BRIDGE ENGINEERING

●​ A bridge is a structure created to cross physical obstacles such as a body of water,

valley, or road without shutting the path beneath, in order to provide passage over
the obstacle.

Reasons to construct Bridges

●​ Increase of traffic congestion
●​ Cost effectiveness
●​ Decreasing the travel time
●​ Continuous traffic flow

Types of Bridges
●​ Bridges can be classified on the basis of different types as given below:

Bridges classification based on their floor position:

1). Deck Bridge: The super-structure or floor of the bridge is positioned in between the high flood level and
formation level. Therefore no top bracing is required.
2). Through Bridge: The Super-structure of the bridge is completely above the formation level. In the case of
through Type Bridge, flooring is supported or suspended at the bottom of the superstructure and the top chord is
braced laterally.

3). Semi-Through Bridge: The Super-structure of the bridge is partly above and partly below the formation level.
here are also double-deck bridges which are constructed to carry the traffic on both roadways and railways at
the same time.

Based on alignment, bridges are commonly classified into two types:

1. Normal (or Straight) Bridge: This type of bridge is aligned at a 90-degree angle to the direction of flow,
ensuring straightforward design and structural simplicity.

2. Skew Bridge: This bridge is aligned at an angle other than 90 degrees to the direction of flow, often necessary
due to site constraints or alignment of the approaching roads. Skew bridges require more complex design
considerations due to the angle of crossing.

Classification based on the function or purpose:

1.​ Highway bridge.

2.​ Railway bridge.
3.​ Foot bridge.
4.​ Viaduct.
5.​ Aqueduct.
6.​ Highway & railway combined bridge.
Depending upon the shape of the arch, the masonry arches of bridges can be classified as

1.​ Semicircular arch

2.​ Segmental bridge
3.​ Elliptical arches
1. Abutment , 2. Pier, 3. Foundation, 4. Wing wall, 5. Approach, 6. Span, 7. Apron, 8. Railing, 9. Bearing, 10.
Clearance, 11. Linear waterway, 12. Free board, 13. Highest flood level, 14. Low water level

●​ Standard specifications and code of practice for road bridges

◊​ IRC 5- Section I: General features of design

◊​ IRC 6- Section II: Loads and Stresses

●​ Width of carriageway and footpath (Clause 112 of IRC 5):

◊​ For high level bridges constructed for the use of road traffic only,
 ◊​ Width shall be increased by 3.5 m for every additional lane of traffic for a multiple
lane bridge.
◊​ Road bridges shall provide for either one lane, two lanes or multiple of two lanes.
Three-lane bridges with two directional traffic shall not be constructed.

●​ IRC Loading (IRC 6: 2014)

◊​ Class A Loading –Wheeled Vehicle

◊​ IRC 70R Loading – Tracked Vehicle
◊​ IRC 70R Loading –Wheeled Vehicle

Components of bridges

●​ Superstructure
◊​ Beams and Girder
◊​ Arches and Cables
◊​ Parapet Walls and Handrails
◊​ Deck
The load bearing floor of a bridge which carries and spreads the loads to the main
beams. It is either of reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete, welded steel etc.
Approach road are the length of the road on the either end of bridges. As per IRC the
length should not be less than 15m

●​ Bearings
The fundamental goal of installing bearings is to provide uniform load distribution on the
underlying substructure.
1) Sliding Plate Bearing:

●​ Function: Sliding plate bearings are designed to accommodate large longitudinal movements in
bridge structures. They consist of two plates, one of which slides over the other. The sliding
action is usually facilitated by low-friction materials like Teflon.
 ●​ Use Case: These bearings are not typically used as fixed bearings because they allow horizontal
movement. They are commonly used in bridges where there is a need to accommodate
expansion and contraction due to temperature changes or other factors.
2) Elastomeric Bearing:

●​ Function: Elastomeric bearings are made of layers of rubber and steel. They allow for rotation
and horizontal movements, making them ideal for bridges that need to accommodate thermal
expansion and contraction, as well as minor vertical displacements.
●​ Use Case: These bearings are flexible and accommodate both rotation and translation. They are
not considered fixed bearings because they do not restrict movement entirely, allowing for
multi-directional displacement and rotation.
3) RC Rocker Bearing:

●​ Function: Reinforced Concrete (RC) rocker bearings are designed to allow rotation while
preventing horizontal movement. This type of bearing is rigid and is typically used as a fixed
bearing in bridge structures to provide stability.
●​ Use Case: Fixed bearings like the RC rocker bearing are essential in bridges to ensure that one
end of the bridge remains in place, controlling longitudinal and transverse movements.

