UNIT 3

Climate Change

Chapter 7: Earth’s
Climate System

Chapter 8:Dynamics
of Climate Change

Chapter 9:Addressing
Climate Change
CHAPTER 7 Earth’s Climate System

In this chapter, you will:

• identify the principal components of Earth’s climate system
• describe various tools and systems for classifying climates
• analyze effects of climate change on human activities and natural
systems
• investigate natural and human factors that affect climate change
• assess and evaluate tools and systems for studying climates
• analyze some of the effects of climate change around the world

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 Views on Climate Change (Page 267)

A variety of views are held on the issue of climate change, the

seriousness of the problem, the human contribution to the problem,
and the actions that must be taken.

[Link]

What are your views on this issue?

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 Historic Climate Change
In the past, Earth has experienced many climatic changes.

[Link]

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 7.1 Factors That Affect Climate Change (Page 269)

The atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding Earth.

A region’s climate describes the characteristic pattern of weather

conditions within a region, including temperature, wind velocity,
precipitation, and other features, averaged over a long period of time.

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 Earth and the Sun (Page 270)

Energy from the Sun is the single most important factor that affects
climate on Earth.

Sunspot Activity

[Link]
[Link]

When the number of sunspots is high, the Sun emits higher amounts
of solar radiation.
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 Movements of Earth in Space (Page 270)

The climatic seasons that we experience on Earth are caused by a

combination of Earth’s annual orbit around the sun and its tilted
axis of rotation.

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 Revolution, Rotation, and Tilt (Page 271)

Click the “Start” button to review your understanding of the revolution, rotation, and
tilt of Earth as it travels around the Sun.

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 Revolution, Rotation, Tilt, and the Seasons (Page 271)

Click the “Start” button to review your understanding of how revolution, rotation,
and tilt affect the seasons experienced on Earth.

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 Changes in Revolution, Rotation, and Tilt (Page 271)

Over a period of about

100,000 years, the orbital
path of Earth changes from
nearly circular to elliptical
and back again. Length and
intensities of seasons are
affected by these changes.

Earth’s angle of tilt

changes by ~2.40 over a
period of 41,000 years. The
greater the tilt, the greater
the temperature differences
between summer and
winter.
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The Effect of Latitude on Climate and Seasons
(Page 272)

The curved shape of Earth

affects the area of the surface
covered by the same amount of
sunlight. Rays of sunlight
hitting Earth more directly will
have a higher intensity than
those hitting Earth at an angle.

equator = highest intensity

450 = moderate intensity
poles = lowest intensity

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 How the Atmosphere Affects Climate (Page 273)

Earth’s atmosphere can absorb and reflect radiation emitted from the
Sun and from Earth’s surface. It can also prevent radiation from
escaping into space.

The greenhouse effect is the natural warming of Earth, caused when

gases in Earth’s atmosphere absorb thermal energy that is radiated by
the Sun and Earth.
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 Energy Transfer in The Atmosphere (Page 273)

Click the “Start” buttons to review your understanding of energy transfer in the
atmosphere.

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Winds Disperse Energy through the Atmosphere (Page 273)
Wind is caused by the
uneven heating of
Earth’s surface. The
rising of warmer air and
the sinking of cooler air
results in areas of high
and low pressure.

Wind is the movement of air from

areas of high pressure to areas of
lower pressure.
This movement of air affects global
ocean currents and precipitation
patterns.
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 Winds and Ocean Currents (Page 274)

Click the “Start” button to review your understanding of how winds affect ocean
currents.

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 How the Hydrosphere Affects Climate (Page 274)

The hydrosphere is the collective mass of water found on, under, and
over the surface of Earth in the form of liquid water, ice, and water
vapour.

Oceans and lakes act as

heat reservoirs, holding
much more heat than the
atmosphere can.

Snow and ice can reflect heat from the Sun back into
the atmosphere. The fraction of the light that is
reflected by a surface is known as albedo.

The distribution of water, ice, snow, and land on

Earth’s surface greatly affects the average global
temperature.
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 How Moving Continents Affect Climate (Page 275)

Tectonic plates are pieces of Earth’s outer shell (the lithosphere) that
move around on the slowly flowing underlying rock layer (the
asthenosphere).

