Signal and System - ■■■ ■■ Exam-ready Notes (3rd
Semester EEE)
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Unit 1: ■■■■■ (Signals) — ■■■■■
- Continuous-time ■■ Discrete-time signals ■■ ■■■■■■
- ■■■■■■ ■■■■■: Unit impulse (δ), Unit step (u), Ramp, Exponential, Sinusoidal■
- Properties: Periodic/Non-periodic, Even/Odd, Energy ■■ Power signals■
■■■■■■ (Solved Examples):
Example 1.1: Determine whether x(t)=cos(5t) is periodic and find its period.
cos(5t) ■■ angular frequency ω = 5 rad/s■ Period T = 2π/ω = 2π/5 seconds■ ■■■ ■■■■■ periodic ■■■
Example 1.2: Is x[n] = (1/2)^n for n>=0 an energy signal or power signal?
Energy = Σ |x[n]|^2 from n=0 to ∞ = Σ (1/4)^n = 1 / (1 - 1/4) = 4/3 (finite)■ ■■■ ■■ energy signal ■■■
Unit 2: ■■■■■■■■ (Systems) — classification
- System ■■ definition: Input → System → Output■
- Classification: Linear/Non-linear, Time-invariant/Variant, Causal/Non-causal, Stable/Unstable■
- LTI systems ■■ ■■■ ■■ ■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■
■■■■■■ (Solved Examples):
Example 2.1: Check linearity of system y(t)=3x(t)+2.
■■■■ ■■■■■■■ ■■: ■■■■■■■■■■ fail ■■■■ ■■■■■■■ constant 2 ■■■■■■ ■■ zero-input ■■ non-zero
output ■■■ ■■■ ■■■■■ system linear ■■■■ ■■■
Example 2.2: Is y[n]=x[n-1] time-invariant?
■■■ input delayed by k, x1[n]=x[n-k], output will be y1[n]=x1[n-1]=x[n-k-1] which equals original output delayed by k.
■■■ time-invariant ■■■
Unit 3: Time-domain Analysis — Convolution & Correlation
- Convolution (CT & DT): y(t)=x(t)*h(t) — system output ■■■■■■■ ■■ ■■■■■■
- Discrete convolution formula: y[n]=Σ x[k] h[n-k].
- Correlation: similarity ■■■■ — autocorrelation ■■ cross-correlation■
■■■■■■ (Solved Examples):
Example 3.1: Compute y[n]=x[n]*h[n] where x[n]={1,2} (n=0,1) and h[n]={1,1} (n=0,1).
Step1: ■■■■■ sequences: x[0]=1,x[1]=2; h[0]=1,h[1]=1. y[0]=x[0]h[0]=1*1=1 y[1]=x[0]h[1]+x[1]h[0]=1*1+2*1=3
y[2]=x[1]h[1]=2*1=2 Thus y[n]={1,3,2} for n=0,1,2.
Example 3.2: Find convolution continuous example: x(t)=u(t) and h(t)=e^{-t}u(t).
y(t)=∫_{0}^{t} 1 * e^{-(t-τ)} dτ = ∫_{0}^{t} e^{-(t-τ)} dτ = (1 - e^{-t}).
Unit 4: Fourier Series & Fourier Transform
- Periodic signals ■■ ■■■ Fourier Series — coefficients ■■■■ ■■■■■■■ ■■■■
- Fourier Transform (FT): X(ω)=∫ x(t) e^{-jωt} dt — ■■■ ■■ ■■■■■■■ ■■■■■ ■■■ ■■■■■■■■■
- Properties: Linearity, Time shifting, Frequency shifting, Convolution theorem■
■■■■■■ (Solved Examples):
Example 4.1: FT of δ(t - t0) is e^{-jωt0}.
Use definition: ∫ δ(t-t0) e^{-jωt} dt = e^{-jωt0}.
Example 4.2: Fourier Series coefficients of square wave (brief idea).
Square wave ■■ harmonics odd harmonics ■■■ ■■■ ■■■; coefficients ∝ 1/n (odd n)■ (■■■■ ■■■■■■■ ■■■
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Unit 5: Laplace Transform
- Laplace Transform definition: X(s)=∫_{0}^{∞} x(t) e^{-st} dt (for causal signals)■
- Region of Convergence (ROC) ■■ ■■■ ■■■■■ stability ■■ causality ■■■■■ ■■■■
- Relation between Laplace and Fourier (s=jω)■
■■■■■■ (Solved Examples):
Example 5.1: Laplace of e^{at}u(t) is 1/(s-a), ROC: Re(s)>a.
Direct integration ■■ ■■■ ■■■■ ■■: ∫_0^∞ e^{at} e^{-st} dt = ∫_0^∞ e^{-(s-a)t} dt = 1/(s-a) for Re(s)>a.
Example 5.2: Given X(s)=1/(s+2), determine ROC for causal system.
For causal (right-sided) signal ROC: Re(s) > -2.
Unit 6: Z-Transform
- Z-Transform: X(z)=Σ x[n] z^{-n}. ROC important for stability/causality■
- Inverse Z-transform methods: long division, partial fraction, residue method■
- Discrete-time system analysis ■■■ ■■■■■■
■■■■■■ (Solved Examples):
Example 6.1: Z-transform of (1/2)^n u[n] is 1 / (1 - (1/2) z^{-1}), ROC: |z| > 1/2.
Using geometric series sum: Σ (1/2)^n z^{-n} = Σ ( (1/2) z^{-1} )^n = 1 / (1 - (1/2) z^{-1}).
Example 6.2: Find inverse Z of X(z)=z/(z-0.5) using long division idea -> x[n]=(0.5)^n u[n].
Standard pair ■■■■■ ■■ ■■■■■ ■■■
Quick Formula Sheet / Important Tables
- Continuous-time FT: X(ω)=∫_{-∞}^{∞} x(t) e^{-jωt} dt
- Laplace: X(s)=∫_{0}^{∞} x(t) e^{-st} dt
- Z-Transform: X(z)=Σ_{n=-∞}^{∞} x[n] z^{-n}
- Convolution (DT): y[n]=Σ_{k=-∞}^{∞} x[k] h[n-k]
- Convolution (CT): y(t)=∫_{-∞}^{∞} x(τ) h(t-τ) dτ
■■■ ■■ ■■■■■ ■■ ■■■ ■■ ■■■■■■■■ ■■ ■■ ■■■■■■■ ■■■ (step-by-step) ■■ ■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■
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