CCSE0151

Module-1

Basic of Computer, Introduction to Operating System, Number System, Basic

of Programming
Data: Data is a collection of facts such as values or measurements. It can be numbers, words,
observations etc.
Information: The meaningful data is called information.

C- Commonly
O-Operating
M-Machin
P-Particularly
U-Used for
T-Technical and
E-Educational
R-Research

Computer: Computer is an electronic device which takes data and instructions as input from the
user, processes the data and provides useful information known as output.
There are two major components of a computer system-
 Hardware
 Software
Hardware: The physical components of a computer system are known as hardware. The hardware
components of a computer system consist of five parts- input devices, central processing unit (CPU),
primary memory, secondary memory and output devices.
Block Diagram of Computer System or John Von Neumann Architecture:

(Block Diagram of Computer System)

Input Device: An input device is any device which is used to provide data and control signals to a
computer system. Examples of input devices are- keyboard, mouse, scanner, light pan, joystick etc.

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Output Device: An output device is any device which is used to display the data to the user either in
the form of hard copy or soft copy. Example of output devices are- Monitor, printer, speaker etc.

Central Processing Unit (CPU): The arithmetic logical unit (ALU) and control unit (CU) of a
computer system are jointly known as Central Processing Unit. It also contains its internal memory
known as CPU registers. CPU is also known as Processor.

The CPU is also responsible for executing instructions such as arithmetic calculations,
comparison among data and movement of data inside the system. All work that is done on computer
is performed directly or indirectly by the CPU.

The following are the three main components of CPU-

i. Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU): The actual processing of data and instructions are performed
by ALU. The major operations performed by ALU are- addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, logic and comparison.
ii. Control Unit (CU): The control unit is responsible for coordinating different operations using
time signals. The control unit determines the sequence in which different instructions in a
computer system are executed.
iii. CPU registers: The CPU registers are used to store the data to be processed by the CPU and
the processed data. Examples of CPU register are- accumulator, general purpose register.
 Accumulator: Accumulator is a register in which intermediate arithmetic and logic
results are stored.
 General Purpose Registers(GPRs): General-purpose registers can store both data
and addresses, i.e., they are combined data/address registers.

Memory Unit: The memory unit is used to store the data and instructions in a computer system.
There are basically two types of memories-

 Primary Memory
 Secondary Memory

Primary Memory: Primary memory is the memory that is directly accessed by the CPU. It is also
known as main memory. It stores the data that is currently in use by the CPU. There are three major
types of primary memories-

 RAM (Random Access Memory)

 ROM (Read Only Memory)
 Cache Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM): It is a read/write memory. It is a volatile memory. It stores the data
as long as the computer system is switched ON. There are two types of RAM.

 SRAM: SRAM stores the data as long as the power supply is ON. These are costly and faster
as compared to DRAM.
 DRAM: DRAM stores the data for very short time. It loses its data even power supply is ON.
These are cheaper and slower as compared to SRAM.

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ROM: ROM is a read-only memory. It is non-volatile memory; it means is stores the data even power
supply is switched off. Its data cannot be modified by the end user.
It contains the manufacturer’s instructions and information. It also contains a software
known as boot program.

There are basically two types of ROM- PROM and EPROM.

 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): In PROM data, can be written only once. Once
a program has been written onto a PROM, it remains there forever.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): We can erase the data written to
EPROM and rewrite the data to it. To write and erase an EPROM, we need a special device
known as PROM burner.

Cache Memory: This is the fastest primary memory. It is used to store frequently used data. It also
stores the data and applications that was last processed by the CPU. When the processor performs
the processing, it first searches the cache memory and then the RAM for an instruction.

Secondary Memory: The memory that is not directly connected with the CPU is known as secondary
memory. The secondary memory is used to store the data that is currently not in use. It is used to
store the data permanently. There are two types of secondary memory.

 Magnetic Storage Devices: The magnetic storage devices store the information that can be
read, erased and rewritten many times. Examples are- hard disk, floppy disk etc.
 Optical Storage Devices: The optical storage devices use laser beams to read and write data.
Examples are- CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory), CD-RW (Rewritable Compact
Disk), DVD (Digital Versatile Disk).

Difference between Primary Memory and Secondary Memory

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

1. Primary memory can be volatile or non- 1. Secondary memory is always non- volatile
volatile. memory.
2. It is directly accessed by the CPU. 2. It is not directly accessed by the CPU.
3. It is costly as compared to secondary 3. It is cheaper as compared to primary
memory. memory.
4. It is also known as internal memory. 4. It is also known as external memory.
5. It is fast to interact with CPU. 5. It is slow to interact with CPU.

Memory Hierarchy: The hierarchy in which memories are present in respect of the connection
with CPU is known as memory hierarchy.

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Software: Software is a set of instructions that allow the user to interact with computer, its
hardware, or perform task. Software provides the instructions to computer system what to do and
how to do. There are two major categories of software-

i. System Software
ii. Application Software

i. System Software: System software is a computer software which is used to operate and control
the computer hardware and to provide a platform for running application software. It can directly
interact with the computer hardware. Examples of system software are- operating system, boot
program, compiler and other computer maintenance software.