The movement of the plates can result in the formation of new

continental land masses, oceans, and mountain ranges and changes in
their latitudes on Earth. These changes can greatly affect heat transfer,
wind patterns, precipitation, and ocean currents.
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 Volcanic Eruptions (Page 276)

Volcanic eruptions spew ash and other

particles into the atmosphere. These
particles, called aerosols, can reflect solar
radiation, resulting in a net cooling of Earth.

Volcanic eruptions also add large

amounts of greenhouse gases (such as
CO2) to the atmosphere, which might
cause an increase in global temperatures.
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 How Human Activity Affects Climate (Page 277)

Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, may be partially

contributing to climate change. Such activities lead to the emission of
massive amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

Anthropogenic:
relating to or
resulting from the
influence of
humans

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 Section 7.1 Review (Page 278)

Concepts to be reviewed:
• an understanding of all the aspects that make up the climate of a
region
• the factors that affect the amount of solar energy a particular
area receives from the Sun
• how factors such as winds, ocean currents, and the shape and
size of continents affect climate
• an understanding of how albedo can affect global temperatures
• an understanding of the effects of volcanic eruptions on global
climate
• an understanding of the effects of human activities on global
climate

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 7.2 Describing Climates (Page 279)

Distance from the equator affects both average temperature and

average precipitation, creating three types of broad climatic zones
(polar, temperate, and tropical zones).

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 Climatographs (Page 280)

A climatograph is a graph of climate data for a specific region. The

data is usually obtained over 30 years, using observations made at
local weather stations.

Climatographs include data for both monthly precipitation and

average daily temperatures.

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 The Köppen Climate Classification System (Page 282)

The Köppen climate classification system is a method of identifying

and describing climates based on observable features such as
temperature ranges and rates of precipitation.

The world is divided into five major climate zones based on the
following three factors:
• average monthly temperature
• average monthly precipitation
• average annual precipitation

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The Köppen Climate Classification System (Page 282)

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 Biomes (Page 283)

A biome is the largest division of the biosphere. Biomes represent

large regions that have similar biotic components (such as plants and
animals) and similar abiotic components (such as temperature and
amount of rainfall).
There are eight major biomes in the world. The average annual
temperatures and precipitation levels are shown in the diagram below.

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 Climate Zones and Biomes in Canada (Page 284)

Of the eight major biomes found in the world, seven are found in
Canada. Only the tropical rainforest biome is not found in Canada.
The seven Canadian biomes are described on the following slides.

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Climate Zones and Biomes in Canada (Page 284)

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Climate Zones and Biomes in Canada (Page 285)

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Climate Zones and Biomes in Canada (Page 285)

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Bioclimate Profiles, Ecozones , and Ecoregions (Page 286)

Bioclimate profiles are graphs of climatic conditions and related

factors. They include elements such as:
• minimum, maximum, and mean temperatures
• probability of frost
• monthly total precipitation
• number of days with rain and days with snow
• water surplus and deficit

An ecozone is a division of Earth’s surface that has developed over a

long period of time and is separated by a geological feature such as an
ocean, desert, or mountain range.

An ecoregion is a subdivision of an ecozone that is characterized by

local landforms such as plains, lakes, mountains, and rivers.
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Canada’s Ecozones and Ecoregions (Page 287)

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 Climate Zones and Biomes
Click the “Start” button to review the climate zones and biomes found around the
world and in Canada.

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Changing Climate, Changing Landscapes (Page 288)

Climate classification systems help scientists understand

current climatic patterns and predict the effect of climate
changes on regions.

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 Section 7.2 Review (Page 289)

Concepts to be reviewed:
• the factors used to classify climate zones
• the purpose of and the interpretation of climatographs
• the use of climate classification systems to categorize and
compare different parts of the world
• an understanding of global and Canadian biomes
• the nature and purpose of ecozone and ecoregion subdivisions
• the impact of climate change on human lifestyles

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7.3 Indicators and Effects of Climate Change
(Page 290)

Global warming is described as an increase in global average

temperature. This increase in the average temperature of the
atmosphere and oceans is the largest single indicator of climate
change.
The reduction in the area covered by Arctic ice is one of the
indicators that scientists study.

