • Piaget’s Preoperational Stage
is nurturant, provides clear o Piaget’s second stage, lasting from about 2 to
information about what is expected, 7 years of age, during which children begin
and appropriately responds to to represent the world with words, images,
children’s cues, is recommended and drawings, and symbolic thought goes
▪ Recently, the following 5-2-1-0 beyond simple connections of sensory
obesity prevention guidelines have information and physical action; stable
been issued for young children: 5 or concepts are formed, mental reasoning
more servings of fruits and emerges, egocentrism is present, and magical
vegetables, 2 hours or less of screen beliefs are constructed.
time, minimum of 1 hour of physical o Operation: reversible mental actions that
activity, and 0 sugar-sweetened allow children to do mentally what they
beverages daily. formerly did physically
o Malnutrition o Symbolic Function Stage
▪ One of the most common nutritional ▪ Piaget’s first substage of
problems in early childhood is iron preoperational thought, in which the
deficiency anemia, which results in child gains the ability to mentally
chronic fatigue. This problem represent an object that is not
results from the failure to eat present (between about 2 and 4
adequate amounts of quality meats years of age).
and dark green vegetables. ▪ Egocentrism: inability to
o Exercise distinguish between one’s own
▪ The guidelines recommend that perspective and someone else’s
young children get 15 or more (salient feature of the first substage
minutes of physical activity per hour of preoperational thought).
over a 12-hour period, or about 3 ▪ Animism: belief that inanimate
hours per day total. objects have lifelike qualities and
are capable of action
o Intuitive Thought Substage: Piaget’s
second substage of preoperational thought, in
which children begin to use primitive
reasoning and want to know the answers to
all sorts of questions (between 4 and 7 years
of age).

S 01 // C 02 ABANA 2 of 4
 o Centration & Limits of Preoperational object, task, event, or other aspect of
Thought the environment
o Memory: retention of information over time;
central process in children’s cogntive
development.
▪ Short-term Memory: memory
component in which individuals
retain information for up to 30
seconds, assuming there is no
rehearsal of the information.
▪ Autobiographical Memory:
memory of significant events and
▪ Centration: awareness that altering experiences in one’s life.
an object’s or a substance’s o Executive Function: umbrella-like concept
appearance does not change its basic that consists of a number of higher-level
properties. cognitive processes linked to the
• Vygotsky’s Theory development of the brain’s prefrontal cortex.
o emphasized that children actively construct Executive function involves managing one’s
their knowledge and understanding. thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior
and to exercise self-control.
o Theory of Mind: Awareness of one’s own
mental processes and the mental processes of
others.

o Zone of Proximal Development:

Vygotsky’s term for tasks that are too
difficult for children to master alone but can V. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
be mastered with the assistance of adults or
more-skilled children.
o Scaffolding: changing the level of support.
o Langauge & Thought • Understanding Phonology & Morphology
▪ All mental functions have external o During the preschool years, most children
or social origins gradually become more sensitive to the
▪ Private Speech: use of language for sounds of spoken words and become
self regulation. increasingly capable of producing all the
o Social Constructivist Approach: An sounds of their language.
approach that emphasizes the social contexts o Children could not base their responses on
of learning and asserts that knowledge is remembering past instances of hearing the
mutually built and constructed. Vygotsky’s words. They could make the plurals or past
theory reflects this approach. tenses of words they had never heard before
was proof that they knew the morphological
• Information Processing
rules.
o Attention: Focusing of mental resources on
select information. • Changes in Syntax & Semantics
▪ Executive Function: Involves o Fast-mapping: process that helps to explain
action planning, allocating attention how young children learn the connection
to goals, error detection and between a word and its referent so quickly.
compensation, monitoring progress o Children learn the words they hear most
on tasks, and dealing with novel or often.
difficult circumstances. o Children learn words for things and events
▪ Sustained Attention: Focused and that interest them.
extended engagement with an o Children learn words better in responsive
and interactive contexts than in passive
contexts.
S 01 // C 02 ABANA 3 of 4
 oChildren learn words best in contexts that
are meaningful.
o Children learn words best when they access
clear information about word meaning.
o Children learn words best when grammar
and vocabulary are considered.
• Advances in Pragmatics
o Pragmatics: appropriate use of language in
different contexts.
• Young Children’s Literacy

VI. EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

• Variations in Early Childhood Education

o Child-Centered Kindergarten: Education
that involves the whole child by considering
both the child’s physical, cognitive, and
socioemotional development and the child’s
needs, interests, and learning styles.
o Montessori Approach: educational
philosophy in which children are given
considerable freedom and spontaneity in
choosing activities and are allowed to move
from one activity to another as they desire.
o Developmentally Appropriate Practice
(DAP): Education that focuses on the typical
developmental patterns of children (age
appropriateness) and the uniqueness of each
child (individual-appropriateness).
• Education for Young Children Who are
Disadvantaged
o Project Head Start: government-funded
program that is designed to provide children
from low-income families with the
opportunity to acquire the skills and
experiences important for school success

VII. REFERENCES

Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development (17th ed.).

McGraw Hill.

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 R2: Chapter 8
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (2nd TERM, 2022-23) | (PSY224) | (January 6, 2023)

OUTLINE ▪ During early childhood, children

I. Introduction use their perceptual, motor,
II. Overview
III. Emotional & Personality Development cognitive, and language skills to
IV. Families make things happen. They have a
V. Peer Relations, Play, & Media/Screen Time surplus of energy that permits them
VI. References to forget failures quickly and to
approach new areas that seem
I. INTRODUCTION
desirable even if dangerous with
undiminished zest and often an
increased sense of direction
• This chapter introduces a key socioemotional o Self-Undertsaning & Understanding
development during early childhood which falls under Others
the second stage of Erik Erikson’s theory. By this time, ▪ Self Understanding: child’s
children begin to express their emotions but can not cognitive representation of self, the
really fully understand them. That is why researchers substance and content of the child’s
and experts in the field recommend to train children in self-conceptions
emotion regulation for them to be able to manage ▪ Understaning Others: Young
demands and conflicts they face when interacting with children’s theory of mind includes
others. Another key factor during this stage is their understanding that other people
perspective of morals. Children attempt to reduce have emotions and desires; At about
anxiety, affection by identifying with parents avoid 4 to 5 years, children not only start
punishment, and maintain parental and internalizing describing themselves in terms of
their standards of right and wrong. Lastly, the psychological traits, but they also
formation of peer relationships marks the latter period begin to perceive others in terms of
of early childhood and the beginning of transition to psychological traits
middle. • Emotional Development
o Expressing Emotions
II. OVERVIEW ▪ Self-Conscious Emotions: hildren
must be able to refer to themselves
and be aware of themselves as
distinct from others.
• Children are now able to fully express their emotions ▪ During the early childhood years,
but they lack understanding in them, that is why emotions such as pride and guilt
parents need to instill proper emotion regulation on become more common. They are
this stage in order to avoid future mishaps in terms of especially influenced by parents’
emotional stability. responses to children’s behavior.
• Perception of gender and gender roles are starting to o Understanding Emotions
manifest; this may be socially or biologically ▪ When they are 4 to 5 years of age,
influenced. children show an increased ability to
• Play is an important part of learning and expounding reflect on emotions. They also begin
the knowledge of children. to understand that the same event
• Some developmental consequences of abuse include: can elicit different feelings in
poor emotion regulation, attachment problems, different people. Moreover, they
problems in peer relations, difficulty in adapting to show a growing awareness that they
school, and much more. need to manage their emotions to
meet social standards.
II. EMOTIONAL & PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ▪ Emotion-Based Prevention
Program (EBP): consists of a
teacher-conducted emotions course
• The Self in the classroom, emotion tutoring
o Initiative Vs. Guilt and coaching teacher dialogues, and
▪ By now, children have become weekly parent messages that
convinced that they are persons in reinforce the lessons taught in the
their own right; during early classroom.
childhood, they begin to discover o Regulating Emotions: plays a key role in
what kind of person they will children’s ability to manage the demands and
become. conflicts they face in interacting with others.
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 ▪ Emotion-coaching parents: o Moral Behavior
monitor their children’s emotions, ▪ In the moral behavior view, the
view their children’s negative situation also influences behavior.
emotions as opportunities for More than a half century ago, a
teaching, assist them in labeling comprehensive study of thousands
emotions, and coach them in how to of children in many situations—at
deal effectively with emotions. home, at school, and at church, for
▪ Emotion-dismissing parents: example—found that the totally
deny, ignore, or change negative honest child was virtually
emotions; interact with their nonexistent; so was the child who
children in a less rejecting manner, cheated in all situations.
use more scaffolding and praise, and o Conscience: internal regulation of standards
are more nurturant than are of right and wrong that involves integrating
emotion-dismissing parents. moral thought, feeling, and behavior.
• Moral Development: Development that involves o Parenting & Young Children’s Moral
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding rules and Development
conventions about what people should do in their ▪ Among the most important aspects
interactions with other people. of the relationship between parents
o Moral Feelings and children that contribute to
▪ Feelings of anxiety and guilt are children’s moral development are
central to the account of moral relational quality, parental
development provided by Sigmund discipline, pro active
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory strategies, and conversational
▪ Children attempt to reduce anxiety, dialogue.
affection by identifying with parents ▪ Parents’ obligations include
avoid punishment, and maintain engaging in positive caregiving and
parental and internalizing their guiding children to become
standards of right and wrong, thus competent human beings.
forming the superego—the moral Children’s obligations include
element of personality. responding appropriately to parents’
o Moral Reasoning: Interest in how children initiatives and maintaining a
think about moral issues was stimulated by positive relationship with parents.
Piaget. • Gender: characteristics of people as males & females
o Gender Identity: sense of being male or
female, which most children acquire by the
time they are 3 years old.
o Gender Role: set of expectations that
prescribes how females or males should
think, act, and feel.
o Gender Typing: Acquisition of a traditional
masculine or feminine role
▪ Heteronomous Morality: The first o Biological Influences
stage of moral development in ▪ Two main classes of sex hormones,
Piaget’s theory, occurring from estrogens and androgens, are
approximately 4 to 7 years of age. secreted by the gonads.
Justice and rules are conceived of as ▪ Estrogens, such as estradiol,
unchangeable properties of the influence the development of female
world, removed from the control of physical sex characteristics.
people. ▪ Androgens, such as testosterone,
▪ Autonomous Morality: In Piaget’s promote the development of male
theory, older children (about 10 physical sex characteristics.
years of age and older) become o Social Influences
aware that rules and laws are created ▪ SOCIAL THEORIES OF
by people and that in judging an GENDER
action one should consider the ▪ Social Role Theory: theory that
actor’s intentions as well as the gender differences result from the
consequences. contrasting roles of men and
▪ Immanent Justice: concept that if a women.
rule is broken, punishment will be ▪ Psychoanalytic Theory of Gender:
meted out immediately. theory deriving from Freud’s view
that the preschool child develops a
sexual attraction to the opposite-sex

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 parent, by approximately 5 or 6 to respect their work and effort. The
years of age renounces this authoritarian parent places firm
attraction because of anxious limits and controls on the child and
feelings, and subsequently identifies allows little verbal exchange.
with the same-sex parent, Authoritarian parenting is
unconsciously adopting the same- associated with children’s social
sex parent’s characteristics. incompetence.
▪ Social Cognitive Theory of Gender: ▪ Authoritative: parents encourage
theory: emphasizing that children’s their children to be independent but
gender development occurs through still place limits and controls on
the observation and imitation of their actions. Extensive verbal give-
gender behavior and through the and take is allowed, and parents are
rewards and punishments children warm and nurturing toward the
experience for gender-appropriate child. Authoritative parenting is
and gender-inappropriate behavior. associated with children’s social
▪ PARENTAL INFLUENCES: competence.
▪ Neglectful: parent is uninvolved in
the child’s life; this style is
associated with children’s social
incompetence, especially a lack of
self control.
▪ Indulgent: parents are highly
▪ PEER INFLUENCES: rewarding
involved with their children but
& punishing gender behavior; when
place few demands or controls on
children play in ways that the
them. Indulgent parenting is
culture says are sex-appropriate,
associated with children’s social
their peers tend to reward them. But
incompetence, especially a lack of
peers often reject children who act
self-control.
in a manner that is considered more
o Punishment
characteristic of the other gender.

o Coparenting: support that parents provide

one another in jointly raising a child.
• Child Maltreatment: involves grossly inadequate &
destructive aspects of parenting.
o Physical Abuse: characterized by the
infliction of physical injury as a result of
punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning,
▪ COGNITIVE INFLUENCES shaking, or otherwise harming a child
- Gender Schema Theory: o Child Neglect: failure to provide for the
gender typing emerges as child’s basic needs; can be physical
children gradually develop (abandonment, for example), educational
gender schemas of what is (allowing chronic truancy, for example), or
gender-appropriate and emotional (marked inattention to child’s
gender-inappropriate in needs.
their culture o Sexual Abuse: fondling a child’s genitals,
intercourse, incest, rape, sodomy,
III. FAMILIES exhibitionism, and commercial exploitation
through prostitution or the production of
pornographic materials
o Emotional Abuse: includes acts or
• Parenting omissions by parents or other caregivers that
o Diana Baumrind’s Parenting Styles have caused, or could cause, serious
▪ Authoritarian: restrictive, punitive behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems
style in which parents exhort the o Contexts of Abuse: A combination of
child to follow their directions and factors, including the culture, family, and