●​ Substructure

◊​ Piers: These are supports provided at the intermediate spans of the bridge.

◊​ Abutments: These are supports given to superstructure at either ends of the bridge
and used for retaining the earth behind the structure​

◊​ Wing Walls and Returns: These are extension of the abutments to retain the earth
pressure. The wing walls are the additional retaining walls constructed adjacent to the
abutments.

◊​ Foundations

Pier:

●​ It is a vertical load-bearing member such as an intermediate support for adjacent ends of two bridge
spans.
●​ R.C.C. piers of the following shapes are used:
○​ Rectangular
○​ Dumb-bell type
○​ Trestle bent
●​ The piers of the following cross-section are used:
○​ rectangular
○​ with triangular edges towards upstream and downstream sides
○​ with curved faces on upstream and downstream sides
Figure: Bridge elements

Abutment:

●​ A masonry or reinforced concrete wall that constitutes the end support of bridges or similar structures
by which it joins the bank of the waterway is called an abutment.
A wing wall

●​ It is a structural member located at the end of a bridge structure. When it is constructed integrally with
the abutment, it is termed a cantilever wing wall and when separated from the abutment with expansion
or construction joint, it is called an independent wing wall.

Important terms
●​ Afflux: Afflux is defined as an increase in upstream water depth caused by a flow channel
restriction.

●​ Freeboard: Freeboard at any point is the difference between the highest flood level after
allowing for the afflux (if any) and the formation level of the road embankment on the
approaches or top level of guide bunds at that point. According to IRC:

Types of bridge Free Board

Arch bridge 30cm

Girder bridge 60-90cm

Navigable bridge 240-300cm

High level bridge 60cm

For aggregating rivers in Himalayan foothills and flood-prone north-eastern areas, north
Bengal, etc., the freeboard shall be suitably increased.
 ●​ Scour: Scour may be defined as the removal of material from the bed and banks of
streams during the passage of flood discharge when the velocity of the stream exceeds
the limiting velocity that can be withstood by the particles of the bed materials.​

According to IRC code, of practice for the design of substructure and foundation of
bridges gives clear guidelines regarding the scour depth for the condition of flow at noses
of piers and that is equal to 2.00d.
1

𝑑 = 0. 473 ( )
𝑄
𝑓
3

Where,
d = depth of scouring according to Lacey's theory.
Q = Design discharge
f = Silt factor

Maximum scour depth based on the nature of the river

Maximum depth of
Nature of the River scour

Straight reach 1.25d

At the moderate bend Conditions e.g. along the apron of Guide 1.5d
bund
At a severe bend 1.75d

At a right angle bend or at nose Of piers 2.00d

In severe swirls e.g against mole Head of a guide bund 2.5 to 2.75d

An ideal site for a bridge across a river should have the following characteristics:

1.​ Straight Stream Reach: The stream at the bridge site should be straight.
2.​ Geologically Sound: The site should be away from fault zones and have a firm, non-erodible foundation
for abutments and piers.
3.​ Narrow Stream with Firm Banks: The stream should be narrow with well-defined, stable banks.
4.​ Smooth River Flow: The river flow should be free from whirls and cross currents.
5.​ High Banks: The site should have high banks above the high flood level on both sides.
6.​ Economical Approaches: Approaches should be cost-effective, not excessively high or long, and free
from obstacles such as hills, drainage crossings, built-up areas, or sacred areas.
7.​ Proximity to Road Alignment: The site should be close to the direct alignment of the road to be
connected.
8.​ Smooth Approaches: Approaches should have no sharp curves.
9.​ Minimal River Training Works: Avoid costly river training works; if unavoidable, execute them in dry
conditions.
10.​Limited Underwater Construction: Minimize underwater construction work.
11.​Spill Zone Crossing: If the approaches must cross the spill zone of a river, they should face
downstream to prevent issues like heading up and pocket formation.
Bridge Alignment

After the site of bridge is decided, the next step is to set out or align the centre - line of bridge.
The following aspects or the bridge alignment should be carefully studied:

1.​ Alignment on curve

2.​ Control of highest flood level
3.​ Effects of silting and scouring
4.​ Layout of approaches
5.​ River training works