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 Changes in Polar and Glacial Ice (Page 291)

An overall reduction in Earth’s ice cover will result in higher sea

levels and will also impact the habitats of animals such as seals and
polar bears.

With less ice, polar bears must swim longer distances to reach food
and safety.
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Rising Sea Level and Ocean Acidity (Pages 292-293)

Changes in sea
water pH could
negatively affect
coral reef
ecosystems.

Ocean levels could rise

by 20 to 40 cm within the
next 100 years.

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 Climate and Health (Page 294)

Risks of disease and infection and the chances of accidental death due
to extreme weather (heat waves, floods, tornadoes, lightning strikes,
hurricanes, and snowstorms) are closely connected to climate change.

Outbreaks of disease spread by

animals usually increase during
periods of higher temperatures.

Source: iStock

Source: NOAA
Source: The Canadian Press

Severe weather can pose year-round risks to Canadians.

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 Changing Wind and Precipitation Patterns (Page 295)

Changes in heat distribution over Earth’s surface have led to changes

in wind patterns. The speed, frequency, and direction of winds have
been fluctuating unpredictably.

As average temperatures
have increased,
precipitation patterns
have changed throughout
Canada. As shown on the
right, precipitation levels
have increased or
decreased depending on
the region. Overall,
precipitation in Canada
has increased.
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 Desertification and Droughts (Page 296)

Desertification is the process by which land slowly dries out until

little or no vegetation can survive and the land becomes a desert.

Reduced levels of precipitation can lead to droughts that

can dramatically reduce Canadian grain production.

Source: Ivy Images

The cost
of drought
can be
extremely
high.
Source: iStock

Source: Government of Canada Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 Storm Intensity and Frequency (Page 296)

Recent data seems to support the scientific hypothesis that higher

average temperatures result in an increase in the intensity and
frequency of storms.

Flooding, heavy rains, and strong winds can cause extensive damage
to buildings, bridges, and roads. Storms also disrupt electrical service
and put people in physical danger.
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 Changing Biomes (Page 297)

As climate conditions change, the plants and animals that are adapted
to a particular biome may no longer be able to survive there.

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 Deforestation and Shrinking Wetlands (Page 298)

Deforestation is the destruction of the world’s

forests through direct human activity such as
logging or slash-and-burn clearing for agriculture
and grazing and through indirect effects of climate
change, pollution, and acid rain

Wetlands store and filter water, remove CO2 from the air, and provide
a habitat for a variety of animals. Lower lake levels shrink wetlands.

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 Section 7.3 Review (Page 299)

Concepts to be reviewed:
• the concept of global warming
• the consequences associated with a reduction in polar ice
• the effect of rising sea levels on human population
• the effect of increased sea water acidity
• the consequences of changes in wind and precipitation patterns
• how climate change relates to human health
• the impact of deforestation and desertification

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

CHAPTER 8 Dynamics of Climate Change

In this chapter, you will:

• describe and explain heat transfer in Earth’s climate system
• describe the natural greenhouse effect and distinguish it from the
anthropogenic greenhouse effect
• describe the principal sources and sinks of greenhouse gases
• investigate the effects of heat transfer within Earth’s oceans and
atmosphere

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 Modelling Balance in Systems (Page 309)

In a balanced system, the amount of matter and energy that enters a

system usually equals the amount that exits the system.

How would changing the composition of the atmosphere affect the

balance of the climate system?

How might an unbalanced system be returned to balance?

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8.1 Energy Transfer in Climate Systems (Page 311)

A system is a group of independent parts that work together to form a

single, functioning whole.

Open systems are systems in which energy and matter cross the
system’s boundaries.

Closed systems are systems that allow energy but not matter to cross
the system’s boundaries.
Earth generally
behaves as a
closed system.

All organisms, including humans,

are examples of open systems. Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
 Effects of Feedback Loops on the Earth System
(Pages 312-313)
A feedback loop is a process in which part of a system’s output is
returned, or fed back, to the input.
A positive feedback loop
acts to increase the effects
of the interacting parts.
Small changes can lead to
large changes before the
system achieves balance.

A negative feedback loop

decreases the effects of the
interacting parts and helps
maintain a system’s
equilibrium.
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 Heating the Planet (Page 314)

Electromagnetic radiation is energy that travels as waves that move

outward in all directions from a source. This energy includes infrared
radiation, ultraviolet radiation, radio waves, X rays, gamma rays, and
visible light.