S 01 // C 02 Group 0: ABANA 3 of 5
 developmental characteristics of the child, ▪ Parents affect such relations through
likely contribute to child maltreatment. their interactions with their children,
o Developmental Consequences of Abuse: how they manage their children’s
poor emotion regulation, attachment lives, and the opportunities they
problems, problems in peer relations, provide to their children.
difficulty in adapting to school, and other ▪ Basic lifestyle decisions by
psychological problems such as depression parents—their choices of
and delinquency neighborhoods, churches, schools,
• Sibling Relationships & Birth Order and their own friends—largely
o Compared with later-born children, firstborn determine the pool from which their
children have also been described as more children select possible friend.
adult-oriented, helpful, conforming, and self- • Play
controlled. o Play’s Functions: According to Freud and
o The popular conception is that the only child Erikson, play helps children master anxieties
is a “spoiled brat” with such undesirable and conflict. Because tensions are relieved in
characteristics as dependency, lack of self- play, children can cope more effectively with
control, and self-centered behavior. life’s problems.
o Types of Play
▪ Sensorimotor Play: Behavior
engaged in by infants that lets them
derive pleasure from exercising
their existing sensorimotor schemas.
▪ Practice Play: Play that involves
repetition of behavior when new
skills are being learned or when
physical or mental mastery and
coordination of skills are required
for games or sports.
▪ Pretense/Symbolic Play: Play in
IV. PEER RELATIONS, PLAY, & MEDIA/SCREEN TIME which the child transforms the
physical environment into a symbol.
▪ Social Play: Play that involves
social interactions with peers.
• Peer Relations ▪ Constructive Play: Play that
o Peer Group Functions combines sensorimotor and
▪ Provide a source of information and repetitive activity with symbolic
comparison about the world outside representation of ideas.
the family. Children receive Constructive play occurs when
feedback about their abilities from children engage in self-regulated
their peer group. creation or construction of a product
▪ Children evaluate what they do in or a solution
terms of whether it is better than, as ▪ Games: Activities engaged in for
good as, or worse than what other pleasure that include rules and often
children do. It is hard to make these involve competition with one or
judgments at home because siblings more individuals.
are usually older or younger. • Media/Screen Time
▪ Good Peer relations = Promotion of o Effects of TV on Children’s Aggression
normal socioemotional ▪ Exposure to TV violence caused the
development. increased aggression in the children.
o Developmental Changes: Many preschool ▪ Playing violent video games is
children spend considerable time in peer linked to aggression in both males
interaction conversing with playmates about and females.
such matters as “negotiating roles and rules o Effects of TV on Children’s Prosocial
in play, arguing, and agreeing”. Behavior: Television can have a positive
o Friends: For most young children, a friend is influence on children’s development by
someone to play with. Young preschool presenting motivating educational programs,
children are more likely than older children providing information about the world
to have friends who are of a different gender beyond their immediate environment, and
and ethnicity. displaying models of prosocial behavior
o Connected Worlds of Parent-Child & Peer
Relations

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 VI. REFERENCES

Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development (17th ed.).

McGraw Hill.

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 R5: Chapter 9
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (2nd TERM, 2022-23) | (PSY224) | (January 3, 2023)

OUTLINE II. PHYSICAL CHANGES & HEALTH

I. Introduction
II. Overview
III. Physical Changes & Health
IV. Children w/ Disabilities • Body Growth& Change
V. Cognitive Changes o The period of middle and late childhood
VI. Language Development involves slow, consistent growth. This is
VII. References conseidered as a period of clam before the
rapid growth spurt of adolescence.
I. INTRODUCTION
o During the elementary school years, children
grow an average of 2 to 3 inches a year until,
at the age of 11, the average girl is 4 feet, 10
• This chapter introduces observable physical and inches tall, and the average boy is 4 feet, 9
cognitive changes during the late periods of childhood. inches tall. During the middle and late
Significant physical changes such as a dramatic childhood years, children gain about 5 to 7
change in a child’s height and weight can be seen at pounds a year. The weight increase is due
this stage. Motor development during this period are mainly to increases in the size of the skeletal
much more improved and well coordinated as and muscular systems, as well as the size of
compared to the earlier stages. Children are now able some body organs.
to run, jump, and even tie their own shoes. On another
• The Brain
note, manifestations of learning, emotional, and
o Total brain volume stabilizes by the end of
behavioral diseases are relatively present in some
late childhood, but significant changes in
children. Lastly, one of the key skills that they develop
various structures and regions of the brain
at this stage of life are learning basic literacy skills
continue to occur. In particular, the brain
such as reading and writing.
pathways and circuitry involving the
prefrontal cortex, the highest level in the
II. OVERVIEW brain, continue to increase during middle and
late childhood.
• Motor Development
o During middle and late childhood, children’s
• The period of middle and late childhood involves motor skills become much smoother and
slow, consistent growth. During this period, children more coordinated than they were in early
grow an average of 2 to 3 inches a year. Muscle mass childhood.
and strength gradually increase. Among the most o In gross motor skills involving large muscle
pronounced changes in body growth and proportion activity, boys usually outperform girls. On
are decreases in head circumference and waist the other hand girls outperform boys in their
circumference in relation to body height. use of fine motor skills.
• During middle and late childhood, motor development o Increased myelination of the central nervous
becomes much smoother and more coordinated. system is reflected in the improvement of fine
• Dyslexia is a category of learning disabilities that motor skills during middle and late
involves a severe impairment in the ability to read and childhood. Children can more adroitly use
spell. their hands as tools. Six-year olds can
• Dysgraphia is a learning disability that involves hammer, paste, tie shoes, and fasten clothes.
difficulty in handwriting. By 7 years of age, children’s hands have
• Dyscalculia is a learning disability that involves become steadier.
difficulties in math computation • Health, Illness, & Disease
• Intellectual disability involves a low level of o Accidents & Injuries
intellectual functioning as well as difficulty adapting o Overweight Children
to the demands of everyday life, with these ▪ Causes of Children Being
characteristics occurring prior to age 18. Overweight:
• Among the key dimensions of executive function that ✓ Heredity and
are important in cognitive development and school environmental contexts are
success are self-control/inhibition, working memory, related to being overweight
and flexibility. in childhood.
• Metacognition is knowing about knowing. ✓ Overweight parents tend to
have overweight children.
Parents and their children
often have similar body
S 01 // C 01 Group 0: ABANA 1 of 5
 types, height, body fat ▪ The most common cancer in
composition, and children is leukemia, a cancer in
metabolism. which bone marrow manufactures
✓ Environmental factors that an abundance of abnormal white
influence whether children blood cells that crowd out normal
become overweight cells, making the child highly
include the greater susceptible to bruising and infection
availability of food
(especially food high in fat
III. CHILDREN W/ DISABILITIES
content), energy-saving
devices, declining physical
activity, parents’ eating
habits and monitoring of • Scope of Disabilities
children’s eating habits the o Learning Disabilities: Difficulty in
context in which a child understanding or using spoken or written
eats, and heavy screen language or in doing mathematics. To be
time. classified as a learning disability, the learning
▪ Consequences of Being problem is not primarily the result of visual,
Overweight hearing, or motor disabilities; intellectual
✓ Diabetes, hypertension disability; emotional disorders; or due to
(high blood pressure), and environmental, cultural, or economic
elevated blood cholesterol disadvantage.
levels are common in ▪ Dyslexia: category of learning
children who are disabilities involving a severe
overweight. impairment in the ability to read and
✓ Obesity was linkes w/ low spell.
self esteem in children. ▪ Dysgraphia: learning disability that
Overweugh children were involves difficulty in handwriting.
more likely than normal ▪ Dyscalculia: Also known as
weight children to report developmental arithmetic disorder;
being teased by their peers a learning disability that involves
& family members. difficulty in math computation.
▪ Intervention Programs o ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
✓ A combination of diet, Disorder)
exercise, and behavior ▪ A disability in which children
modification is often consistently show one or more of the
recommended to help following characteristics: (1)
children lose weight. inattention, (2) hyperactivity, and
✓ Intervention programs that (3) impulsivity
emphasize getting parents o Emotional & Behavioral Disorders
to engage in healthier ▪ Serious, persistent problems that
lifestyles themselves, as involve relationships, aggression,
well as to feed their depression, fears associated with
children healthier food and personal or school matters, as well
get them to exercise more, as other inappropriate
can produce weight socioemotional characteristics.
reduction in overweight o Autism Spectrum Disorders: Also called
and obese children. pervasive developmental disorders, they
o Cardiovascular Disease range from the severe disorder labeled
▪ Uncommon in children; Many autistic disorder to the milder disorder called
elementary-school-aged children Asperger syndrome. Children with these
already possess one or more of the disorders are characterized by problems in
risk factors for cardiovascular social interaction, verbal and nonverbal
disease, such as hypertension (high communication, and repetitive behaviors.
blood pressure) and obesity. ▪ Autistic Disorder: A severe autism
o Cancer spectrum disorder that has its onset
▪ 2nd leading cause of death in US in the first three years of life and
children 5-14 yrs of age. includes deficiencies in social
▪ Childhood cancers mainly attack the relationships, abnormalities in
white blood cells (leukemia), brain, communication, and restricted,
bone, lymph system, muscles, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns
kidneys, and nervous system. of behavior.
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 ▪ Asperger Syndrome: A relatively • Information Processing
mild autism spectrum disorder in o Memory
which the child has relatively good ▪ Long-term Memory: relatively
verbal language skills, milder permanent type of memory that
nonverbal language problems, and a holds huge amounts of information
restricted range of interests and for a long period of time.
relationships. ▪ Working Memory: A mental
• Educational Issues “workbench” where individuals
o Individualized Education Plan (IEP): A manipulate and assemble
written statement that spells out a program information when making decisions,
specifically tailored to a child with a solving problems, and
disability. comprehending written and spoken
o Least Restrictive Environment (LRE): A language.
setting that is as similar as possible to the one ▪ Autobiographical Memory:
in which children who do not have a Memory of significant events &
disability are educated. experiences in one’s life.
o Inclusion: Educating a child with special ▪ Strategies: Deliberate mental
requirements full-time in the regular activities that improve the
classroom. processing of information
✓ Elaboration: An important
IV. COGNITIVE CHANGES
strategy for remembering
that involves engaging in
more extensive processing
of information.
• Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory:
According to Jean Piaget (1952), the preschool child’s
thought is preoperational; Preschool children can form
stable concepts, and they have begun to reason, but
their thinking is flawed by egocentrism and magical
belief systems.
o The Concrete Operational Stage
▪ lasts from approximately 7 to 11
years of age. In this stage, children
can perform concrete operations,
and they can reason logically as long
as reasoning can be applied to
specific or concrete examples. ✓ Fuzzy Trace Theory: States
▪ Operations: mental actions that are that memory is best
reversible. understood by considering
▪ Concrete Operations: operations two types of memory
that are applied to real, concrete representations: (1)
objects. verbatim memory trace,
▪ Seriation: The concrete operation and (2) gist. In this theory,
that involves ordering stimuli along older children’s better
a quantitative dimension (such as memory is attributed to the
length). fuzzy traces created by
▪ Transitivity: The ability to extracting the gist of
logically combine relations to information.
understand certain conclusions. o Thinking
o Evaluating Piaget’s Concrete Operational ▪ Executive Function
Stage
▪ Neo-Pigaetians: Developmentalists
who argue that Piaget got some
things right but that his theory needs
considerable revision. They have
elaborated on Piaget’s theory,
giving more emphasis to ▪ Critical Thinking: Thinking
information processing, strategies, reflectively and productively, as
and precise cognitive steps. well as evaluating evidence.
✓ Mindfulness: Being alert,
mentally present, and
cognitively flexible while

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 going through life’s adolescents 6 to 16 years of age; and
everyday activities and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
tasks. Scale—Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV).
▪ Creative Thinking: The ability to ▪ The WISC-V now not only provides
think in novel and unusual ways and an overall IQ score but also yields
to come up with unique solutions to five composite scores (Verbal
problems. Comprehension, Working Memory,
✓ Convergent Thinking: Processing Speed, Fluid Reasoning,
Thinking that produces one and Visual Spatial).
correct answer and is ▪ The scores allow the examiner to
characteristic of the kind of quickly see whether the individual is
thinking tested by strong/ weak in different areas of
standardized intelligence intelligence.
tests. ▪ Includes 16 verbal & nonverbal
✓ Divergent Thinking: subscores.
Thinking that produces o Types of Intelligence
many answers to the same ▪ Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
question and is (Triarchic Theory of
characteristic of creativity. Intelligence): Sternberg’s theory
o Metacognition: Cognition about cognition, that intelligence consists of
or knowing about knowing. analytical intelligence, creative
• Intelligence: Problem-solving skills and the ability to intelligence, and practical
learn from and adapt to the experiences of everyday intelligence.
life. ▪ Gardner’s 8 Frames of Mind
o Individual Differences: The stable,
consistent ways in which people differ from
each other.
o The Binet tests
▪ Consisted of 30 questions on topics
ranging from the ability to touch
one’s ear to the ability to draw
designs from memory and define
abstract concepts.
▪ Mental Age (MA): Binet’s measure
of an individual’s level of mental
development compared with that of
others o Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores
▪ Normal Distribution: A ▪ Culture-fair Tests: Tests of
symmetrical distribution with most intelligence that are designed to be
scores falling in the middle of the free of cultural bias.
possible range of scores and a few ▪ Stereotype Threat: The anxiety
scores appearing toward the that one’s behavior might confirm a
extremes of the range. negative stereotype about one’s
▪ Intelligence Quotient (IQ): group.
William Stern; o Using Intelligence Tests
▪ Now revised as the Stanford-Binet ▪ Avoid stereotyping and
test: Analyzes an individual’s expectations.
response in five content areas: fluid ▪ Know that IQ is not a sole indicator
reasoning, knowledge, quantitative of competence.
reasoning, visual-spatial reasoning, ▪ Use caution in interpreting an
and working memory. A general overall IQ score.
composite score also is still • Extremes of Intelligence
obtained. o Intellectual Disability: A condition of
o The Wechsler Scales limited mental ability in which the individual
▪ David Wechsler (1) has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a
▪ Includes Wechsler Preschool and traditional intelligence test, (2) has difficulty
Primary Scale of Intelligence— adapting to the demands of everyday life, and
Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV) to test (3) first exhibits these characteristics by age
children from 2.5 years to 7.25 years 18.
of age; the Wechsler Intelligence ▪ Organic Intellectual Disability: A
Scale for Children—Fifth Edition genetic disorder or condition
(WISC-V) for children and involving brain damage that is
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 linked to a low level of intellectual dual-language approach (formerly called
functioning. “bilingual”) aims to teach academic subjects
▪ Cultural-Familial Intellectual to immigrant children in their native
Disability: Condition in which languages while gradually adding English
there is no evidence of organic brain instruction. Researchers have found that the
damage but the individual’s IQ dual-language approach does not interfere
generally is between 50 and 70. with performance in either language
o Giftedness: Having above-average
intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or
VI. REFERENCES
superior talent for something.
▪ Characteristics:
Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development (17th ed.).
McGraw Hill.

V. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

• Vocabulary, Grammar, & Metalinguistic Awareness

o During the elementary school years, children
become increasingly able to understand and
use complex grammar.
o They also learn to use language in a more
connected way, producing connected
discourse. They become able to relate
sentences to one another to produce
descriptions, definitions, and narratives that
make sense.
o Metalinguistic Awareness: Knowledge
about language, such as understanding what
a preposition is or being able to discuss the
sounds of a language.
• Reading
o Whole-Language Approach: An approach
to reading instruction based on the idea that
instruction should parallel children’s natural
language learning. Reading materials should
be whole and meaningful.
o Phonic Approach: The idea that reading
instruction should teach the basic rules for
translating written symbols into sounds.
• Writing
o As they begin to write, children often invent
spellings. Parents and teachers should
encourage children’s early writing but not be
overly concerned about the formation of
letters or spelling.
o Children should be given many writing
opportunities. As their language and
cognitive skills improve with good
instruction, so will their writing skills.
• 2nd Language Learning & Bilingual Education
o Recent research indicates the complexity of
determining whether there are sensitive
periods in learning a second language. The
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 R5: Chapter 10
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (2nd TERM, 2022-23) | (PSY224) | (January 3, 2023)

OUTLINE ▪ They include references to social

I. Introduction groups in their self-descriptions,
II. Emotional & Personality Development
III. Families such as referring to themselves as a
IV. Peers Girl Scout, a Catholic, or some one
V. Schools who has two close friends.
VI. Overview ▪ In middle and late childhood, self-
VII. References
description increasingly involves
I. INTRODUCTION
psychological and social
characteristics, including social
comparison.
o Understanding Others
• This section introduces the socioemotional aspect on
▪ Perspective Taking: The social
middle-late childhood development. It delves on
cognitive process involved in
Erikson’s 4th stage of psychosocial development,
assuming the perspective of others
Industry vs Inferiority. By this stage, children are
and understanding their thoughts
beginning to categorize into social groups, and they
and feelings.
start labeling their fellow peers into respective
o Self-Esteem & Self Concept
statuses. Moral development is improved by this time,
▪ Self Esteem: The global evaluative
and the most prominent theory on this section is by
dimension of the self. Self-esteem is
Kohlberg which characterizes moral development into
also referred to as self-worth or self-
3 distinct levels. Lastly, children at this age are likely
image.
to form friendships on superficial functions such as
▪ Self Concept: Domain-specific
companionship, ego support, stimulation, and many
evaluations of the self.
more.
▪ The foundations of self-esteem and
self-concept emerge from the
II. OVERVIEW quality of parent-child interaction in
infancy and early childhood. Thus,
if children have low self-esteem in
middle and late childhood, they may
• In middle and late childhood, self-understanding have experienced neglect or abuse
increasingly involves social and psychological in rela tionships with their parents
characteristics, including social comparison. Children earlier in development.
increase their perspective taking in middle and late o Self-Efficacy: The belief that one can master
childhood, and their social understanding shows a situation and produce favorable outcomes.
increasing psychological sophistication as well. o Self Regulation: One of the most important
• Criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory have been made, aspects of the self in middle and late
especially by Gilligan, who advocates a stronger care childhood.
perspective. Other criticisms focus on the inadequacy o Industry Vs. Inferiority: The term industry
of moral reasoning to predict moral behavior, culture, expresses a dominant theme of this period:
and family influences. Children become interested in how things are
• Among the developmental changes in peer relations in made and how they work. When children are
middle and late childhood are increased preference for encouraged in their efforts to make, build,
same-sex groups, increased time spent in peer and work—whether building a model
relations, and less supervision of the peer group by airplane, constructing a tree house, fixing a
adults. bicycle, solving an addition problem, or
cooking—their sense of industry increases.
II. EMOTIONAL & PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT However, parents who see their children’s
efforts at making things as “mischief” or
“making a mess” encourage children’s
• The Self development of a sense of inferiority.
o The Development of Self-Understanding
▪ From 8 to 11 years of age, children
increasingly describe themselves in
terms of psychological
characteristics and traits, in contrast
with the more concrete self-
descriptions of younger children.
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• Emotional Development and then decides on a personal
o Developmental Changes moral code.
o Kohlberg’s Critics
▪ Moral Thought & Moral
Behavior: Kohlberg’s theory has
been criticized for placing too much
emphasis on moral thought and not
enough emphasis on moral
behavior. Moral reasons can
sometime be a shelter for immoral
behavior.
▪ Conscious/ Deliberate Vs.
Unconscious Automatic: Social
Psychologist Jonathan Haidt
believes that moral thinking is more
often an intuitive gut reaction, with
deliberative moral reasoning
o Social Emotional Education Programs serving as an after-the-fact
justification. Thus, in his view,
much of morality begins with rapid
evaluative judgments of others
rather than with strategic reasoning
about moral circumstances.
▪ The Role of Emotion: Losing their
intuitive feelings about what is right
or wrong, they can’t adequately
decide which actions to take and
have trouble making choices
involving moral issues.
▪ Culture & Moral Reasoning: In
o Coping w/ Stress one study, individuals in diverse
cultures developed through the first
two levels in sequence as Kohlberg
predicted. Level three thinking,
however, has not been found in all
cultures
▪ Families & Moral Development:
Most experts on children’s moral
development conclude that parents’
• Moral Development: According to Piaget, older moral values and actions influence
children consider the intentions of the individual, children’s development of moral
believe that rules are subject to change, and are aware reasoning
that punishment does not always follow wrongdoing. ▪ Gender & Care Perspective:
o The Kohlberg Levels According to Carol Gilligan,
▪ Preconventional Reasoning: The Kohlberg’s theory is based on a
lowest level in Kohlberg’s theory of male norm that puts abstract
moral development. The principles above relationships and
individual’s moral reasoning is concern for others and sees the
controlled primarily by external individual as standing alone and
rewards and punishment. independently making moral
▪ Conventional Reasoning: The decisions
second, or intermediate, level in • Justice Perspective: A
Kohlberg’s theory of moral moral perspective that
development. At this level, focuses on the rights of the
individuals abide by certain individual and in which
standards, but these are standards set individuals independently
by others such as parents or society. make moral decisions.
▪ Postconventional Reasoning: The • Care Perspective: The
highest level in Kohlberg’s theory moral perspective of Carol
of moral development. At this level, Gilligan, which views
the individual recognizes alternative people in terms of their
moral courses, explores the options, connectedness with others

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 and emphasizes that boys are more
interpersonal physically aggressive than
communication, girls are.
relationships with others, • Both biological and
and concern for others. environmental factors have
o Domain Theory of Moral Development: been proposed to account
Theory that identifies different domains of for gender differences in
social knowledge and reasoning, including aggression. Biological
moral, social conventional, and personal factors include heredity
domains. These domains arise from and hormones.
children’s and adolescents’ attempts to Environmental factors
understand and deal with different forms of include cultural
social experience. expectations, adult and
▪ Social Conventional Reasoning: peer models, and social
Thoughts about social consensus agents that reward
and convention, in contrast with aggression in boys and
moral reasoning, which stresses punish aggression in girls.
ethical issues. o Gender in Context: Gender stereotypes
o Prosocial Behavior: Children’s sharing describe people in terms of personality traits
comes to reflect a more complex sense of such as “aggressive” or “caring.” However,
what is just and right during middle and late the traits people display may vary with the
childhood. By the start of the elementary situation. Thus, the nature and extent of
school years, children begin to express gender differences maycdepend on the
objective ideas about fairness. It is common context.
to hear 6-year-old children use the word fair
as synonymous with equal or same.
III. FAMILIES
o Moral Personality: Researchers have
focused attention on three possible
components:
▪ Moral Identity: Constructing the • Developmental Changes In Parent-Child
self w/ reference to moral Relationships
categories. o As children move into the middle and late
▪ Moral Character: Person with childhood years, parents spend considerably
moral character has the willpower, less time with them.
desire, and integrity to stand up to o Parents especially play an important role in
pressure, overcome distractions and supporting and stimulating children’s
disappointments, and behave academic achievement in middle and late
morally. childhood
▪ Moral Exemplars: People who • Parents as Managers
have lived exemplary moral lives. o Mothers are more likely than fathers to
Their moral personality, identity, engage in a managerial role in parenting.
character, and set of virtues reflect o Family management practices are positively
moral excellence related to students’ grades and self-
• Gender responsibility, and negatively to school-
o Gender Streotypes: Broad categories that related problems.
reflect our impressions and beliefs about • Attchment in Families: In middle and late childhood,
females and males. attachment becomes more sophisticated and as
o Gender Similarities & Differences children’s social worlds expand to include peers,
▪ Physical Development: Women teachers, and others, they typically spend less time
have about twice the body fat of with parents.
men, most of it concentrated around • Step Families: Children often have better
their breasts and hips. In males, fat relationships with their custodial parents (mothers in
is more likely to go to the abdomen. stepfather families, fathers in stepmother families)
▪ Cognitive Development: Research than with stepparents.
has shown that in general girls and
women have slightly better verbal
skills than boys and men, although
in some verbal skill areas the
differences are substantial
▪ Socioemotional Development:
• One of the most consistent
gender differences found is

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 IV. PEERS understanding with guidance from the
teacher.
o Direct Instruction Approach: A structured,
teacher-centered educational approach that is
• Developmental Changes: As children move through characterized by teacher direction and
middle and late childhood, the size of their peer group control, mastery of academic skills, high
increases, and peer interaction is less closely expectations for students’ progress,
supervised by adults. Until about 12 years of age, maximum time spent on learning tasks, and
children’s preference for same-sex peer groups efforts to keep negative affect to a minimum.
increases. o No Child Left Behind (NCLB): Argues that
• Peer Status state-wide standardized testing will have a
o Sociometric Status: Term that describes the number of positive effects. These include
extent to which children are liked or disliked improved student performance; more time
by their peer group spent teaching the subjects that are tested;
o 5 Peer Status: high expectations for all students;
identification of poorly performing schools,
teachers, and administrators; and improved
confidence in schools as test scores rise.
o Common Core: In 2009, the Common Core
State Standards Initiative was endorsed by
the National Governors Association in an
effort to implement more rigorous state
guidelines for educating students; Specifies
• Social Cognition: Thoughts about social matters. what students should know and the skills they
o Children’s social cognition about their peers should develop at each grade level in various
becomes increasingly important for content areas.
understanding peer relationships in middle o Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA): The
and late childhood. new law also allows states to scale back the
• Bullying: verbal/physical behavior intended to disturb role of tests in holding schools accountable
someone less powerful. for student achievement. And schools must
o Boys are more likely to be bullies than girls, use at least one nonacademic factor—such as
but gender differences regarding victims of student engagement—in tracking success.
bullies are less clear. • Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, & Culture
o Bullied children reported more loneliness and o Education of Students from Low-Income
difficulty in making friends, while those who Backgrounds: Schools in low-income areas
did the bullying were more likely to have low are likely to have more students with low
grades and to smoke cigarettes and drink achievement test scores, lower graduation
alcohol. rates, and smaller percentages of students
• Friends going to college; they are more likely to have
o 6 Functions of Children’s Friendship: young teachers with less experience; and they
are more likely to encourage rote learning.
o Ethnicity in Schools: Research has foind
that African American and Latino students
are much less likely than non-Latino White or
Asian American students to be enrolled in
college preparatory programs and more likely
to be enrolled in remedial and special
education programs.
o Cross Cultural Comparisons
▪ American children are more
achievement-oriented than children
in many countries but are less
achievement-oriented than many
V. SCHOOLS children in Asian countries such as
China, Taiwan, and Japan.
▪ Mindset: The cognitive view, either
fixed or growth, that individuals
• Contemporary Approached to Student Learning develop for themselves.
o Constructivist Approach: A learner-
centered educational approach that
emphasizes the importance of individuals
actively constructing their knowledge and

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 VI. REFERENCES

Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development (17th ed.).

McGraw Hill.

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 R6: Chapter 11
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (2nd TERM, 2022-23) | (PSY224) | (January 3, 2023)

OUTLINE II. THE NATURE OF ADOLESCENCE

I. Introduction
II. Overview
III. The Nature of Adolescence
IV. Physical Changes
V. Issues in Adolescent Health
VI. Adolescent Cognition • Face dramatic biological changes, new experiences, &
VII. Schools new developmental tasks.
[Link]
• Relationships with parents take a different form,
I. INTRODUCTION moments with peers become more intimate, and dating
occurs for the first time, as do sexual exploration and
possibly intercourse.
• This chapter introduces the transition from late • Adolescent’s thoughts become more abstract and
childhood to adolescence. Adolescence is marked by idealistic. Biological changes trigger a heightened
rapid physical and cognitive changes. This is the interest in body image. Adolescence has both
period in which developmental bodily transformation continuity and discontinuity with childhood.
is observable. Deepening of the voice, changes in • In matters of taste and manners, the young people of
height, and enlarging of breasts are just some of the every generation have seemed unnervingly radical and
physical changes that adolescents go through. In terms different from adults—different in how they look, in
of cognition, teenagers are more abstract, and they how they behave, in the music they enjoy, in their
usually employ hypothetico-deductive reasoning. At hairstyles, and in the clothing they choose
this point in life, adolescents are prone to curiosity
about sex, drinking, and the use of other substances.
Lastly, prevalence of eating disorders is common as
teenagers are heavily conscious of their appearance to III. PHYSICAL CHANGES
others.