The main functions of system software are-

 Primary memory management

 Secondary memory management
 Process management
 Input/output system management
 File management

ii. Application Software: Application software is a software which is used to perform a specific task.
It cannot run without system software. It cannot directly interact with computer hardware.
Examples are- MS Word, Internet Explorer, Adobe Photoshop etc.

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Difference between System software and Application software:

System Software Application Software

1. It can directly interact with computer 1. It cannot directly interact with computer
hardware. hardware.
2. It is used to manage and control the 2. It is used to perform a specified task and it
computer system. cannot run without system software.
3. It is difficult to develop. 3. It is easy to develop.
4. Examples: Operating System, Compiler. 4. Examples: MS Word, Web Browser.

Characteristics of Computer System: The following are the main characteristics of computer
system-

1. Speed: The speed of computer system is very high. It can perform millions of instructions per
second.
2. Accuracy: The degree of accuracy of computer system is very high and every calculation is
performed with the same accuracy. The errors in computers are due to human and inaccurate
data.
3. Memory: Computer has the power of storing any amount of data as long as you require it.
4. No IQ (Intelligence Quotient): Computer is a dumb machine. It cannot do any work without
instructions from user.
5. Diligence (Hard worker): A computer is free from tiredness. It can work for hours without
creating any error.
6. No Feelings: Computer does not have feelings, emotions, taste, knowledge, experience etc.
Thus, it does not get tired even long hours of work.

Application areas of Computer (Use of Computer): The following are the main application areas
of Computer-

1. Education: Computers are used in teaching and research. The students can solve different kinds
of problems quickly and efficiently by using computers. They can also collect different
information on the Internet.
2. Business: Many business activities are performed very quickly and efficiently by using
computers. The paperwork is also reduced by using computers. Many business use websites to
sell their products.
3. Health and Medicine: In medical field computers are used for maintaining patient history &
other records. They are used to calculate the risk of a disease. They are also used to develop new
medicine.
4. Entertainment: Computers are used to watch movies, listen music and play games. These are
also used to watch television programs on the Internet. Computers are also used to add special
effects in movies.
5. Defence: In defence computers are used to develop missiles and other equipment in the
deference system. Computers are also used for controlling the functioning of weapons like
tanks, ships, guns, missiles etc.

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6. Sports: In sports computers are used for training, recording information, scoreboard, safety
equipment design etc.

Classification of Computers: The classification of computer is done based on the

following three categories-
1. Size and capacity
2. Technology used
3. Generation or History
1. Size and capacity: Depending on the size and capacity there are four types of computers.
(a). Microcomputer: A computer that has a microprocessor as its CPU is known as
microcomputer. These computers are the smallest and least expensive of all computers.
These are also known as personal computers.
(b). Minicomputer: A minicomputer is a medium size computer that is more powerful than a
microcomputer. A minicomputer can be used by multiple users at a time. These are also
known as workstations. Minicomputers are used as small or medium servers.
(c). Mainframe Computer: Mainframe computers are used by large organizations for handling
the information processing. These computers are used by large organizations like banks,
insurance companies, hospitals and railways. These computers are faster and powerful than
minicomputers.
(d). Super Computer: These are the fastest, most powerful and expensive computers available at
present. They are used for complex scientific applications such as- weather forecasting,
climate research, nuclear research etc. A supercomputer can be used by multiple users at a
time. Name of super computers are- Roadrunner (IBM), PARAM (India, C-DAC), Tianhe-2
(China), Titan (US), Aaditya, Anupam (India, BARC), and Earth Simulator (Japan).

2. Technology used: Depending on the functionality and technology used there are three types of
computers.
(a). Digital Computer: A digital computer is used to store and process the data in terms of digits
i.e. 0 and 1. In digital computer letters, words and text are represented digitally.
(b). Analog Computer: Analog computers are used to carry out operations on data which can
vary continuously and are measurable rather than countable such as time, length, weight
etc.
(c). Hybrid Computer: The computer which have the capabilities of both digital and analog
computer is known as hybrid computer.

3. Computer Generation or History: Computer generation refers to the different advancements

in new computer technology. With each new generation, the computer has become smaller and
more advanced than the previous generation. There are following generations of computer-
(a). First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes: The first-generation computer used vacuum
tubes for making circuit of CPU and magnetic drums for memory. They were very huge in
size. They used punched cards for input and output was displayed on printouts. They were
very expensive to operate. First generation computers used machine language to perform