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 Heating the Planet (Page 314)

Thermal energy (heat) is transferred throughout Earth’s climate

system in the following three ways.

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 Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere (Page 315)

Conduction, convection, and radiation transfer heat in Earth’s

atmosphere as shown below.
Click the “Start”
button to review
energy transfer in
the atmosphere.

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 Energy Transfer in the Oceans (Page 316)

The exchange of thermal energy between ocean currents and the

atmosphere has a major influence on climates around the world and on
climate change.

Thermohaline circulation
is a three-dimensional
pattern of ocean circulation
driven by wind, heat, and
salinity. It is an important
component of the ocean-
atmosphere climate system.

Water moves in a continuous loop from the surface of the ocean to the
ocean floor and all around the planet, carrying thermal energy.
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 Global Warming and Thermohaline Circulation
(Page 317)
Global warming may disrupt the current pattern of thermohaline
circulation by altering ocean salinity.
The sinking polar water is the driving force
of the thermohaline circulation system. If
polar water becomes less dense due to
dilution from melting ice, it will be less
likely to sink.

If higher temperatures increase evaporation

of water in tropical regions, salinity levels
will rise, making the water more dense.
Changes in ocean circulation could have negative effects on living
things by affecting upwelling patterns—the rising of ocean currents—
that bring nutrients essential for marine life up from the depths.
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 Energy Transfer, El Niño, and La Niña (Pages 318-319)

El Niño and La Niña are “sea-surface temperature anomalies”

(changes in the temperature of the ocean) that occur in the southern
Pacific Ocean. These changes have dramatic effects on the transfer of
thermal energy and, therefore, on climate change.
In a normal year,
strong winds keep
warm surface waters
contained in the
western Pacific Ocean
while cooler water
wells up to the surface
in the eastern Pacific.

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 El Niño (Page 318)

Water in the eastern Pacific Ocean (closest to Canada) stays warmer.

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 La Niña (Page 318)

Water in the eastern Pacific Ocean (closest to Canada) stays cooler.

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Consequences of El Niño (Page 319)

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Consequences of La Niña (Page 319)

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 Earth’s Energy Budget (Pages 320-321)

Earth’s energy budget is a description of the total energy exchange

within a system. It is a summary of how energy from the Sun enters,
moves through, and leaves the Earth system.

Energy from the Sun is either reflected or absorbed by Earth’s

atmosphere.

Radiation that has been absorbed by the atmosphere, clouds, and

Earth’s surface is re-emitted at a longer wavelength than radiation
that is reflected. These waves raise the atmospheric temperature.
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 Earth’s Energy Budget (Page 320)

Click the “Start” button to review Earth’s energy budget.

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 Changing Albedo and the Energy Budget (Page 321)

Earth’s albedo (the ability to reflect solar radiation) is most influenced

by cloud cover, snow, and ice. Changes in these factors can produce a
change in the amount of energy in the atmosphere.

Less ice cover results in

a lower albedo or less
reflection.

With more open water in the Arctic,

evaporation is increased, leading to more
clouds that in turn increase reflection.
Less ice cover results in less reflection,
thus the amount of reflection in Earth’s
atmosphere system remains the same.
Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
 Section 8.1 Review (Page 322)

Concepts to be reviewed:
• an understanding of the components making up the Earth system
and how they are interrelated
• how positive and negative feedback loops affect the global
climate system
• the role of the atmosphere in redistributing heat, energy, and
moisture around Earth’s surface
• the ways that heat can be transferred through the atmosphere
• how the temperature and salinity of ocean water affects energy
transfer
• how El Niño, and La Niña affect global climate
• maintaining balance in Earth’s energy budget

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8.2 Greenhouse Gases and Human Activities
(Page 323)
The greenhouse effect is necessary for Earth to remain warm
enough to support life. That said, higher concentrations of
greenhouse gases would result in Earth being warmer. Lower
concentrations of greenhouse gases lead to Earth being cooler.

Concentration is the amount of a particular substance in a specific

amount of another substance. Concentrations are often measured in
parts per million (ppm), which represents the number of parts of a
substance per million parts of another substance.