II. OVERVIEW
• Puberty
o Brain neuro-endocrine process; period of
rapid physical maturation, occurring
• Puberty is a period of rapid physical maturation primarily in early adolescence, that involves
involving hormonal and bodily changes that occur hormonal and bodily changes.
primarily during early adolescence. Determinants of o Males: increase in penis & testicle size,
pubertal timing include nutrition, health, and heredity. appearance of straight pubic hair, minor
The pubertal growth spurt begins at an average age of voice change, 1st ejaculation (through
9 years for girls and 11 for boys, reaching a peak at masturbation/ wet dream), appearance of
11½ for girls and 13½ for boys. Individual variation in kinky pubic hair, onset maximum growth in
pubertal changes is substantial. height & weight, growth of hair in armpits,
• During the formal operational stage, Piaget’s fourth more detectable voice changes, growth of
stage of cognitive development, thinking becomes facial hair.
more abstract, idealistic, and logical than during the o Females: breasts enlarge/ pubic hair appears,
concrete operational stage. However, many hair appears in armpits, growth in height &
adolescents are not formal operational thinkers but are hips beocme wider than shoulders.
consolidating their concrete operational thought. o Menarche: girl’s first menstruation.
• The transition to middle or junior high school o Hormonal Changes
coincides with many social, familial, and individual ▪ Hormones: Powerful chemical
changes in the adolescent’s life, and this transition is substances secreted by the
often stressful. One source of stress is the move from endocrine glands and carried
the top-dog position to the lowest position in school. through the body by the
bloodstream.
▪ Testosterone: hormone associated
in boys with genital development,
increased height, and deepening of
the voice.

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 ▪ Estradiol: type of estrogen that in ▪ Further, the majority of sexual
girls is associated with breast, minority (gay, lesbian, and bisexual)
uterine, and skeletal development adolescents have competent and
o Body Image successful paths of development
▪ Adolescents are preoccupied with through adolescence and become
their bodies and develop images of healthy and productive adult.
what their bodies are like. o Risk factors in Adolescent Sexual
▪ Preoccupation with body image is Behavior
strong throughout adolescence but is ▪ In addition to having sex in early
especially acute during early adolescence, other risk factors for
adolescence, a time when sexual problems in adolescence
adolescents are more dissatisfied include contextual factors such as
with their bodies than in late socioeconomic status (SES) and
adolescence. poverty, immigration/ethnic
▪ Girls are less happy with their minority status, family/parenting
bodies and have more negative body and peer factors, and school-related
images than boys throughout influence.
puberty. ▪ Cognitive and personality factors
o Early and Late Maturation: Exarly are increasingly implicated in sexual
maturation often has more favorable out risk taking in adolescence. Weak
comes in adolescence for boys, especially in self-regulation (difficulty
early adolescence. However, late maturation controlling one’s emotions and
may be more favorable for boys, especially in behavior) and impulsiveness are two
terms of identity and career development such factors.
• The Brain o Contraceptive Use
▪ Too many sexually active
adolescents still do not use
contraceptives, use them
inconsistently, or use contraceptive
methods that are less effective than
others.
▪ In 2015, 14 percent of sexually
active adolescents did not use any
contraceptive method the last time
they had sexual intercourse.
o Sexually Transmitted Infections:
Infections that are contracted primarily
through sexual contact, including oral-genital
and anal-genital contact.
o Adolescent Pregnancy: adolescent
pregnancy is a high-risk circumstance, and
adolescents who do not become pregnant
o The corpus callosum, where fiber connect generally fare better than those who do, some
the brain’s left and right hemispheres, adolescent mothers do well in school and
thickens in adolescence, and this improves have positive outcomes.
adolescents’ ability to process information.
o The limbic system, which is the seat of
IV. ISSUES IN ADOLESCENT HEALTH
emotions and where rewards are experienced,
matures much earlier than the prefrontal
cortex and is almost completely developed in
early adolescence.
• Adolescent Health
o Increase in the neurotransmitter dopamine
o Nutrition & Exercise
occurs in both the prefrontal cortex and the
▪ Many of today’s adolescents
limbic system during adolescence.
virtually live on fast-food meals,
• Adolescent Sexuality
which are high in fat.
o Developing a Sexual Identity
▪ Positive physical outcomes of
▪ An adolescent’s sexual identity
exercise in adolescence include a
involves activities, interests, styles
lower rate of obesity, reduced
of behavior, and an indication of
triglyceride levels, lower blood
sexual orientation (whether an
pressure, and a lower incidence of
individual has same-sex or other-sex
type II diabetes.
attractions, or both).

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 ▪ adolescents who were high in V. ADOLESCENT COGNITION
physical fitness had better
connectivity between brain regions
than adolescents who were low in
physical fitness. • Piaget’s Theory
▪ Researchers have found that screen o More abstract than concrete operational
time is associated with a number of thought. Adolescents are no longer limited to
adolescent health problems, actual, concrete experiences as anchors for
including a lower rate of exercise thought. They can conjure up make-believe
and a higher rate of sedentary situations, abstract propositions, and events
behavior. that are purely hypothetical, and can try to
o Sleep reason logically about them.
▪ Adolescents with a shorter sleep o Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning:
duration were more likely to have Piaget’s formal operational concept that
more school absences, while shorter adolescents have the cognitive ability to
sleep duration and greater sleep develop hypotheses, or best guesses, about
deficits were linked to having a ways to solve problems.
lower grade point average. o Formal operational thinkers develop
▪ Adolescents’ biological clocks hypotheses about ways to solve problems and
undergo a shift as they get older, then systematically deduce the best path to
delaying their period of sleepiness follow to solve the problem.
by about one hour. • Adolescent Egocentrism: The heightened self-
o Leading Cause of Death In Adolescence: consciousness of adolescents.
The three leading causes of death in o Imaginary Audience: Adolescents’ belief
adolescence are unintentional injuries, that others are as interested in them as they
homicide, and suicide. themselves are, as well as attention-getting
• Substance Abuse and Use behavior motivated by a desire to be noticed,
o Drinking visible, and “on stage.”
o Smoking: adolescents currently are vaping o Personal Fable: The part of adolescent
nicotine more than they are smoking egocentrism that involves an adolescent’s
cigarettes. Also, in a recent meta-analysis of sense of uniqueness and invincibility (or
longitudinal studies, it was concluded that invulnerability).
when adolescents use e-cigarettes they are at • Information Processing
increased risk for subsequently smoking o The later years of childhood and continuing
cigarettes. in adolescence, individuals approach
• Role of Development, Parents, Peers, & Education: cognitive levels that may or may not be
o Positive relationships with parents and others achieved, in contrast to the largely universal
can reduce adolescents’ drug use. cognitive levels that young children attain.
o Friends’ use of alcohol was a stronger o Cognitive Control: Effective control of
influence on adolescent alcohol use than thinking in a number of areas, including
parental us. controlling attention, reducing interfering
o Educational achievement considerably thoughts, and being cognitively flexible.
reduced the likelihood that adolescents would o Control Attention & Reduce Interfering
develop drug problems. Thoughts: Distractions that can interfere
• Eating Disorders with attention in adolescence and emerging
o Anorexia Nervosa: An eating disorder that adulthood come from the external
involves the relentless pursuit of thinness environment.
through starvation. o Be Cognitively Flexible (Cognitive
▪ Characteristics: (1) weight below Flexibility): being aware that options and
85 percent of what is considered alternatives are available and adapting to the
normal for their age and height; (2) situation.
an intense fear of gaining weight o Decision Making
that does not decrease with weight ▪ Older adolescents are described as
loss; (3) a distorted image of their more competent than younger
body shape and (4) amenorrhea adolescents, who in turn are more
(lack of menstruation) in girls who competent than children.
have reached puberty. ▪ Compared with children, young
o Bulimia Nervosa: An eating disorder in adolescents are more likely to
which the individual consistently follows a generate different options, examine
binge and purge pattern a situation from a variety of
perspectives, anticipate the

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 consequences of decisions, and
consider the credibility of sources.
▪ Fuzzy Trace Theory Dual-Process • High School
Model: States that decision making o Critics stress that in many high school’s
is influenced by two systems— expectations for success and standards for
“verbatim” analytical (literal and learning are too low. Critics also argue that
precise) and gist-based intuition too often high schools foster passivity and
(simple bottom-line meaning)— that schools should create a variety of
which operate in parallel; in this pathways for students to achieve an identity.
model, gist-based intuition benefits o The transition to high school can have
adolescent decision making more problems just as the transition to middle
than analytical thinking does. school does. For example, high schools are
o Critical Thinking often even larger, more bureaucratic, and
▪ If fundamental skills (such as more impersonal than middle schools are;
literacy and math skills) are not there isn’t much opportunity for students and
developed during childhood, teachers to get to know each other, which can
critical-thinking skills are unlikely lead to distrust; and teachers rarely make
to mature in adolescence. content relevant to students’ interests.
▪ For other adolescents, however, • Extracurricular Activities
cognitive changes that allow o Researchers have found that participation in
improved critical thinking in extracurricular activities is linked to higher
adolescence include the following: grades, greater school engagement, less
(1) increased speed, automaticity, likelihood of dropping out of school,
and capacity of information improved probability of going to college,
processing, which free cognitive higher self-esteem, and lower rates of
resources for other purposes; (2) depression, delinquency, and substance
more breadth of content knowledge abuse.
in a variety of domains; (3) • Service Learning: form of education that promotes
increased ability to construct new social responsibility and service to the community.
combinations of knowledge; and (4) o Improvements in adolescent development
a greater range and more related to service learning include higher
spontaneous use of strategies or grades in school, increased goal setting,
procedures for applying or obtaining higher self-esteem, and a greater sense of
knowledge, such as planning, being able to make a difference for others.
considering alternatives, and
cognitive monitoring.
VII. REFERENCES

VI. SCHOOLS
Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development (17th ed.).
McGraw Hill.

• The Transition to Middle/ Junior High School

o The transition to middle or junior high school
is less stressful when students have positive
relationships with friends and go through the
transition in team-oriented schools where 20
to 30 students take the same classes together.
o Top-dog Phenomenon: The circumstance of
moving from the top position in elementary
school to the lowest position in middle or
junior high school.
• Effective Schools for Young Adolescents
o Most young adolescents attended massive,
impersonal schools; were taught from
irrelevant curricula; trusted few adults in
school; and lacked access to health care and
counseling. It recommended that the nation
develop smaller “communities” or “houses”
to lessen the impersonal nature of large
middle schools, have lower student-to
counselor ratios.

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 R6: Chapter 12
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (2nd TERM, 2022-23) | (PSY224) | (January 3, 2023)

OUTLINE III. The SELF, IDENTITY, & RELIGIOUS/ SPIRITUAL

I. Introduction DEVELOPMENT
II. Overview
III. The Self, Identity, and Religious/Spiritual Development
IV. Families
V. Peers • Self-Esteem: overall way we evaluate ourselves
VI. Culture & Adolescent Development o In one study, both boys and girls had
VII. Adolescent Problems particularly high self-esteem in childhood,
[Link] but their self-esteem dropped considerably
during adolescence. The self-esteem of girls
I. INTRODUCTION
declined more than the self-esteem of boys
during adolescence.
▪ May be due to: girls’ negative body
• This chapter delves on the socioemotional aspect of images during pubertal change;
adolescence’s lives. It specifically entails how greater interest young adolescent
teenagers form identities, fit into social groups, girls take in social relationships and
cultural influences, and some certain problems society’s failure to reward that
experienced at this point in life. On another note, interest
numerous studies have disputed that self-esteem is o An adolescent’s self-esteem might indicate a
dwindling at this stage- especially among girls. perception about whether he or she is
Cliques are mostly common as it is important for intelligent and attractive, for example, but
adolescents to feel sense of belongingness in social that perception may not be accurate. Thus,
groups. Other than that, this point in life is mostly high self esteem may refer to accurate,
characterized by forming identities that are to be justified perceptions of one’s worth as a
established when adulthood is reached. Lastly, another person and one’s successes and
determining factor of this age group is the accomplishments, but it can also indicate an
predominance of mental health difficulties such as arrogant, grandiose, unwarranted sense of
suicide and depression. superiority over others
o Narcissm: A self-centered and self
II. OVERVIEW concerned approach toward others.
• Identity

• Identity development is complex and takes place in

bits and pieces. Erikson argues that identity versus
identity confusion is the fifth stage of the human life
span, which individuals experience during
adolescence.
• Many parents have a difficult time handling the
adolescent’s push for autonomy, even though the push
is one of the hallmarks of adolescence. Adolescents do
not simply move into a world isolated from parents;
attachment to parents increases the probability that an
adolescent will be socially competent.
• The pressure to conform to peers is strong during o Erikson’s View (Identity V Role
adolescence, especially during the eighth and ninth Confusion)
grades. Cliques and crowds assume more importance ▪ adolescents are faced with deciding
in the lives of adolescents than in the lives of children. who they are, what they are all
• Low socioeconomic status and poverty can have about, and where they are going in
extremely negative effects on adolescents’ life.
development, including lower academic achievement, ▪ Psychosocial Moratorium: society
lower occupational attainment, and more leaves adolescents relatively free of
psychological problems. responsibilities and able to try out
different identities; aids adolescence
search for identity
▪ society leaves adolescents relatively
free of responsibilities and able to
try out different identities.
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 o Developmental Changes which identity achievement is
▪ For the first time, physical attained in East Asian countries.
development, cognitive Rather,
development, and socioemotional ▪ East Asian adolescents and
development advance to the point at emerging adults may develop their
which the individual can sort identity through identification with
through and synthesize childhood and imitation of others in their
identities and identifications to cultural group.
construct a viable path toward adult ▪ Bicultural Identity: identifying in
maturity some ways with their ethnic group
▪ James Marcia’s 4 Status of and in other ways with the majority
Identity/ Ways of Resolving culture
Identity Crisis • Religious/Spiritual Development
▪ Crisis: period of identity o A number of studies have found that
development during which the adolescents who are involved in religious
adolescent is exploring alternatives. institutions are more likely to engage in
▪ Commitment: part of identity service learning than their counterparts who
development in which adolescents don’t participate in religious institutions.
show a personal investment in o Religion & Identity Development
identity. ▪ As part of their search for identity,
adolescents and emerging adults
begin to grapple in more
sophisticated, logical ways with
such questions as “Why am I on this
planet?” “Is there really a God or
higher spiritual being, or have I just
been believing what my parents and
the church imprinted in my mind?”
“What really are my religious
views?”.
o Cognitive Development & Religion In
Adolescence
▪ Many of the cognitive changes
thought to influence religious
development involve Piaget’s
cognitive developmental theory.
▪ Adolescents think abstractly,
o Emerging Adulthood & Beyond idealistically, and logically. The
▪ College upperclassmen are more increase in abstract thinking lets
likely to be identity achieved than adolescents consider various ideas
college freshmen or high school about religious and spiritual
students. Many young adolescents, concepts. For example, an
on the other hand, are identity adolescent might ask how a loving
diffused. God can possibly exist given the
▪ Increased complexity in the extensive suffering of many people
reasoning skills of college students, in the world
combined with a wide range of new o Positive Role of Religion In Adolescents’
experiences that highlight contrasts Lives
between home and college and ▪ Religion plays a role in adolescents’
between themselves and others, health and has an influence on
stimulate them to reach a higher whether they engage in problem
level of integrating various behavior.
dimensions of their identity. ▪ Lower levels of spirituality/ religion
o Cultural & Ethnic Identity were associated with higher levels
▪ Ethnic Identity: An enduring, basic of risk-taking and depression.
aspect of the self that includes a
sense of membership in an ethnic
group and the attitudes and feelings
related to that membership.
▪ Researchers have found that self
oriented identity exploration may
not be the main process through