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operations. They could solve only one problem at a time. The main feature of first
generation computers are- vacuum tubes, supported machine language only, slow
input/output, generate lot of heat, costly, huge, need of AC, non-portable. Examples are-
ENIAC, UNIVAC etc.
(b). Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistor: The second-generation computer used
transistors for making circuit of CPU. They were smaller, faster, cheaper and more energy
efficient than the first generation. They used punched cards for input and output was
displayed on printouts. Second generation computers supported machine and assembly
language. Examples are- IBM 1620, CDC3600 etc.
(c). Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits: The third-generation computers used
integrated circuits for making circuit of CPU. In this generation keyboard and monitor were
used for input and output. These computers were smaller and cheaper than the previous
generations. These computers supported high level languages. Examples are- IBM 360
series, IBM 370 series etc.
(d). Fourth Generation (1971 to present) VLSI & Microprocessor: In fourth-generation VLSI
(Very Large Scale Integration) technology used. Fourth generation computers were very
small and powerful. In this generation microprocessor is used as CPU. In microprocessor
thousands of silicon chips were built onto a single silicon chip. The concept of internet was
introduced in this generation. These computers also used pointing devices for input.
(e). Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) ULSI & Artificial Intelligence: In fifth-generation ULSI
(Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology used. Fifth generation computing devices are
based on artificial intelligence. They are in development phase. The goal of fifth generation
computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and capable of
learning.

Operating System: An operating system is a system software that provide an interface between
application software and computer hardware. It provides a platform for running the application
software. It is also responsible for managing the resources of a computer system. It also provides
some basic level of security.

Functions/ services/ need/ goals of operating system: An operating system provides a large
amount of services. Some functions of operating system are-

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(a). Process Management: A program in execution is known as process. The operating system is
responsible for allocation and deallocation of processes to the processor.
(b). Primary memory management: An operating system is responsible for allocation and
deallocation of memory. It decides which data will store where.
(c). Secondary memory management: An operating system handles the communication of
primary memory with secondary memory. It also handles the storage of data on the
secondary memory.
(d). Input/ Output device management: An operating system allocates and deallocates the
devices to a process.
(e). File management: An operating system keeps the record of files in use and the processes
(programs) using these files. It also provides the permission to access these files.
(f). Security: An operating system provides security and protection to the computer system.
(g). User interface: An operating system provides an interface by using which a user interacts
with computer system.

Types of Operating System: Depending on the characteristics of operating system there are
following types of operating system.
(a). Single User Operating System: A single user operating system allows only one user at a time
to use a computer system. Examples are- MS-DOS, Windows XP.
(b). Multiuser Operating System: A multiuser operating system allows more than one user to
use a computer system at the same time or different times. Examples are- Linux, Windows
2000.
(c). Multitasking Operating System: A multitasking operating system allows more than one
program to run at the same time. A user can perform different task such as print a
document, copy files etc. at the same time. Examples are- Windows XP, Linux.
(d). Multithreading Operating System: A multithreading operating system allows the running of
different parts of a program at the same time. Examples are- UNIX, Linux.
(e). Time sharing Operating System: Time sharing system allows many users to share the
computer resources simultaneously. In other words, time sharing refers to the allocation of
computer resources in time slots to several programs simultaneously.

Depending on the interface provided by the Operating Systems there are two types of OS-
(a). Graphical user interface (GUI): A graphical user interface operating system allows users to
interact with computer system using graphical icons, rather than text commands. A GUI
represents the information and actions to a user through graphical icons. These types of
operating systems are easy to operate.
(b). Command line user interface (CUI): A command line user interface operating system allows
users to interact with computer system using text commands. A command line interface
provides a powerful means to control a program.

Disk Operating System (DOS): DOS stands for Disk operating system. It is CUI (Command
User Interface). It was written by Tim Paterson and introduced by Microsoft in August 1981. It is a
single user, single tasking operating system.
There are two types of DOS commands-
 Internal DOS Commands

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 External DOS Commands

Internal DOS Commands: Those commands which are already loaded in the [Link] file.
They cannot be seen with help of dir command. E.g. MD, CD, RD, DATE, CD\, DEL etc.
External DOS Commands: Those commands which are not loaded when loading the program but are
available in the disk and can be invoked whenever necessary. They can be seen and copied from one
place to another. E.g. FORMAT, TREE, MOVE, TREE/f, XCOPY, DELTREE, SCANDISK, CHKDSK etc.

Linux Operating System: Linux is a multiuser multitasking operating system. It was developed
by Linus Torvalds in 1991. It is an open source operating system, which means any programmer can
download it from internet for free and modify it.
Following are some of the important features of Linux Operating System-
 Portable
 Open Source
 Multi-User
 Multiprogramming
 Secure
Layers of Linux Operating System:
Users
Shell and System Utilities
System Libraries
Kernel
Hardware

Kernel: Kernel is the core of Linux Operating System. It is responsible for all major activities such as
memory management, process management, Input/output management etc. It directly Interacts
with the hardware.
System Libraries: System libraries are the special functions by using which the shell or system
utilities access the kernel’s features.
Shell and System Utilities: Shell is an interface between the user and the kernel. It is a command
interpreter. System utilities are application programs used by the user for doing specified task.