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 Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming (Pages 324-325)

Greenhouse gases are gases in Earth’s atmosphere that absorb and

prevent the escape of radiation as thermal energy. Examples of
greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide and methane.

Processes that add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere are called

sources of greenhouse gases while processes that absorb or remove
greenhouse gases from the atmosphere are called sinks.
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 Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming (Pages 324-325)

Water vapour is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere

and could be responsible for between 65 and 85% of the greenhouse
effect.

The main human source of

carbon dioxide is the
combustion of fossil fuels.

Volcanic eruptions release particles

of ash and dust that increase Earth’s
albedo, cooling Earth. The eruptions
also release gases that warm Earth.

Forests and phytoplankton in the oceans play a huge

role in the absorption and storage of carbon dioxide.
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Forests (Natural Carbon Sinks) in Canada (Page 325)

[Link]

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 Interaction of Water Vapour and Carbon Dioxide
(Page 325)

If Earth warms up due to higher levels of carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere, more water will evaporate from the oceans. This will
lead to a higher level of water vapour (a greenhouse gas) in the
atmosphere. Reduced albedo from melting ice would also occur. This
positive feedback loop raises the atmospheric temperature even more.

NASA NASA

Increased water vapour in the atmosphere would have cooling effects

as more radiation from the Sun would be reflected by increased
amounts of cloud cover. Dust and ash from volcanic eruptions can
also interact with water vapour to increase cloud formation.
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 Sources of Methane (Page 326)

Methane (CH4) is produced by bacteria that break down waste matter

in oxygen-free environments. Major sources of methane include:
• wetlands (bogs and swamps)
• rice paddies
• termites and cattle (during their digestive processes)
• decomposing garbage in landfills
• the processing of coal and natural gas
• tanks of liquid manure from livestock production

Feeding cattle special diets or having them wear

methane-collecting backpacks is one strategy that has
been suggested to reduce the levels of methane entering
the atmosphere.

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 Canadian Methane Production

[Link]

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 Nitrous Oxide and Ozone (Page 327)

Nitrous oxide (NO2) is one of the gases that also contribute to the
greenhouse effect. It is produced naturally from damp soils, the
oceans, and by the breakdown of nitrogen-rich compounds by bacteria.
Human sources include chemical fertilizers, manure and sewage
treatment, and vehicle exhaust.

Source: iStock

Source: iStock Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 Ozone (Pages 327-328)

Ozone (O3) is a greenhouse gas found in a concentrated layer in the

stratosphere (between 10 and 50 km). The ozone layer blocks harmful
ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, preventing it from reaching Earth.

Ground-level ozone,
Since the 1970s, there has been a slow produced by a reaction
and steady decline in the total volume between sunlight and
of ozone in the atmosphere. An ozone chemicals in vehicle exhaust,
“hole” has appeared in the Antarctic occurs near ground level as a
each year from September to January. smog-forming pollutant.
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 Halocarbons (Page 328)

Halocarbons are a large group of chemicals formed from carbon and

one or more halogens. This powerful group of greenhouse gases is
formed only by industrial processes. Halocarbon molecules are more
efficient than carbon at absorbing infrared radiation and can persist in
the atmosphere for thousands of years before they are broken down.
The best-known halocarbons are
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs
contain chlorine, fluorine, and carbon.
When released into the atmosphere, they
may be a leading cause of the depletion of
the ozone layer.
The Montreal Protocol was the first global
treaty to protect the atmosphere from the
impact of human activities.
[Link]
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 The Anthropogenic Greenhouse Effect (Page 329)

Human activities
have increased
the quantities of
carbon dioxide
and other
greenhouse gases
significantly
since about 1750.