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 IV. FAMILIES competence, and fewer problematic
behaviors.
o Balancing Freedom & Control
▪ Parental psychological control
• Parental Monitoring & Information Management (extent to which parents use guilt,
o A key aspect of the managerial role of anxiety, love withdrawal, and other
parenting is effective monitoring, which is psychologically controlling
especially important as children move into behaviors) was linked to decreases
the adolescent years. in adolescents’ autonomy and
o A recent meta analysis also found that higher relatedness with friends between 13
levels of parental monitoring and rule and 18 years of age and lower levels
enforcement were linked to later initiation of of autonomy and relatedness with
sexual intercourse and increased use of romantic partners at 18.
condoms by adolescents.
o When parents engage in positive parenting
practices, adolescents are more likely to
disclose information. • Parent-Adolescent Conflict
o Researchers have found that adolescents’ o Conflict with parents often escalates during
disclosure to parents about their whereabouts, early adolescence and then lessens as the
activities, and friends is linked to positive adolescent reaches 17 to 20 years of age.
adolescent adjustment o Parent-adolescent relationships become more
• Autonomy & Attachment positive if adolescents go away to college
o Autonomy than if they attend college while living at
▪ Adolescents’ ability to attain home.
autonomy and gain control over o These minor disputes and negotiations
their behavior is acquired through facilitate the adolescent’s transition from
appropriate adult reactions to their being dependent on parents to becoming an
desire for control. autono mous individual. Recognizing that
▪ As the adolescent pushes for conflict and negotiation can serve a positive
autonomy, the wise adult developmental function can tone down
relinquishes control in those areas parental hostility.
where the adolescent can make o Old Model of Parent Adoelscent
reasonable decisions, but continues Relationship
to guide the adolescent to make ▪ Suggested that as adolescents
reasonable decisions in areas where mature they detach themselves from
the adolescent’s knowledge is more parents and move into a world of
limited. autonomy apart from parents.
▪ Gender differences characterize ▪ Parent-adolescent conflict is intense
autonomy-granting in adolescence. and stressful throughout
Boys are given more independence adolescence.
than girls. o New Model of Parent Adolescent
▪ Expectations about the appropriate Relationship
timing of adolescent autonomy ▪ Parents serve as important
often vary across cultures, parents, attachment figures and support
and adolescents. systems while adolescents explore a
o Role of Attachment wider, more complex social world.
▪ Researchers have found that ▪ In most families parent-adolescent
insecurely attached adolescents are conflict is moderate rather than
more likely than securely attached severe and that the everyday
adolescents to have emotional negotiations and minor disputes not
difficulties and to engage in only are normal but also can serve
problem behaviors such as juvenile the positive developmental function
delinquency and drug abuse. of helping the adolescent make the
▪ Insecure attachment to mothers transition from childhood
was linked to becoming depressed dependency to adult independence.
and remaining depressed.
▪ Secure attachment at 14 years of
age was linked to a number of
positive outcomes at 21 years of
age, including relationship
competence, financial/career

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 V. PEERS they may or may not spend much
time together. Many crowds are
defined by the activities adolescents
engage in (such as “jocks” who are
• Friendships good at sports or “druggies” who
o teenagers typically prefer to have a smaller take drugs)
number of friendships that are more intense • Dating
and intimate than those of young children. o Developmental Changes in Dating &
o During adolescence, said Sullivan, friends Romantic Relationships
become increasingly important in meeting
social needs. the need for intimacy intensifies
during early adolescence, motivating
teenagers to seek out close friends. If
adolescents fail to develop such close
friendships, they experience loneliness and a
reduced sense of self-worth.
o Having friends who engage in delinquent
behavior is associated with early onset and
more persistent delinquency.
o Positive friendship relationships in
adolescence are associated with a host of
positive outcomes, including lower rates of
delinquency, substance abuse, risky sexual
behavior, and bullying victimization, and
o Dating In Gay & Lesbian Youth
higher levels of academic achievement
▪ Many sexual minority youth date
• Peer Groups other-sex peers, which can help
o Peer Pressure them to clarify their sexual
▪ Young adolescents conform more to orientation or disguise it from
peer standards than children do. others. Most gay and lesbian youth
Adolescents are most likely to go have had some same-sex sexual
along with a peer to steal hubcaps experience, often with peers who are
off a car, draw graffiti on a wall, or “experimenting”.
steal cosmetics from a store counter. o Sociocultural Contexts & Dating
▪ Adolescents who feel uncertain ▪ One study found that Asian
about their social identity, which American adolescents were less
may be evident in low self-esteem likely to have been involved in a
and high social anxiety, are most romantic relationship in the past 18
likely to conform to peers. This months than African American or
uncertainty often increases during Latino adolescents were.
times of transition, such as changing ▪ Values, religious beliefs, and
circumstances in school and family traditions often dictate the age at
life. Also, adolescents are more which dating begins, how much
likely to conform to peers whom freedom in dating is allowed,
they perceive to have higher status whether dates must be chaperoned
than they do. by adults or parents, and the roles of
o Cliques & Crowds males and females in dating
▪ Cliques: A small group of about o Dating & Adjustment
five or six individuals that may form ▪ The more romantic encounters they
among adolescents who engage in had experienced, the more likely
similar activities. they were to report high levels of
▪ Crowds: A larger group structure social acceptance, friendship
than a clique that is usually based on competence, and romantic
reputation; members may or may competence; however, having more
not spend much time together. romantic experience also was linked
▪ Cliques can form because with a higher level of substance use,
adolescents engage in similar delinquency, and sexual behavior.
activities, such as belonging to a ▪ In some cases, romantic
club or playing on a sports team. relationships in adolescence are
Some cliques also form because of linked with positive developmental
friendship. changes. For example, in a recent
▪ Adolescents are usually members of study, having a supportive romantic
a crowd based on reputation, and relationship in adolescence was
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 linked to positive outcomes for individuals are overrepresented in the lower
adolescents who had a negative socioeconomic levels of American society.
relationship with their mother • Media Use & Screen Time
o Screen Time: how much time individuals
spend watching television or DVDs, playing
VI. CULTURE & ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
video games, and using computers or mobile
media such as iPhones.
o Prevalence of Media Use & Screen Time:
• Cross-Cultural Comparisons Media use jumps more than 3 hours in early
o Health: A number of adolescent health- adolescence. The largest increases in media
compromising behaviors (especially illicit use in early adolescence are for TV and video
drug use and unprotected sex) are increasing games. TV use by youth increasingly has
in frequency. Extensive increases in the rates involved watching TV on the Internet via a
of HIV in adolescents have occurred in many notebook computer or cell phone.
sub-Saharan countries
o Gender: In many countries, adolescent VII. ADOLESCENT PROBLEMS
females have less freedom than males to
pursue a variety of careers and engage in
various leisure activities. Gender differences
in sexual expression are widespread, • Juvenile Delinquency: An adolescent who breaks the
especially in Ind Southeast Asia, Latin law or engages in behavior that is considered illegal.
America, and Arab countries where far more o Causes of Delinquency: some
restrictions are placed on the sexual activity characteristics of lower-SES culture might
of adolescent females than on that of males. promote delinquency.
o Family: In some countries, adolescents grow • Depression & Suicide
up in closely knit families with extensive kin o Depression
networks that retain a traditional way of life. ▪ Adolescents who are experiencing a
However, in Western countries such as the high level of stress and/or a loss of
United States, parenting is less authoritarian some type are at increased risk for
than in the past, and much larger numbers of developing depression.
adolescents are growing up in divorced ▪ A recent study found that
families and stepfamilies. adolescents who became depressed
o Peers: Some cultures give peers a stronger were characterized by a sense of
role in adolescence than other cultures do. hopelessness.
o Time Allocation to Different Activities: ▪ In another longitudinal study of
Structured voluntary activities may provide young people from 14 to 24 years of
more promise for adolescent development age, mild to moderate levels of early
than unstructured time, especially if adults adolescent depressive behaviors
give responsibility to adolescents, challenge were linked to lower maternal
them, and provide competent guidance in relationship quality, less positive
these activities. romantic relationships, and greater
o Rites of Passage: ceremony or ritual that loneliness in emerging adulthood.
marks an individual’s transition from one o Suicide
status to another. Most rites of passage focus ▪ Rare in childhood, escalates in
on the transition to adult status. adolescence and further in emerging
• Socioeconomic Status & Poverty: Adolescents from adulthood.
low-SES backgrounds are at risk for experiencing low ▪ Both earlier and later experiences
academic achievement and emotional problems, as are linked to suicide attempts, and
well as lower occupational attainment in adulthood. these can involve family
• Ethnicity relationship.
o Immigration: Immigrants often experience • The Interralation of Problems & Successful
stressors uncommon to or less prominent Prevention/Intervention Programs
among long-time residents, such as language o The four problems that affect the most
barriers, dislocations and separations from adolescents are (1) drug abuse, (2) juvenile
support networks, the dual struggle to delinquency, (3) sexual problems, and (4)
preserve identity and to acculturate, and school-related problems.
changes in socioeconomic status.
o Ethnicity & Socioeconomic Status:
Ethnicity and socioeconomic status can
interact in ways that exaggerate the influence
of ethnicity because ethnic minority

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 o Programs that have been successful in
Preventing Adolescent Problems:

VIII. REFERENCES

Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development (17th ed.).

McGraw Hill.

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DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (2nd TERM, 2022-23) | (PSY224) | (January 3, 2023)

OUTLINE Csikszentmihalyi proposed that the first step toward

I. Introduction living a more creative life is to cultivate curiosity and
II. Overview
III. Transition from Adolescence to Adulthood interest.
IV. Physical Development
V. Sexuality III. TRANSITION FROM ADOLESCENCE TO ADULTHOOD
VI. Cognitive Development
VII. Careers & Work
[Link] • Becoming An Adult
o Emerging Adulthood: The transition from
I. INTRODUCTION
adolescence to adulthood (occurring from
approximately 18 to 25 years of age), which
o This chapter introduces the transitional stage from is characterized by experimentation and
adolescence and adulthood. Early adulthood is the exploration.
developmental aspect in which exploration and o Key Features:
experimentation are predominant. In terms of
education, this stage focuses on the change from
high school to college. Moreover, it is widely
believed that Piaget’s theory extends post formal
operational. Although he affirmed that young
adults and adolescence have the same thinking,
other scientists disputed this as empirical
evidence suggest otherwise- thus the concept of
“Post Formal Thought” emerged. The main
difference between Piaget’s last stage and post
formal is that not only does a young adult have a
hypothetico-deductive reasoning, but they also
have a thinking that is reflective relativistic,
contextual, provisional, realistic, and influenced
by emotions. Lastly, since this stage is mostly o The Changing Landscape of Emerging &
characterized by the conquest of experimentation, Early Adulthood
research has found that most surveyed adults are ▪ In 2014 living with parents was the
sexually active- thus this chapter provieded some most frequent living arrangement
readings on sexually transmitted infections. for 18- to 34-year-olds.
▪ In terms of education, today’s
II. OVERVIEW emerging and young adults are
better educated than their
counterparts in the 1970’s.
▪ In terms of work, more young
• Emerging adulthood is the term given to the transition adults are working today than in
from adolescence to adulthood. This period ranges 1975 (Vespa, 2017). The main
from about 18 to 25 years of age, and it is characterized reason for this increase also
by experimentation and exploration. involves a gender change—the
significant rise of young women in
• Peak physical performance is often reached between
the workforce, which has increased
19 and 26 years of age. Toward the latter part of early
from slightly below 50 percent to
adulthood, a detectable slowdown in physical
more than two-thirds of young
performance is apparent for most individuals.
women in the workforce today.
• Sexually Transmitted Infections are contracted
primarily through sexual contact. The STI that has
received the most attention in the last several decades
is infection with HIV, which can lead to AIDS
(acquired immune deficiency syndrome). A person
with AIDS has such a weakened immune system that
even a cold can be life-threatening.
• Creativity peaks in adulthood, often during the forties,
and then declines. However, there is extensive
individual variation in lifetime creative output.