Android operating system: An open source Linux-based operating system intended for
mobile computing platforms It includes a Java API for developing applications. It is developed by
GOOGLE.
Some of the characteristic feature of android operating system are-
 Linux based operating system
 Designed primarily for touch screen mobiles
 Open-source operating system
 Allows the software to be freely modified
 Android applications can be downloaded from Google play Store
 Requires low cost for development
Architecture of Android Operating System:
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Applications
Application Framework
Libraries Android Runtime
Linux Kernel

Linux Kernel: The bottom most layer of Android operating system is Linux Kernel. It interacts with
hardware and provides basic services such as memory management, process management etc.
Libraries: The libraries are written in C and C++ language. By using these libraries, the application
framework access the kernels features. Some libraries include-
 Surface Manager
 Media Framework
 SQLite
 WebKit
Android Runtime: It is the third section of the architecture and is present in the second layer from
the bottom. It consists of core libraries and Dalvik Virtual Machine. Dalvik Virtual Machine is a kind
of Java Virtual Machine specially designed and optimized for low processing power and low memory
environments.
Application Framework: This layer provides the interface with which the applications directly
interact. The major components of application framework layer are-
 Activity manager
 Window manager
 Content providers
 Telephony manager
 Resource manager
 Location manager
Applications: Applications layer is the topmost layer in the architecture and consist of various
applications such as web browsers, sms client applications, media players etc.
Windows Operating System: Microsoft Windows is the name of several families of GUI
(Graphical User Interface) operating systems by Microsoft. Microsoft first introduced an operating
system environment named windows in November 1985 in response to the growing interest in
graphical user interface (GUIs).

Number System: A number system is a set of mathematical symbols and rules that are used to
represent numbers in a consistent manner.

Common Number Systems:

System Base Symbols Used by humans? Used by
computers?

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Decimal 10 0, 1, … 9 Yes No
Binary 2 0, 1 No Yes
Octal 8 0, 1, … 7 No No
Hexadecimal 16 0, 1, … 9, A, B, … F No No

Number representation:
Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 100 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F

Conversion Among Bases:

 There are some possibilities for conversion among number system like we can convert a
decimal number to octal number, octal to hexadecimal and vice versa and some other
possibilities.
 They are illustrated with the help of following diagram.

Decimal Octal

Hexadecimal
Binary
1. Decimal to binary number conversion
 Divide the decimal number by two
 Write the remainder on the right and quotient below the decimal number
 Repeat until the decimal number has reached zero
 Note the final Binary value from bottom to up
Example: (125)10 = (?)2

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Solution:

Decimal fraction to Binary conversion

 The fractional part of the given decimal number is multiplied by 2
 The product obtained has an integer part and fractional part, the integer part here is also
referred as carry
 The carry that we obtain at each multiplication iteration becomes a digit in the fractional
binary number
 The fractional part obtained is again multiplied and the process is repeated until the
fractional part becomes zero or the number of multiplication iteration equals the number of
significant digits after the decimal point
 The carry that we obtain at each stage are taken from first iteration to the last iteration to
form the numerals in the fractional binary number
Example: (0.625)10 = (?)2
0.625 x 2 = 1.25 1
0.25 x 2 = 0.50 0
0.50 x 2 = 1.00 1
(0.625)10 = (0.101)2
2. Decimal to Octal conversion
 Divide the decimal number by eight
 Write the remainder on the right and quotient below the decimal number
 Repeat until the decimal number has reached zero
 Note the final Octal value from bottom to up
Example: (143)10 = (?)8
Solution:

(143)10 = (217)8
Decimal fraction to Octal conversion
 The fractional part of the given decimal number is multiplied by 8
 The product obtained has an integer part and fractional part, the integer part here is also
referred as carry

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 The carry that we obtain at each multiplication iteration becomes a digit in the fractional
binary number
 The fractional part obtained is again multiplied and the process is repeated until the
fractional part becomes zero or the number of multiplication iteration equals the number of
significant digits after the decimal point
 The carry that we obtain at each stage are taken from first iteration to the last iteration to
form the numerals in the fractional binary number
Example: (0.40)10 = (?)8
0.40 x 8 = 3.20 3
0.20 x 8 = 1.60 1
0.60 x 8 = 4.80 4
0.80 x 8 = 6.40 6
0.40 x 8 = 3.20 3
(0.40)10 = (0.31463)8

3. Decimal to Hexadecimal conversion

 Divide the decimal number by sixteen
 Write the remainder on the right and quotient below the decimal number
 Repeat until the decimal number has reached zero
 Note the final Hexadecimal value from bottom to up

Example: (2250)10 = (?)16

Solution:

(2250)10 = (8CA)16
Decimal fraction to Hexadecimal conversion
 The fractional part of the given decimal number is multiplied by 16
 The product obtained has an integer part and fractional part, the integer part here is also
referred as carry
 The carry that we obtain at each multiplication iteration becomes a digit in the fractional
binary number
 The fractional part obtained is again multiplied and the process is repeated until the
fractional part becomes zero or the number of multiplication iteration equals the number of
significant digits after the decimal point
 The carry that we obtain at each stage are taken from first iteration to the last iteration to
form the numerals in the fractional binary number

Example: (0.30)10 = (?)16

0.30 x 16 = 4.80 4
0.80 x 16 = 12.80 12 (C)

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0.80 x 16 = 12.80 12 (C)

(0.30)10 = (0.4CC)16

4. Binary to decimal Conversion

 Multiply each bit by 2n, where n is the “weight” of the bit
 The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right
 Add the results
Examples: (101011)2 = (?)10
Solution: 1010112 => 1 x 20 = 1
1 x 21 = 2
0 x 22 = 0
1 x 23 = 8
0 x 24 = 0
1 x 25 = 32
4310