The increase in global average

temperature since the 1960s is
likely due to an increase in
greenhouse gases produced by
humans. The result is known as the
anthropogenic greenhouse effect.
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 The Anthropogenic Greenhouse Effect (Page 329)

[Link]

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The Anthropogenic Greenhouse Effect (Page 329)

[Link]

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 Global Warming Potential (Pages 330-331)

The global warming potential (GWP) refers to the ability of a

substance to warm the atmosphere by absorbing thermal energy.
The contribution of a particular gas to global warming depends on:
• the concentration of the gas in the atmosphere
• the ability of the gas to absorb heat
• the length of time the gas remains in the atmosphere

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Sources of GHG Emissions (Page 331)

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Sources of Personal GHG Emissions (Page 331)

[Link]

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 Ways to Reduce Greenhouse Gases (Page 331)

Almost one fifth of Canada’s total greenhouse gas emissions come

from people’s homes. Some ways to reduce these emissions include
the following:

Conserve electricity
by using energy-
efficient appliances
and light bulbs
Improve home
heating efficiency [Link]

Reduce
amounts of
garbage by
following the
[Link]
three “Rs”
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 Section 8.2 Review (Page 332)

Concepts to be reviewed:
• how greenhouse gases give rise to the greenhouse effect
• the types and concentrations of various greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere
• the sources (natural and anthropogenic) of greenhouse gases
• how the anthropogenic greenhouse effect is contributing to
climate change
• how humans can reduce their personal contribution of
greenhouse gases

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

8.3 Cycling of Matter and the Climate System
(Page 333)

Earth and its atmosphere behave as a closed system. The amount of

matter that exists in this system cannot increase or decrease, but it can
be transferred continuously among the atmosphere, land, water, and
living things.
This circulation of
matter is called the
biogeochemical
cycle.

Places where
matter is stored for
longer periods are
known as stores.

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 The Carbon Cycle and Climate Change (Page 334)

Carbon compounds are found in several stores on Earth. Carbon can

exist as a solid, liquid, or gas as it moves through the carbon cycle.

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The Carbon Cycle and Global Carbon Budget
(Page 335)

The carbon cycle

involves the movement of
carbon among oceans,
atmosphere, rock, and
living things on Earth.

The global carbon

budget represents the
relative amounts of
carbon in different stores.
It is also an accounting of
the exchanges (incomes
and losses) of carbon
between the stores of the
carbon cycle.
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 The Global Carbon Budget (Page 335)

Click the “Start” button to review the global carbon budget.

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 The Nitrogen Cycle and Climate Change (Page 337)

Almost 80 percent of the atmosphere is composed of nitrogen gas

(N2) that is very stable and unreactive.

In order to be used by living things, atmospheric nitrogen must be

converted into a chemically active form such as ammonium (NH4+) or
nitrate (NO3-). In these forms, and in gases such as nitrous oxide
(N2O), nitrogen plays a significant role in climate change.

Lightning supplies energy

for the creation of nitrates.
Bacteria in the soil and in
plant roots can convert soil
nitrogen into a usable form.
Both of these processes are
called nitrogen fixation.
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 The Nitrogen Cycle
Click the “Start” button to review the nitrogen cycle.

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 How Humans Affect the Nitrogen Cycle (Pages 338-339)

In the early 20th century a new industrial method called the Haber-
Bosch Process used high temperatures and pressure to combine
nitrogen from the atmosphere with hydrogen to make ammonia
(NH3). Ammonia was used to make nitrate fertilizers, which now
account for as much as half the nitrogen fixation on Earth.
Nitrogen in run-off
from fertilizer that is
not taken up by plants
can lead to rapid plant
growth that clogs
waterways and reduces
oxygen levels in the
water. Nitrates in
drinking water can lead
to health problems.
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 How Air Pollution Affects the Nitrogen Cycle (Page 339)

Ammonia (NH3) reacts with other compounds in the air to form smog.
Agriculture is also a source of the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide
(N2O). Nitric Oxide (NO) from vehicle exhaust is a common
ingredient in smog and ground-level ozone. These forms of nitrogen
can also combine with water vapour in the atmosphere to form nitric
acid (HNO3), which falls to Earth as acid rain.

Some methods for reducing the levels of reactive

nitrogen in the atmosphere are listed below.

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 Section 8.3 Review (Page 340)

Concepts to be reviewed:
• how the carbon and nitrogen cycles work to cycle these elements
quickly or to store them for extended periods
• the different stores for carbon on Earth
• how human activities affect the carbon cycle
• how nitrogen is converted into a useful form for living things
• how human activities affect the nitrogen cycle and the impact it
has on Earth’s ecosystems

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

CHAPTER 9 Addressing Climate Change

In this chapter, you will:

• identify the tools used to measure past and present climate change
• investigate how scientists predict future climate
• describe Canada’s contribution to climate change
• analyze different sources of scientific data for evidence of climate
change
• assess the effectiveness of programs and initiatives to address the
issue of climate change
• investigate cause-and-effect relationships related to climate change
Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
 Who is Responsible for Responding to Climate Change?
(Page 349)

If climate change causes the island nation of Kiribati to be submerged

by rising seas, who should be held responsible?