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 ▪ Allens’ Suggestion for helping • Health
adolescenets become more o Emerging adults have more than twice the
mature: mortality rate of adolescents.
o A longitudinal study revealed that most bad
health habits that were engaged in during
adolescence increased in emerging adulthood
(Harris & others, 2006). Inactivity, poor diet,
obesity, substance abuse, inadequate
reproductive health care, and use of health
care facilities worsened in emerging
adulthood
• Eating & Weight
o Obesity: In a recent international comparison
of 33 countries, the United States had the
highest percentage of obese adults (38.2
oMarkers of Becoming an Adult percent) and Japan the lowest percentage
▪ The most widely recognized marker (3.7); the average of the countries was 19.5
of entry into adulthood is holding a percent of the population being obese
more or less permanent, full-time ▪ Heredity: Some individuals inherit
job, which usuallyhappens when an a tendency to be overweight.
individual finishes school—high ▪ Environmental Factors:
school for some, college for others, Sociocultural factors are involved in
graduate or professional school for obesity, which is six times more
still others. prevalent among women with low
▪ Economic independence is one incomes than among women with
marker of adult status, but achieving high incomes.
it is often a long process. College o Dieting: A research review of the long-term
graduates are increasingly returning outcomes of calorie-restricting diets revealed
to live with their parents as they that one-third to two-thirds of dieters regain
attempt to establish themselves more weight than they lost on their diets.
economically. o Binge Eating Disorder (BED): Involves
▪ Other studies suggest that taking frequent binge eating but without
responsibility for oneself may be an compensatory behavior like the purging that
important marker of adult status for characterizes bulimics.
many individuals. • Regular Exercise
• The Transition from High School to College o Aerobic Exercise: Sustained exercise (such
o For many students, the transition from high as jogging, swimming, or cycling) that
school to college involves movement to a stimulates heart and lung activity.
larger, more impersonal school structure; o Researchers have found that exercise is
interaction with peers from more diverse linked not only to physical health, but mental
geographical and sometimes more diverse health as well. In particular, exercise is
ethnic backgrounds; and increased focus on associated with a higher self-concept, as well
achievement and its assessment. as lower anxiety and depression.

IV. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

• Substance Abuse
o Addiction: A pattern of behavior
characterized by an overwhelming
involvement with using a drug and a
• Physical Performance & Development preoccupation with securing its supply.
o Most of us reach our peak levels of physical o Alcohol
performance before the age of 30, often ▪ Binge Drinking: Often occurs in
between the ages of 19 and 26. This peak of college
physical performance occurs not only for the ▪ Extreme Binge Drinking:
average young adult but for outstanding individuals who had 10 or more
athletes as well. drinks in a row or 15 or more drinks
o Muscle tone and strength usually begin to in a row in the last two weeks.
show signs of decline around the age of 30. ▪ Pregaming: Getting generally
Sagging chins and protruding abdomens also intoxicated or drunk before going
may begin to appear for the first time. The out and socializing or attending an
lessening of physical abilities is a common event.
complaint among the just-turned thirties. ▪ Alcoholism: disorder that involves
long-term, repeated, uncontrolled,
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 compulsive, and excessive use of • Sexual Orientation & Behavior
alcoholic beverages and impairs the o Heterosexual Attitudes & Behavior
drinker’s health and social
relationships.
o Cigarette Smoking & Nicotine
▪ Recent research indicated that
marijuana and alcohol use were risk
factors for using e-cigarettes in
emerging adulthood (Cohn &
others, 2015). A recent study also
found that emerging adults who
used e-cigarettes were more likely
to view emerging adulthood as a o Sources of Sexual Orientation
time of experimentation and were ▪ Women are more likely than men to
likely to experience such role have sexual experiences with same-
transitions as loss of a job, dating and opposite-sex partners, even if
someone new, and experiencing a they identify themselves strongly as
romantic breakup (Allen & others, being heterosexual or lesbian (King,
2015). 2017, 2018). Also, women are more
likely than men to identify
V. SEXUALITY themselves as bisexual.
▪ All people, regardless of their sexual
orientation, have similar
physiological responses during
• Sexual Activity in Emerging Adulthood sexual arousal and seem to be
o At the beginning of emerging adulthood (age aroused by the same types of tactile
18), surveys indicate that slightly more than stimulation. Investigators typically
60 percent of individuals have experienced find no differences between LGBs
sexual intercourse, but by the end of and heterosexuals in a wide range of
emerging adulthood (age 25), most attitudes, behaviors, and
individuals have had sexual intercourse. adjustments.
o Casual Sex is more common in emerging o Attitudes & Behavior of Leasbians & Gays:
adulthood than in the late twenties. like heterosexual women, lesbians have fewer
o Sexual Script: stereotyped pattern of role sexual partners than gay men, and lesbians have
prescriptions for how individuals should less permissive attitudes about casual sex outside
behave sexually. a primary relationship than gay men do.

• Sexually Transmitted Infections: Diseases that are

contracted primarily through sexual activity.

o Predictors of risky heterosexual behavior

in emerging adults:

• Forcible Sexual Behavior & Sexual Harassment

o Rape: Forcible sexual intercourse with a
person who does not consent to it.
▪ Date/ Acquintance Rape: Coercive
sexual activity directed at someone

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 with whom the perpetrator is at least VII. CAREERS & WORK
casually acquainted.
o Sexual Harassment: manifestation of power
of one person over another. It takes many
forms, ranging from inappropriate sexual • Developmental Changes
remarks and physical contact (patting, o In the high school years, they begin to think
brushing against another person’s body) to about careers from a somewhat less idealistic
blatant propositions and sexual assaults. perspective. In their late teens and early
twenties, their career decision making has
VI. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT usually turned more serious as they explore
different career possibilities and zero in on
the career they want to enter. In college, this
often means choosing a major or
• Cognitive Stages specialization that is designed to lead to work
in a particular field. By their early and mid-
o Piaget’s View: Formal operational thought is twenties, many individuals have completed
their education or training and entered a full-
the last stage that characterizes both
time occupation.
adolescents & young adults.
▪ Piaget did stress that young adults
are more quantitatively advanced in
their thinking in the sense that they
have more knowledge than • Finding a Path to Purpose
adolescents. He also reasoned, as do o William Damon (The Path to Purpose):
information-processing purpose is a missing ingredient in many
psychologists, that adults especially adolescents’ and emerging adults’
increase their knowledge in a achievement and career development. Too
specific area, such as a physicist’s many youth drift aimlessly through their high
understanding of physics or a school and college years, Damon says,
financial analyst’s knowledge of engaging in behavior that places them at risk
finance. for not fulfilling their potential & not finding
a life pursuit that energizes them.
o Postformal Thought: Thinking that is reflective
relativistic, contextual, provisional, realistic, and
influenced by emotions.

• Impact of Work
o Work defines people in fundamental ways
(Adler & Elmhurst, 2019; Hsieh & Huang,
2017).
o Influences their financial standing, housing,
the way they spend their time, where they
live, their friendships, and their health
(Blustein, 2013). Some people define their
• Creativity identity through their work.
o More recently, researchers have found that o Work creates a structure and rhythm to life
creativity peaks in adulthood and then that is often missed when individuals do not
declines, but the peak often occurs in the work for an extended period. Many
forties. individuals experience emotional distress and
o However, qualifying any conclusion about low self-esteem when they are unable to
age and creative accomplishments are (1) work.
questions about the magnitude of the decline o Work During College
in productivity, (2) contrasts across creative ▪ Cooperative (co-op) Programs:
domains, and (3) individual differences in paid apprenticeships in a field that
lifetime output you are interested in pursuing.

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 • Diversity in the Workplace
o Despite the increasing diversity in the
workplace, women and ethnic minorities
experience difficulty in breaking through the
glass ceiling that prevents them from being
promoted to higher rungs on the corporate
ladder. This invisible barrier to career
advancement prevents women and ethnic
minorities from holding managerial or
executive jobs regardless of their
accomplishments and merits.

VIII. REFERENCES

Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development (17th ed.).

McGraw Hill.

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DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (2nd TERM, 2022-23) | (PSY224) | (January 3, 2023)

OUTLINE III. STABILITY & CHANGE FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADULTHOOD

I. Introduction
II. Overview
III. Stability & Change from Childhood to Adulthood
IV. Attraction, Love, & Close Relationships • Temperamnet
V. Adult Lifestyles o Defined as: individual’s behavioral style and
VI. Marriage & the Family characteristic emotional responses.
VII. Gender & Communication Styles, Relationships, & o In early adulthood, most individuals show
Classification
[Link] fewer emotional mood swings than they did
in adolescence, and they become more
I. INTRODUCTION responsible and engage in less risk-taking
behavior.

• This section introduces key socioemotional

developmental stages during early adulthood. In this
chapter topics such as the role of attachment, marriage,
divorce, & gender diversity was tackled. Moreover,
young adulthood mostly delves on Erikson’s intimacy
v isolation stage in which marriage to early conception
of a child is covered. According to him intimacy is the
virtue that is needed to be developed. If a person fails
to develop an intimate relationship in early adulthood,
isolation occurs. Lastly, a person’s gender may also be o Types & Dimension During Childhood w/
a key determinant for communication styles and Characteristics of Adult Personality
relationship differences. ▪ Easy & Difficult Temperaments:
Children who had an easy
temperament at 3 to 5 years of age
II. OVERVIEW
were likely to be well adjusted as
young adults. Children who had a
difficult temperament at 3 to 5 years
of age were not well adjusted as
• Links between childhood temperament and adult young adults
personality can vary, depending on contexts in an ▪ Inhibition: Individuals who had an
individual’s experience. A high activity level in early inhibited temperament in childhood
childhood is linked with being an outgoing young are less likely than other adults to be
adult. Young adults show fewer mood swings, are assertive or experience social
more responsible, and engage in less risk taking than support, and more likely to delay
adolescents. In some cases, certain dimensions of entering a stable job track.
temperament in childhood are linked with adjustment Disinhibition in the toddler years
problems in early adulthood. was linked to career stability in
• The different types of love include friendship, middle adulthood.
romantic love, affectionate love, and consummate ▪ Ability to control one’s emotions:
love. Friendship plays an important role in adult When 3-year-old children showed
development, especially in providing emotional good control of their emotions and
support. Romantic love, also called passionate love, were resilient in the face of stress,
includes passion, sexuality, and a mixture of emotions, they were likely to continue to
not all of which are positive. Affectionate love, also handle emotions effectively as
called companionate love, usually becomes more adults. When 3-year-olds had low
important as relationships mature. Shaver proposed a emotional control and were not very
developmental model of love and Sternberg a triarchic resilient, they were likely to show
model of love (with dimensions of passion, intimacy, problems in these areas as young
and commitment). adults.
• Being single has become an increasingly prominent • Attachment
lifestyle. Autonomy is one of its advantages. Intimacy, o Young adults who were securely attached in
loneliness, and finding a positive identity in a their romantic relationships were more likely
marriage-oriented society are challenges faced by to describe their early relationship with their
single adults. parents as securely attached.

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 o Insecure avoidant attachment at 8 years of ▪ Matching Hypothesis: Theory that
age was linked to a lower level of social although we prefer a more attractive
initiative and prosocial behavior and a higher person in the abstract, in the real
level of social anxiety and loneliness at 21 world we end up choosing someone
years of age. who is close to our own level of
o Developmental Cascade Model: involves attractiveness.
connections across domains over time that • The Faces of Love
influence developmental pathways and o Intimacy: Erikson describes intimacy as
outcomes. finding oneself while losing oneself in
another person, and it requires a commitment
to another person. If a person fails to develop
an intimate relationship in early adulthood,
according to Erikson, isolation results.
o Romantic Love: Also called passionate love
or eros, romantic love has strong sexual an
infatuation components and often
predominates early in a love relationship.
IV. ATTRACTION, LOVE, & CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS o Affectionate Love: In this type of love, also
called companionate love, an individual
desires to have the other person near and has
a deep, caring affection for the other person.
• Attraction o Consummate Love
o First Impressions: Numerous studies have ▪ Fullest form of love (passion,
found that immediate impressions can be itimacy, commitment)
accurate. Based on very little evidence, such ▪ Robert Sternberg
as that provided by photographs, very brief ▪ Triarchic theory
interactions, or video clips, individuals can ▪ Passion: phsyical/sexual attraction
accurately detect a person’s romantic interest to another.
in them (Place & others, 2012), their ▪ Infatuation: If passion is the only
tendency to be violent (Stillman, Maner, & ingredient in a relationship (with
Baumeister, 2010), and their sexual intimacy and commitment low or
orientation (Stern & others, 2013). absent).
o Familiarity & Similarity: ▪ Affectionate Love: relationship
▪ Researchers have found that marked by intimacy and
familiarity is an important condition commitment but low or lacking in
for a close relationship to develop. passion.
▪ Another old saying, “Birds of a ▪ Fatuous Love: If passion and
feather flock together,” also helps to commitment are present but
explain attraction. Overall, our intimacy is not.
friends and lovers are much more
like us than unlike us.
▪ Consensual Validation: An
explanation of why individuals are
attracted to people who are similar
to them. Our own attitudes and
behavior are supported and
validated when someone else’s
attitudes and behavior are similar to
our own.
o Physical Attractiveness
▪ For example, psychologists have
determined that men and women o Relationship Education: interventions to
differ on the importance of good provide individuals and couples with
looks when they seek an intimate information and skills that produce positive
partner. Women tend to rate as most romantic relationships and marriages. These
important such traits as interventions are diverse and include
considerateness, honesty, instruction in basic relationship knowledge
dependability, kindness, and skills to youth in a classroom setting,
understanding, and earning helping unmarried couples learn more about
prospects; men prefer good looks, relationships in small group settings, and
cooking skills, and frugality. providing premarital education to engaged
couples.
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 V. ADULT LIFESTYLES VI. MARRIAGE & THE FAMILY

• Single Adults • Making Marriage Work

o Common challenges faced by single adults o Gottman’s 7 Main Practices that help
may include forming intimate relationships marriages succeed:
with other adults, confronting loneliness, and
finding a niche in a society that is marriage
oriented.
o Advantages of being single include having
time to make decisions about one’s life
course, time to develop personal resources to
meet goals, freedom to make autonomous
decisions and pursue one’s own schedule and
interests, opportunities to explore new places
and try out new things, and privacy.
• Cohabiting Adults
o Cohabitation: living together in a sexual
relationship without being married.
o In a recent large-scale study, women who
cohabited within the first year of a sexual
relationship were less likely to get married
than women who waited more than one year
before cohabiting.
o These couples do not want the official aspects
of marriage. One study revealed that young
adults’ main reasons for cohabiting are to
spend time together, share expenses, and
evaluate compatibility.
• Married Adults
o The changing norm of male-female equality
in marriage and increasingly high
expectations for what a marital relationship
should be has produced marital relationships
that are more fragile and intense than they
were for earlier generations. o Strategies for coping w/ the stress of living
• Divorced Adults in a remarried family
o Youthful marriage, low educational level,
low income, not having a religious affiliation,
having parents who are divorced, and having
a baby before marriage are factors that are
associated with increases in divorce.
• Remarried Adults
o Occurs sooner for partners who initiate a
divorce (especially in the first several years
after divorce and for older women) than those
who do not.
o Men with higher incomes are more likely to
remarry than their counterparts with lower
• Becoming Parent
incomes.
o Parenting Mythes & Reality
• Gay & Lesbian Adults
o Researchers have found that gay and lesbian
relationships are similar—in their
satisfactions, loves, joys, and conflicts—to
heterosexual relationships.
o Trends in Childbearing