Binary fraction to decimal

Example: (0.0101)2 = (?)10

Solution:
= (0×20). (0 ×2-1) + (1× 2-2) + (0×2-3) + (1×2-4)

= (0). (0 + 0.25 + 0 + 0.0325 = 0.375)

= (0.375)10

5. Octal to decimal Conversion

 Multiply each bit by 8n, where n is the “weight” of the bit
 The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right
 Add the results
Examples: (217)8 = (?)10
Solution: 1012178 => 7 x 80 = 7
1 x 81 = 8
2 x 82 = 128
1 x 83 = 512
0 x 84 = 0
1 x 85 = 32768
3342310

Octal fraction to decimal

Example: (0.25)8 = (?)10

Solution:
= (0×80). (2 ×8-1) + (5× 8-2)

= (0). (0.25 + 0.078125)

6. Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion
 Multiply each bit by1016n, where n is the “weight” of the bit
= (0.328125)
 The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right

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 Add the results

Example: (ABC)16 = (?)2

Solution:

(ABC)16 = (2748 )2

To convert a fractional number, say (56.08)16

(56.08)16 = (5×161) + (6×160).(0×16-1) + (8×16-2)
= (80 + 6 + 0). (8 + 0.03125)
= (86.03125)10
7. Octal to Binary conversion
 Convert each octal digit to a 3-bit equivalent binary representation
 Binary equivalent of octal digits is shown in the table below

Octal Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary Equivalent 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

Example: (705)8 = (?)2

Solution:

Same process is applied on fractions.

Consider (3.1)8 = 3 . 1

011 001 Equivalent binary conversion is (011.001)2

8. Binary to Octal Conversion
 Group bits in three, starting from right
 Convert to octal digits
Example: (100111010)2 to (?)8

Solution: 100 111 010

4 7 2 (100111010)2 = (472)8

9. Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

 Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-bit equivalent binary representation.
Example: (10AF)16 = (?)2

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Solution: 1 0 A F

0001 0000 1010 1111

(10AF)16 = (0001000010101111)2

10. Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

 Group bits in fours, starting on right
 Convert to hexadecimal digits
Example: (1010111011)2 = (?)16

Solution: 10 1011 1011

2 B B (1010111011)2 = (2BB)16

11. Octal to Hexadecimal Conversion

 First convert Octal to Binary
 Then Binary to Hexadecimal (pairing four bits from right end)
Example: (1076)8 = (?)16

Solution:

12. Hexadecimal to Octal Conversion

 First convert Hexadecimal to Binary
 Then convert Binary to octal (pairing three bits from right end)
Example: (1F0C)16 = (?)8

Solution:

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BCD Code: In BCD code, each decimal digit is represented by four-bit binary code.
Gray Code: Gray code is a numerical code used in computing in which consecutive integers are
represented by binary numbers differing in only one digit. It is a binary numeral system where two
successive values differ in only one bit.
ASCII Code (American Standard Code for Information Interchange): In
computers, Character data is represented by using standardized numeric codes which have been
developed. The most widely accepted code is called the American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII). The ASCII code associates an integer value for each symbol in the character set,
such as letters, digits, punctuation marks, special characters, and control characters. For example the
ASCII value of A is 65.

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Programming Language: A programming language is a computer language designed to

communicate instructions to a computer. Programming languages can be used to create programs to
control the behaviour of a computer.
Types of Programming Languages: There are two types of programming languages.
1. Low Level Languages
(a). Machine Language (First Generation Language or 1GL)
(b). Assembly Language (Second Generation Language or 2GL)
2. High Level Languages
(a). Procedure Oriented Languages (Third Generation Language or 3GL)
(b). Problem Oriented Languages (Fourth Generation Language or 4GL)
(c). Natural Languages (Fifth Generation Language or 5GL)
1. Low Level Languages: A low-level language is a programming language that provides little
or no abstraction of programming concepts. It is very close to writing actual machine
instructions. There are two types of low level languages.
(a). Machine Language (First Generation Language or 1GL or Binary Language): A
programming language consisting of binary (0 and 1) instructions that can be directly
understood by a computer without translation is known as machine language. It is
the native binary language of the computer and is difficult to be read and
understood by humans.
Advantage:
(i). The program of machine language run very fast because no translation program is
required for the CPU.
Disadvantages:
(i). It is very difficult to write program in machine language.
(ii). The programmer must remember a lot of codes to write a program.
(iii). It is difficult to debug the program.
(b). Assembly Language (Second Generation Language or 2GL or Symbolic language):
An assembly language is a low-level programming language for microprocessors. It is
not just a single language, but rather a group of languages. Each assembly language
is specific to a computer architecture. Assembly language implements a symbolic
representation of the machine code needed to program a given CPU architecture.
Advantages:
(i). Assembly Language is easier to understand and saves a lot of time and effort of the
programmer.
(ii). It is easier to correct errors and modify program instructions.
(iii).Assembly Language has the same efficiency of execution as the machine language.
Disadvantage:
(i). The major disadvantages of assembly language is that it is machine dependent.
2. High Level Languages: Higher level languages are simple languages that use English and
mathematical symbols like +, -, %, / etc. for its program construction. They are closer to
human languages. Examples are- C, C++, JAVA, COBOL, LISP etc.

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Advantages:
(i). High level language programs are much easier to understand.
(ii). High level language programs are portable.
(iii).Instructions are much easier to remember and use.
(iv).Fewer instructions are required to write a program.
(v). It is easy to debug high level language program.
(vi).A program can usually be developed much more quickly using a high level language.
Disadvantage:
(i). High-level language programs take up more space and execute more slowly.

Types of High Level Languages: There are three types of high level languages.
(a). Procedure Oriented Languages (Third Generation Language or 3GL): High level
programming languages designed to solve general purpose problems are known as
third generation languages. 3GLs are much more machine independent and more
programmer-friendly. Names of 3GLs are- C, C++, C#, Java etc.
(b). Problem Oriented Languages (Fourth Generation Language or 4GL): High level
programming languages designed for specific domain are known as fourth
generation languages. 4GLs are designed to reduce the overall time, effort and cost
of software development. The main domains and families of 4GLs are: database
queries, data manipulation, and mathematical optimization. Names of 4GLs are-
SQL, SAS (Statistical Analysis System), MATLAB (Matrix Laboratory) etc.
(c). Natural Languages (Fifth Generation Language or 5GL): A fifth generation
programming language is a grouping of programming languages build on the
principle that a problem can be solved, and an application built to solve it, by
providing constraints to the program, rather than specifying algorithmically how the
problem is to be solved. Names of 5GLs are- PROLOG (Programming in Logic),
Mercury.

Differentiate among Machine, Assembly and High level languages:

High level Language Assembly Language Machine Language

Programs of these languages These are less understandable Programs are less
are easily understandable. than high level languages and understandable.
more understandable than
machine language.
Programs are portable and Programs are machine Programs are machine
machine independent. dependent. dependent.

In this language debugging is Debugging is more complex Debugging is very difficult.

easier. than high level languages.

Compiler or Interpreter is Assembler is required to No translation is required

required to translate the translate the program
program.

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Translators: A translator is a software that translate any programming language to machine

language. There are following three translators.

(i) Compiler
(ii) Interpreter
(iii) Assembler

(i) Compiler: A compiler is a software that translates high level language program into
machine language program. It takes the whole program as input and generate object code
(machine code) file. Name of C compiler are- Turbo C, Borland C.
(ii) Interpreter: An interpreter is a software that translates each high level program statements
into corresponding machine code. It translates one statement at a time and execute it.
(iii) Assembler: An assembler is a software that translates assembly language instructions to
machine language code. The assembler takes each of the assembly language statements
from the source code and generate corresponding bit stream using 0 and 1.

Difference between Compiler and Interpreter:

Compiler Interpreter
1. It takes the whole program and 1. It converts the program line by line
generates object code (machine code). and the line gets executed
immediately.
2. In the compilation process, the whole
program is scanned for syntax errors and 2. Interpreter checks only one line at a
the compiler shows all the error at one time for syntax error.
time.

3. Execution time of object code is fast. 3. Execution time is slow.

4. Debugging of a program is difficult. 4. Debugging of a program is easy.
Languages such as C, C++, and COBOL use Languages such as BASIC and PERL use
compiler. interpreter.

Linker: A linker is a software that takes one or more object file generated by the compiler and
combines them into a single executable file.

Loader: A loader is a software which is used to load the executable file into the primary memory for
execution.

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Editor (Text Editor): An editor is a software which is used to create and edit a text file. There are
two types of editors- Line Editor and Screen Oriented Editor.

Steps in Program Execution

Difference between Source Code and Object Code:

Source Code Object Code
1. The input program of compiler is known as 1. The output program of compiler is
source code. known as object code.

2. It can be in any high level programming 2. It is machine language code.

language.

3. It is human readable code. 3. It is machine readable code.

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Algorithm: An algorithm is a sequence of computational steps that transform the input into the
output.
Properties of good Algorithm (Characteristics of algorithm): An algorithm must have the
following properties.

(i)Finiteness: Algorithm must complete after a finite number of instructions have been executed.
(ii) Absence of ambiguity: Each step must be clearly defined.
(iii) Definition of Sequence: Each step must have a unique defined preceding and succeeding
step.
(iv) Input/Output: Number and types of required inputs and outputs must be specified.
(v) Feasibility: It must be possible to perform each instruction.
(vi) Effectiveness: Each step must be effective i.e. it should be easily convertible into program.
Types of Algorithms:
(i). Simple recursive algorithms
(ii). Backtracking algorithms
(iii).Divide and conquer algorithms
(iv).Greedy algorithms
(v). Branch and bound algorithms

Flow Chart: Flow chart is a graphical representation of a process. Each step in the process is
represented by different symbols and contains the short description of the process step.