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 • Dealing w/ Divorce o Men’s Development
o One of the most common characteristics of
divorced adults is difficulty trusting a new
partner in a romantic relationship.
o E. Mavis Hetherington’s 6 Common
Pathways after Dicorce:

o Gender’s Role in Friendships

▪ Compared with men, women have
more close friends and their
friendships involve more self-
disclosure and exchange of mutual
support.
▪ Cross-gender friendships are more
common among adults than children
but less common than same-gender
friendships in adulthood.
• Gender Classification
o Masculinity, Femininity & Androgyny
▪ Androgyny: The presence of
positive masculine and feminine
characteristics in the same person.
o Transgender: broad term that refers to
VII. GENDER & COMMUNICATION STYLES, RELATIONSHIPS, individuals who adopt a gender identity that
& CLASSIFICATION differs from the one assigned to them at birth.
▪ Cisgender: individuals whose
gender identity and expression
match the gender identity assigned
• Gender & Communication Styles at birth.
o Rapport Talk: The language of
conversation; it is the way of establishing
VIII. REFERENCES
connections and negotiating relationships.
o Report Talk: Talk that is designed to give
information; this category of Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development (17th ed.).
communication includes public speaking. McGraw Hill.
• Gender & Relationships
o Women’s Development
▪ Tannen’s analysis of women’s
preference for rapport talk suggests
that women place a high value on
relationships and focus on nurturing
their connections with others.
▪ Women often try to interact with
others in ways that will foster the
other person’s development along
many dimensions— emotional,
intellectual, and social.
▪ Most experts stress that it is
important for women not only to
maintain their competency in
relationships but to be self-
motivated too.

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DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (2nd TERM, 2022-23) | (PSY224) | (February 5, 2023)

OUTLINE III. LONGEVITY

I. Introduction
II. Overview
III. Longevity
IV. The Course of Physical Development in Late Adulthood • Life Expectancy & Life Span
V. Health o Life Span: The maximum number of years
VI. References an individual can live. The life span of human
beings is about 120 to 125 years of age.
I. INTRODUCTION o Life Expectancy: The number of years that
will probably be lived by the average person
born in a particular year
o This chapter introduces some changes ▪ In 2014, the overall life expectancy
present in middle to late adulthood. At this for women was 81.4 years of age,
stage, we are more susceptible on acquiring and for men it was 76.7 years of age.
diseases. Various drugs, a healthy diet, and Beginning in their mid-thirties,
exercise are just some of the components women outnumber men; this gap
needed that could reduce the risk of widens during the remainder of the
cardiovascular disease in many older adults. adult years.
In addition to this, numerous research has
• Young-Old & The Oldest-Old
found that women are usually outlive men,
o Young Old: 65-84 yrs.
but they are more prone to acquiring o Oldest Old: 85 and older
osteoporosis. Moreover, some theories o Many experts on aging prefer to talk about
suggests that one’s longevity and aging may the categories of young-old and oldest-old in
be due to biological influences or a play
terms of function rather than age.
between genetic and environment. Lastly,
o Functional Age: person’s actual ability to
Orgasm becomes less frequent in males with
function—an 85-year-old might well be more
age, occurring in every second to third biologically and psychologically fit than a
attempt rather than every time. More direct 65-year-old.
stimulation usually is needed to produce an
• Biological Theories of Aging
erections.
o Evolutionary Theory of Aging: This theory
states that natural selection has not eliminated
II. OVERVIEW many harmful conditions and nonadaptive
characteristics in older adults; thus, the
benefits conferred by evolution decline with
age because natural selection is linked to
• Life expectancy refers to the number of years that will reproductive fitness.
probably be lived by an average person born in a o Genetic/Cellular Process Theories: aging is
particular year. Life span is the maximum number of best explained by cellular maintenance
years an individual can live. Life expectancy has requirements & evolutionary constraints.
dramatically increased; life span has not. ▪ Cellular Clock/Telomere Theory:
• The brain loses weight and volume with age, and there Leonard Hayflick’ theory that the
is a general slowing of function in the central nervous maximum number of times that
system that begins in middle adulthood and increases human cells can divide is about 75
in late adulthood. However, researchers have recently to 80. As we age, our cells have less
found that older adults can generate new neurons, and capacity to divide.
at least through the seventies, new dendrites. ▪ Free-Radical Theory:
• Aging in late adulthood does include some changes in microbiological theory of aging that
sexual performance, more so for males than females. states that people age because
Nonetheless, there are no known age limits to sexual normal metabolic processes within
activity. their cells produce unstable oxygen
• As we age, our probability of disease or illness molecules known as free radicals.
increases. Chronic disorders are rare in early These molecules ricochet around
adulthood, increase in middle adulthood, and become inside cells, damaging DNA and
more common in late adulthood. The most common other cellular structures.
chronic disorder in late adulthood is arthritis. Nearly ▪ Mitochondiral Theory: The theory
three-fourths of older adults die of cancer, heart that aging is caused by the decay of
disease, or stroke. mitochondria, tiny cellular bodies

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 that supply energy for function, o Wrinkles and age spots are the most
growth, and repair. noticeable changes.
▪ Sirtuin Theory: A family of o We also become shorter as we get older. Both
proteins that have been proposed as men and women become shorter in late
having important influences on adulthood because of bone loss in their
longevity, mitochondria functioning vertebrae.
in energy, calorie restriction • Sensory Development
benefits, stress resistance, and o Vision: researchers have found that visual
cardiovascular functioning. decline in late adulthood is linked to (a)
▪ mTOR Pathway Theory: A cognitive decline, and (b) having fewer social
cellular pathway involving the contacts and engaging in less challenging
regulation of growth and social/leisure activities.
metabolism that has been proposed ▪ Visual Acuity: Dark adaptation is
as a key aspect of longevity. slower—that is, older individuals
o Hormonal Stress Theory: The theory that take longer to recover their vision
aging in the body’s hormonal system can when going from a well-lighted
decrease resistance to stress and increase the room to semidarkness. The area of
likelihood of disease. the visual field becomes smaller, a
change suggesting that the intensity
IV. THE COURSE OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN LATE
of a stimulus in the peripheral area
ADULTHOOD of the visual field needs to be
increased if the stimulus is to be
seen. Events taking place away from
the center of the visual field might
• The Aging Brain not be detected.
o The Shrinking, Slowing Brain ▪ Color Vison: This decline is most
▪ On average, the brain loses 5 to 10 likely to occur in the green-blue-
percent of its weight between the violet part of the color spectrum. As
ages of 20 and 90. Brain volume a result, older adults may have
also decreases. trouble accurately distinguishing
▪ Recent analyses concluded that in between objects of closely related
healthy aging the decrease in brain colors, such as navy blue socks and
volume is due mainly to shrinkage black socks.
of neurons, lower numbers of ▪ Depth Perception: Depth
synapses, reduced length and perception typically declines in late
complexity of axons, and reduced adulthood, which can make it
tree-like branching in dendrites, but difficult for the older adult to
only to a minor extent attributable to determine how close or far away or
neuron loss. how high or low something is
▪ Neuron loss occurs in individuals o Diseases of the Eye
w/ disorders such as Alzheimer ▪ Catarcats: A thickening of the lens
Disease. of the eye that causes vision to
▪ Aging has also been linked to become cloudy, opaque, and
reduced synaptic functioning and distorted.
decreased production of some ▪ Glaucoma: Damage to the optic
neurotransmitters, including nerve because of the pressure
acetylcholine, dopamine, and created by a buildup of fluid in the
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). eye.
o The Adapting Brain: Even in late ▪ Macular Degeneration: Disease
adulthood, the brain loses only a portion of its that involves deterioration of the
ability to function, and the activities older macula of the retina, which
adults engage in can influence the brain’s corresponds to the focal center of
development. the visual field.
• Sleep o Hearing
o In a recent analysis of sleep patterns from 20 ▪ The decline in vision and hearing is
to 90 years of age, total sleep decreased about much greater in individuals 75 years
8 minutes per decade for males and about 10 and older than in individuals 65 to
minutes per decade for females as they got 74 years of age.
older. ▪ Older adults often don’t recognize
o As individuals aged, they engaged in more that they have a hearing problem,
light sleep and less deep sleep. deny that they have one, or accept it
• Physical Appearance & Movement as a part of growing old

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 o Smell & Taste movement problems; this disease is
▪ Most older adults lose some of their especially common in older adults.
sense of taste or smell, or both. o Osteoporosis: A chronic condition that
▪ Smell and taste decline less in involves an extensive loss of bone tissue and
healthy older adults than in their less is the main reason many older adults walk
healthy counterparts. with a marked stoop.
o Touch & Pain: A recent national study of o Accidents: Injuries resulting from a fall at
community-dwelling older adults revealed home or a traffic accident in which an older
that 70 percent of older adults had impaired adult is a driver or an older pedestrian is hit
touch. One study found that with aging, by a vehicle are common. Falls are the
individuals could detect touch less in the leading cause of injury deaths among adults
lower extremities (ankles, knees, and so on) who are 65 years and older.
than in the upper extremities (wrists, • Substance Use & Abuse
shoulders, and so on). o Late-onset Alcoholism: the label used to
• The Circulatory & respiratory Systems describe the onset of alcoholism after the age
o Various drugs, a healthy diet, and exercise of 65. Late-onset alcoholism is often related
can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease to loneliness, loss of a spouse, or a disabling
in many older adults. condition.
o In the respiratory system, lung capacity drops • Exercise, Nutrition, & Weight
40 percent between the ages of 20 and 80, o The more active they are, the healthier and
even when disease is not present. Lungs lose happier they are likely to be.
elasticity, the chest shrinks, and the o Research has found that sedentary
diaphragm weakens. participants (low fitness) were more than
• Sexuality twice as likely to die during the eight-year
o In the absence of two circumstances— time span of the study than those who were
disease and the belief that old people are or moderately fit and more than three times as
should be asexual—sexuality can be lifelong. likely to die as those who were highly fit.
Aging, however, does induce some changes o Nutrition & Weight: Four aspects of
in human sexual performance, more so in nutrition are especially important in older
males than in females. adults: (1) getting adequate nutrition, (2)
o Orgasm becomes less frequent in males with avoiding overweight and obesity, (3)
age, occurring in every second to third deciding whether to restrict calorie intake to
attempt rather than every time. More direct improve health and extend life, and (4)
stimulation usually is needed to produce an determining whether to take specific vitamin
erections. supplements to slow the aging process.

V. HEALTH VI. REFERENCES

Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development (17th ed.).

• Health Problems McGraw Hill.
o As we age, we become more susceptible to
disease or illness. arthritis is the most
common chronic disorder in late adulthood,
followed by hypertension. Older women have
a higher incidence of arthritis and
hypertension and are more likely to have
visual problems, but are less likely to have
hearing problems, than older men are.
o Arthritis is the most common chronic
disorder in late adulthood, followed by
hypertension. Older women have a higher
incidence of arthritis and hypertension and
are more likely to have visual problems, but
are less likely to have hearing problems, than
older men are
o Cause of Death in Older Adults: Nearly 60
percent of deaths among U.S. adults 65 to 74
years are caused by cancer or cardiovascular
disease.
o Arthritis: Inflammation of the joints
accompanied by pain, stiffness, and
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DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (2nd TERM, 2022-23) | (PSY224) | (February 5, 2023)

OUTLINE
III. COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN OLDER ADULTS
I. Introduction
II. Overview
III. Cognitive Functioning in Older Adults
IV. Language Development • Multidimensionality& MultidirectionalityEducation,
V. Work & Retirement Work, & Health
VI. Mental Health o Cognitive Mechanics: The “hardware” of
VII. Religion & Spirituality
the mind, reflecting the neurophysiological
VIII. References
architecture of the brain. Cognitive
I. INTRODUCTION mechanics involve the speed and accuracy of
the processes involving sensory input, visual
and motor memory, discrimination,
• This section tackles cognitive functioning in late comparison, and categorization.
adulthood. In accordance with Erikson’s theory this o Cognitive Pragmatics: The culture-based
stage in life should be characterized by the formation “software programs” of the mind. Cognitive
of the virtue wisdom. Moreover, it was found that pragmatics include reading and writing skills,
speed of processing at this stage does not language comprehension, educational
automatically equate to lower results- but it varies qualifications, professional skills, and also
from person to person. Furthermore, some common knowledge about the self and life skills that
mental health problems in elderly people are major help us to master or cope with life.
depression, dementia, Alzheimer, and Parkinson’s o Speed of Processing:
which mostly entails lack of certain neurotransmitters. ▪ Although speed of processing
Lastly, in terms of religion and spirituality, it was information slows down in late
affirmed by many researches that many older adults adulthood, there is considerable
are spiritual leaders in their communities- thus, individual variation in this ability.
emphasizing on the importance of religion in late These variations in thinking speed
adulthood. appear to be correlated with
physical aspects of aging.
▪ Researchers have found that a
II. OVERVIEW slowing of processing speed at
baseline is linked to the emergence
of dementia over the next six years
o Attention:
• Wisdom is expert knowledge about the practical ▪ Researchers have found that older
aspects of life that permits excellent judgment about adults are less able to ignore
important matters. Baltes and his colleagues have distracting information than
found that high levels of wisdom are rare, the time younger adults, and this
frame of late adolescence and early adulthood is the distractibility becomes more
main window for wisdom to emerge, factors other than pronounced as attentional demands
age are critical for wisdom to develop, and increase. The greater distractibility
personality-related factors are better predictors of of older adults is associated with
wisdom than cognitive factors such as intelligence. less effective functioning in neural
• Two main conclusions can be derived from research networks running through the
on training cognitive skills in older adults: (1) training frontal and parietal lobes of the
can improve the cognitive skills of many older adults, brain, which are involved in
and (2) there is some loss in plasticity in late cognitive control.
adulthood. ▪ Selective Attention: Focusing on a
• Depression has been called the “common cold” of specific aspect of experience that is
mental disorders. However, a majority of older adults relevant while ignoring others that
with depressive symptoms never receive mental health are irrelevant.
treatment. ▪ Divided Attention: Concentrating
• Many older adults are spiritual leaders in their church on more than one activity at the
and community. Religious interest increases in old age same time.
and is related to a sense of well-being in the elderly. ▪ Sustained Attention: Focused and
extended engagement with an
object, task, event, or other aspect of
the environment.

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 ▪ Executive Attention: Aspects of matters, good judgment, and an
thinking that include planning understanding of how to cope with difficult
actions, allocating attention to goals, life problems.
detecting and compensating for • Education, Work, & Health
errors, monitoring progress on tasks, o Education
and dealing with novel or difficult ▪ One study revealed that older adults
circumstances. with less education had lower
o Explicit & Implicit Memory: cognitive abilities than those with
▪ Explicit Memory: Memory of facts more education.
and experiences that individuals ▪ However, for older adults with less
consciously know and can state. education, frequently engaging in
▪ Implicit Memory: Memory without cognitive activities improved their
conscious recollection; involves episodic memory. Another study
skills and routine procedures that found that older adults with a higher
are automatically performed level of education had better
▪ Episodic Memory (Explicit): The cognitive functioning.
retention of information about the o Work: Researchers have found that when
details of life’s happenings. older adults engage in complex working tasks
▪ Semantic Memory (Explicit): A and challenging daily work activities, their
person’s knowledge about the cognitive functioning shows less age-related
world—including one’s fields of decrease. Further, researchers have found
expertise, general academic that working in an occupation with a high
knowledge of the sort learned in level of mental demands is linked to higher
school, and “everyday knowledge.” levels of cognitive functioning before
▪ Source Memory: The ability to retirement and a slower rate of cognitive
remember where one learned decline after retirement.
something. o Health
▪ Prospective Memory: ▪ Terminal Decline: mphasizes that
Remembering to do something in changes in cognitive functioning
the future. may be linked more to distance from
o Executive Function: The prefrontal cortex is death or cognition-related pathology
one area of the brain that especially shrinks than to distance from birth
with aging, and recent research has linked • Cognitive Neuroscience & Aging
this shrinkage with a decrease in working o Cognitive Neuroscience: Major discipline
memory and other cognitive activities in that explores the links between brain activity
older adults. and cognitive functioning. This field
o Decision Making: One study revealed that a especially relies on brain-imaging techniques
reduction in effective decision making in such as fMRI, PET, and DTI (diffusion tensor
risky situations during late adulthood was imaging) to reveal the areas of the brain that
linked to declines in memory and processing are activated when individuals engage in
speed. Also, in a recent study, younger adults certain cognitive activities
made better decisions than older adults in
unfamiliar domains, but not in familiar
IV. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
domains.
o Metacognition: Older adults tend to
overestimate the memory problems they
experience on a daily basis. They seem to be
• Among the most common language-related
more aware of their memory failures than
complaints reported by older adults are difficulty In
younger adults and become more anxious
retrieving words to use in conversation and problems
about minor forgetfulness than younger
understanding spoken language in certain contexts
adults do.
o Mindfulness: involves being alert, mentally • Often involves tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon in
present, and cognitively flexible while going which individuals are confident that they know
through life’s everyday activities and tasks. something but can’t quite seem to retrieve it from
memory.
Some studies have shown that midfulness
training improves older adults’ cognitive • Older adults’ speech is typically lower in volume,
functioning. slower, less precisely articulated, and less fluent (more
o Wisdom: expert knowledge about the pauses, fillers, repetition, and corrections). Despite
practical aspects of life that permits excellent these age differences, most older adults’ speech skills
judgment about important matters. This are adequate for everyday communication.
practical knowledge involves exceptional
insight into human development and life

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 V. WORK & RETIREMENT

▪ Causes:
▪ involves a deficiency in the brain
• Work: Several recent studies also have found that messenger chemical called
older adults who work have better physical and acetylcholine, which plays an
cognitive profiles that those who retire. For example, important role in memory.
one study found that physical functioning declined ▪ A gene called apolipoprotein E
faster in retirement than in full-time work for (ApoE) is linked to increasing
individuals 65 years of age and older, with the presence of plaques and tangles in
difference not explained by absence of chronic the brain. Special attention has
diseases and lifestyle risks focused on an allele (an alternative
• Retirement form of a gene) labeled ApoE4, an
allele that is a strong risk factor for
Alzheimer disease
▪ Early Detection & Drug
Treatment
▪ Mild Cognitive Impairment
(MCI): represents a potential
transitional state between the
cognitive changes of normal aging
and very early stages of Alzheimer
disease and other dementias. MCI is
VI. MENTAL HEALTH
increasingly recognized as a risk
factor for Alzheimer disease
▪ Drug Treatment of Alzheimer
Disease
• Depression ▪ Three of the medications, Aricept
o Major Depression: A mood disorder in (donepezil), Razadyne
which the individual is deeply unhappy, (galantamine), and Exelon
demoralized, self-derogatory, and bored. The (rivastig mine), are cholinesterase
person does not feel well, loses stamina inhibitors designed to improve
easily, has poor appetite, and is listless and memory and other cognitive
unmotivated. Major depression is so functions by increasing levels of
widespread that it has been called the acetylcholine in the brain. fourth
“common cold” of mental disorders. drug, Namenda (memantine),
o Depression in older adults is not more regulates the activity of glutamate,
common and is not more often caused by which is involved in processing
psychological factors. It is more likely to be information. Namzatric, a
chronic (that is, has a higher rate of relapse), combination of memantine and
which is likely linked to higher rates of donepezil, is the fifth approved
medical problems in older adults. medicine to treat Alzheimer disease;
• Dementia, Alzheimer Diseasee, & Other Afflications this medicine is designed to improve
o Dementia: A global term for any cognition and overall mental ability.
neurological disorder in which the primary ▪ Caring for Individuals w/
symptoms involve a deterioration of mental Alzheimer Disease
functioning. ▪ Respite Care: has been developed
o Alzheimer Disease: A progressive, to help people who have to meet the
irreversible brain disorder characterized by a day-to-day needs of Alzheimer
gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, patients. This type of care provides
language, and eventually, physical function. an important break from the burden
▪ As alzheimer progresses, the brain of providing chronic care.
shrinks & deteriorates. This o Parkinson Disease: A chronic, progressive
deterioration is characterized by the disease characterized by muscle tremors,
formation of amyloid plaques slowing of movement, and partial facial
(dense deposits of protein that paralysis.
accumulate in the blood vessels) and ▪ Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that
neurofibrillary tangles (twisted is necessary for normal brain
fibers that build up in neurons). functioning.
Neurofibrillary tangles consist ▪ The main treatment for Parkinson
mainly of a protein called tau. disease involves administering
drugs that enhance the effect of
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 dopamine (dopamine agonists) in
the disease’s earlier stages and later
administering the drug L-dopa,
which is converted by the brain into
dopamine.
▪ Another treatment for advanced
Parkinson disease is deep brain
stimulation (DBS), which involves
implantation of electrodes within
the brain.

VII. RELIGION & SPIRITUALITY

• Individuals over 65 years of age are more likely than

younger people to say that religious faith is the most
significant influence in their lives, that they try to put
religious faith into practice, and that they attend
religious services.
• Religion and spirituality can meet some important
psychological needs in older adults, helping them to
face impending death, to find and maintain a sense of
meaning in life, and to accept the inevitable losses of
old age

VIII. REFERENCES

Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development (17th ed.).

McGraw Hill.

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DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (2nd TERM, 2022-23) | (PSY224) | (February 5, 2023)

OUTLINE reflecting on the past and either piecing

I. Introduction together a positive review or concluding that
II. Overview
III. Theories of Socioemotional Development one’s life has not been well spent.
IV. Personality, The Self, & Society o Life Review
V. Families & Social Relationships
VI. Ethnicity, Gender, & Culture
VII. Successful Aging
VIII. References

I. INTRODUCTION

• This specific chapter delves on socioemotional

development in late adulthood years. The final stage
of Erikson’s psychosocial theory is applied in which
the elderly are reflecting on the life they have lived as
they go through a life review. On another note,
prejudices are still present at this stage as ageism is the
most common discriminant used against older adults.
Lastly, numerous research found that successful aging
is directly correlated to having a healthy lifestyle
(mentally, physically, and emotionally). • Activity Theory: The theory that the more active and
involved older adults are, the more likely they are to
be satisfied with their lives.
II. OVERVIEW • Socioemotional Selectivity Theory:I The theory that
older adults become more selective about their social
networks. Because they place a high value on
emotional satisfaction, older adults often spend more
• Erikson’s eighth and final stage of development, time with familiar individuals with whom they have
which individuals experience in late adulthood, had rewarding relationships.
involves reflecting on the past and either integrating it • Selective Optimization w/ Compensation Theory: The
positively or concluding that one’s life has not been theory that successful aging is related to three main
well spent. Life review is an important theme in factors: selection, optimization, and compensation.
Erikson’s stage of integrity versus despair. o Selection: based on the concept that older
• Ageism is prejudice against others because of their adults have a reduced capacity and loss of
age. Too many negative stereotypes of older adults functioning, which require a reduction in
continue to exist. Social policy issues in an aging performance in most life domains.
society include the status of the economy and the o Optimization: it is possible to maintain
continued viability of the Social Security system, the performance in some areas through continued
provision of health care, eldercare, and generational practice and the use of new technologies
inequity. o Compensation: becomes relevant when life
• Three patterns of aging are normal, pathological, and tasks require a level of capacity beyond the
successful. Increasingly, the positive aspects of older current level of the older adults’ performance
adulthood are being studied. Factors that are linked potential
with successful aging include an active lifestyle,
positive coping skills, good social relationships and
support, and the absence of disease.

III. THEORIES OF SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

• Erikson’s Theory
o Integrity vs. Despair: Erikson’s eighth and
final stage of development, which individuals
experience in late adulthood. This involves

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 IV. PERSONALITY, THE SELF, & SOCIETY family, whether by giving day-to-
day physical assistance or by being
responsible for overseeing such
care.
• Personality ▪ Generational Inequity: The view
that our aging society is being unfair
to its younger members because
older adults pile up advantages by
receiving inequitably large
allocations of resources.

V. FAMILIES & SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS

• Lifestyle Diversity
o Married Older Adults

• The Self & Society

o Self-Esteem: health problems and
disabilities as well as higher levels of
loneliness and lower levels of control beliefs
were linked to lower self-esteem in late life.
In other research on older adults, being
o Divorced & Remarried Older Adults:
widowed, institutionalized, or physically
Researchers have found that remarried
impaired, having a low religious
parents and stepparents provide less support
commitment, and experiencing a decline in
to adult stepchildren than parents in first
health are linked to low self-esteem
marriages provide to their adult children
o Self Control: recent research indicates that
• Attachment
having a high sense of control over outcomes
in life is linked to better cognitive
performance, especially in older adults.
• Older Adults in Society
o Stereotyping in Older Adults
▪ Ageism: Prejudice against others
because of their age, especially
prejudice against older adults.
o Policy Issues in an Aging
▪ Status of the Economy: An
important issue involving the
economy and aging is concern that • Older Adult Parents & Their Adult Children: Some
the U.S. economy cannot bear the researchers have found that relationships between
burden of so many older persons, aging parents and their children are usually
who by reason of their age alone are characterized by ambivalence. Perceptions include
usually consumers rather than love, reciprocal help, and shared values on the positive
producers. However, not all persons side and isolation, family conflicts and problems,
65 and over are nonworkers, and not abuse, neglect, and caregiver stress on the negative
all persons 18 to 64 are workers. side.
▪ Health Care: A special concern is • Great-Grandparenting: The young adults interacted
that while many of the health with, and participated in more activities with, their
problems of older adults are chronic grandparents than with their great-grandparents. They
rather than acute, the medical also perceived their grandparents as having a more
system is still based on a “cure” defined role and being more influential in their lives
rather than a “care” model. than their great-grandparents were.
▪ Eldercare: Physical and emotional • Friendship: In late adulthood, new friendships are less
caretaking for older members of the likely to be forged, although some older adults do seek

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 out new friendships, especially following the death of confidence in one’s ability to produce positive
a spouse. outcomes.
• Social Support & Social Integration • Older adults who exercise regularly, attend meetings,
o Social Support participate in church activities, and go on trips are
▪ Convoy Model of Social more satisfied with their lives than their counterparts
Relations: Model in which who disengage from society.
individuals go through life • Older adults who engage in challenging cognitive
embedded in a personal network of activities are more likely to retain their cognitive skills
individuals to whom they give and for a longer period of time.
from whom they receive support.
▪ Social Integration: A decrease in
the overall social activity of many
older adults may reflect their greater
VIII. REFERENCES
interest in spending more time in the
small circle of friends and family
members where they are less likely Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development (17th ed.).
to have negative emotional McGraw Hill.
experiences. Researchers have
found that older adults tend to report
being less lonely than younger
adults and less lonely than would be
expected based on their
circumstances.

VI. ETHNICITY, GENDER, & CULTURE

• Ethnicity : Older ethnic minority individuals are more

likely to become ill but less likely to receive treatment.
They also are more likely to have a history of less
education, higher levels of unemployment, worse
housing conditions, and shorter life expectancies than
their whote counterparts.
• Culture

VII. SUCCESSFUL AGING

• Being younger, married, a regular drinker, in better

health (self-perceived), and satisfied with life were
associated with successful aging. Presence of disease
was linked to a significant decline in predictions of
successful aging. In another recent study, the
following four factors emerged as best characterizing
successful aging: proactive engagement, wellness
resources, positive spirit, and valued relationships.
• The term self-efficacy has often been used to describe
perceived control over the environment and

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