Advantages:
i. Systematic Debugging and Testing: Flowchart helps to locate bugs and check whether it
produces correct result or not.
ii. Better Communication: It helps the programmer to understand the logic of program and
sequence of instructions.
iii. Efficient Coding: It makes it easy to write the program code.

Disadvantages:
i. Difficulty in Modification: It is not easy to change and modify the symbol of a flow chart.
ii. Time Consuming: It takes more time to draw proper symbol for lengthier programs.

Flow Chart Symbols:

(1) Terminator: Terminator symbol is used to represent the beginning and end of a process.

(2) Process: Process symbol is used to represent an activity.

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(3) Data: A data symbol is used to represent input and output in a flow chart.

(4) Decision: A diamond shape is used to show the decision.

(5) Connector Lines: Connector lines are used to connect the symbols in a flow chart. The
direction of arrow indicates the next step.

Pseudo Code: Pseudocode is an informal high-level description of the operating principle of

a computer program. It uses the basic syntax of a normal programming language. It is human
readable rather than machine readable.

Difference between Algorithm and Flow Chart:

Algorithm Flow Chart
1. An algorithm is step by step procedure 1. Flow chart is pictorial representation of
to solve a given problem. the flow of the program.
2. It is very easy procedure to represent 2. It is very complex to represent some
logics in algorithm. logic's using flow chart due to lack of
more symbols.
3. It is easy to modify algorithm. 3. It is very difficult to modify flow chart.

Difference between Algorithm and Pseudocode:

Algorithm Pseudocode
1. An algorithm is a well-defined sequence 1. A pseudocode is one of the methods
of steps that provides a solution for a that can be used to represent an
given problem. algorithm.
2. An algorithm can be written in natural 2. Pseudocode is written in a format that
language. is closely related to high level
programming language.
3. Transforming an algorithm in to 3. Converting a pseudo code in to
programming code is difficult. programming code is easy.

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1. Write an algorithm and draw a flow chart to find the area of a circle.

Algorithm:

Step1: Start

Step2: Read radius r

Step3: area=3.14*r*r

Step4: Display area

Step5: End

2. Write an algorithm and draw a flow chart to check that a number is even or odd.

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Algorithm:

Step1: Start

Step2: Read a number N

Step3: if(N%2==0) then display Even

Step4: else display Odd

Step4: End

3. Write an algorithm and draw a flow chart to find largest number among three numbers.
Algorithm:
Step1: Start
Step2: Read three numbers
Step3: if a>b then
(a). if a>c then a is largest
(b). else c is largest
Step4: else
(a). if b>c then b is largest
(b). else c is largest
Step5: End

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4. Draw a flow chart to check that a number is positive negative or zero.

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5. Draw a flow chart to find the factorial of a number.

Algorithm:

Step1: Start
Step2: Read an integer number N
Step3: Set M=1, F=1
Step4: F=F*M
Step5: M=M+1
Step6: if (M<=N) then goto step4
Step7: else display F
Step8: End

6. Draw a flow chart to display the Fibonacci series.

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7. Draw a flow chart to display the table of a number.

8. Draw a flow chart to display n Fibonacci terms and also print their sum.

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9. Draw a flow chart to display all even numbers of a given range.

Top down Programming Approach: To find the solution to a problem, this approach
divides a problem into sub problems and further sub problems up to desired level. It then finds the
solution of all sub problems and then combine these solutions.

Structured Programming: Structured programming mainly focus on the order of execution of

statements in a program. C is a structured programming language.

Introduction to C programming: C is a programming language developed at AT & T’s Bell

laboratory of USA in 1972. It is designed and written by Dennis Ritchie. It is structured, high level and
machine independent programming language.

Characteristics (Features) of C programming:

(i) It is structured, high level and machine independent programming language.
(ii) It has very less number of keywords.
(iii) It has a rich set of data types.
(iv) It has rich set of operators.

C Character set: C character set consist of the symbols that are used to represent the
instructions in C programming. There are following four types C character set-
(i) Letters: A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,T,U,V,W,X,Y,Z.

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a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z.
(ii) Digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.
(iii) Special Characters: ,(Comma), .(Period), ;(Semicolon), ?(Question mark), ‘(Apostrophe),
“(Quotation mark), !(Exclamation Mark), |(Vertical bar), /(Slash), \(Back Slash), ~(Tilde),
_(Underscore), $(Dollar sign), %(Percent Sign), &(Ampersand), ^(Caret), *(Asterisk), –(minus
sign), +(Plush sign), <(Opening angle bracket), >(Closing angle bracket), ((left parenthesis), )
(Right parenthesis), [(Left bracket), ](Right bracket), {(Left brace), }(Right Brace), #(Hash).
(iv) White Space: Blank space, Horizontal tab, Newline, Carriage return, Form Feed.
C Tokens: Smallest individual units in a C program are known as C tokens. There are following six
types of tokens in C programming- Keywords, Identifiers, Constants, Strings, Special Symbols and
Operators.
C Tokens

Keywods Identifiers Constants String Special Symbols Operators

(int, char, (sum,a,x,e (25, 3.567, (“str”, “x”) ({,},$,#,”,’) (+, -, /, *)
float, if) printf, avg) ‘A’, “X”)

Keywords: Keywords are the reserve words in C programming. All keywords have fixed meanings
and these meanings cannot be changed. There are 32 keywords in C programming. These 32
keywords are- auto, break, case, char, const, continue, default, do, double, else, enum, extern,
float, for, goto, if, int, long, register, return, short, signed, sizeof, static, struct, switch, typedef,
union, unsigned, void, volatile, while.

Identifiers: Identifiers are the names of variables, functions and arrays.

Rules for Identifiers/variables:
 Must consist of letters, digits or underscore.
 First character must be a letter or underscore.
 Cannot use a keyword.
 Cannot contain white space.
 First 31 characters are significant.

Difference between Keywords and Identifiers

Keywords Identifiers

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1. Keywords are the reserve words which 1. Identifiers are the names of variables,
have fixed meaning. And their meaning functions and arrays. These are programmer
cannot be changed by the programmer. defined names.
2. They are always written in lowercase. 2. They can be written in lowercase or
uppercase.
Example:
Example:
int, char, if, switch, case, break, continue, else,
default. sum, a, x, average, A, AREA etc.

Constants: Constants are the fixed values that do not change during the execution of program. They
are also called as literals. There are following types of constants in C.
 Integer constants
 Real or Floating point constants
 Octal & Hexadecimal constants
 Character constants
 String constants
 Backslash character constants

String: A string is a collection of characters. String constants are always enclosed in double quote.
For example: “Computer”, “A” etc. are strings.

Data Types: The data types determine the types of values and range of values that can be stored
in a variable. Data types also define a set of operations that can be applied on these values. There
are following three types of data types in C programming.
(i) Primary Data Types (Fundamental or Primitive or Built-in Data Types)
(ii) Derived Data Types
(iii) User Defined Data Types
Data Types

Primary Data Types Derived Data Types User Defined Data Type
 Character (char)  Array  Enumeration
 Integer (int)  Pointer  Typedef
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 Structure
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 Double (double)  Union
 Void (void)
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Primary Data Type (Fundamental or Primitive or Built-in Data Types): Primary

data types are the inbuilt data types in C language. C programming has five fundamental data types.
Data Type Keyword Size Format Specifier Range
Character char 1 byte %c -128 to +127
Integer int 2 bytes %d -32768 to +32767
Float float 4 bytes %f 3.4 × 10-38 to 3.4 × 10+38
Double double 8 bytes %lf 1.7 × 10-308 to 1.7 × 10+308
Derived Data Types: The data types that are derived from primary data types are known as
derived data types. Examples are- Array, Pointer.
User Defined Data Types: The data types that are defined by the programmer are known as user
define data types. Examples are- enum, typedef.
Data Type Modifiers: Data type modifiers are used to modify the size and range of data types.
C Programming has following four data type modifiers.
(i) short
(ii) long
(iii) signed
(iv) unsigned
(i) short: This modifier is used to decrease the range and size of data type. It reduces the size of
data type to half. This modifier can be used with int. It can be used as-
short int a;
(ii) long: This modifier is used to increase the range and size of data type. It increases the size of
data type up to double. This modifier can be used with int and double. It can be used as-
long int a;
(iii) signed: This modifier is used to declare variables which hold both positive and negative
values. By default, all data types are declared as signed. It can be used as-
signed int a;
(iv) unsigned: This modifier is used to declare variables which hold only positive values. It can be
used as-
unsigned int a;
Data Type Size Format Specifier Range
char or signed char 1 byte %c -128 to +127
unsigned char 1 byte %c 0 to 255
short int or signed short int 2 bytes %d -32768 to +32767
int or signed int 2 bytes %d -32768 to +32767
unsigned short int 2 byes %u 0 to 65535
unsigned int 2 byes %u 0 to 65535
long int or signed long int 4 bytes %ld -2147483648 to +2147483647
unsigned long int 4 bytes %lu 0 to 4294967295
float 4 bytes %f 3.4×10-38 to 3.4×10+38
double 8 bytes %lf 1.7×10-308 to 1.7×10+308
long double 10 bytes %Lf 3.4×10-4932 to 1.1×10+4932

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Variable: A variable is a data name that may be used to store data value. A variable can take
different values during the execution of program.
There are two types of variables: (scope of variables)
(i) Local Variables
(ii) Global Variables
(i) Local Variables: A variable that is declared inside a function is known as local variable to that
function. A local variable can only be used in the function where it is declared.
(ii) Global Variable: A variable that is declared outside all functions is known as global variable.
A global variable can be used in all functions.
Variable Declaration: A variable can be declared as-
Syntax: data-type variablename;
Example: int a, b, sum;

Difference between Local Variables and Global Variables

Local Variables Global Variable
The variable that is declared inside a function The variable that is declared outside all
is called local variable to that function. functions is called global variable.
Example: Example:
main() int a,b; //a and b are global variables.
{ main()
Int x,y; //x and y are local variable of main. {
} int x,y; //x and y are local variable of main.
fun() }
{ fun()
Int m; //m is local variable of fun. {
} int m; //m is local variable of fun.
}

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