Canada is one of the top 10 producers of compounds related to climate

change. What should Canada’s responsibility be to those most
seriously affected?

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 9.1 Discovering Past Climates (Page 351)

Scientists who study past climates are called paleoclimatologists.

These people are interested in how Earth’s climate system has changed
throughout Earth’s history.

Trees grow an additional ring

each year. Analysis of tree
rings gives scientists an insight Dendrochronologists study details
into past temperatures and about the size, colour, and shape of
amounts of rainfall. each ring.
Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
 Ice Cores – Records of Past Climates (Pages 352-353)

Ice cores are long cylinders of ice obtained by drilling into a glacier.
The cores have layers like tree rings. Scientists study the thickness and
composition of the ice in each layer in order to make inferences about
past climates.

Climatic evidence trapped in the ice 1. Dissolved and particulate

matter (dust, ash, salts,
cores is uncovered by analyzing the plant pollen, and other
following characteristics of the ice. material)
2. Physical characteristics
(crystal size and shape)
3. The composition of
trapped air bubbles (past
greenhouse gas
concentrations)
4. The composition of the ice
(proportions of hydrogen
and oxygen isotopes)
Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Ice Cores – Records of Past Climates (Page 354)

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

How Scientists Determine Patterns of Past Climates
(Page 355)
Changes in carbon dioxide concentration and temperature can be
graphed based on data from ice cores. The graphs show a strong
relationship between CO2 concentrations and temperature.

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 Evidence of Past Climates from Sedimentary Rock
(Page 356)
Sedimentary rock is rock formed by the deposition of sediment.
Particles in the sediment (such as pollen and parts of microscopic
organisms) can hold clues to past climates.

Data from the study of sediment cores gives insight into:

• global temperatures (by indicating the most common plants)
• the temperature of the water in which an organism lived
• the amount of rainfall and temperature levels (by analyzing the
composition and amount of sediment in layers called “varves”)
Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
 Evidence of Past Climates from Fossils and Preserved Organisms
(Page 357)

Fossils are the traces or remains of a once-living organism. The types

and abundance of fossilized remains in each rock layer help scientists
reconstruct the environment—including the climate—at the time the
fossil formed.

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 How Scientists Infer the Rate of Climate Change
(Page 358)
The rate of climate change in the past is still a matter for debate. Was it
gradual or was it sudden and catastrophic? As illustrated below, there
have been cooling and warming phases in the past. Some climate
changes in the past took millions of years to occur; others happened in
only a few years.

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 Section 9.1 Review
Concepts to be reviewed:
• the evidence studied by paleoclimatologists to reconstruct past
climates
• the use of tree-ring data to interpret past climatic conditions
• the use of ice cores to provide climatic and atmospheric
composition data
• the analysis of sediment cores to reconstruct past conditions of
the atmosphere and hydrosphere
• the analysis of rocks to interpret the conditions that existed when
they formed
• how fossil distribution and characteristics can provide clues
about the climate conditions at the time the organisms lived
Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
9.2 Monitoring and Modelling Climate Change
(Page 360)

In order to make reasonable predictions about future trends related to

climate change scientists monitor current climatic conditions on a
regular basis. They do this by measuring conditions systematically and
repeatedly in order to track changes. Measurements of atmospheric
temperature, humidity, precipitation, and other weather data have
been collected for 200 years or more.

Buoys, radar, and an

assortment of satellites are
used to monitor current
climatic conditions.
Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Ocean Buoys (Pages 360-361)

Ocean buoys monitor meteorological and

oceanographic data, including ocean
temperature and salinity. Some buoys sink
to various depths in the ocean and then rise
to the surface, transmitting data they have
collected to land-based stations via satellite.
Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
 Using Radar to Gather Weather and Climate Data
(Page 361)
Radar data is used to forecast weather and estimate global average
climate factors such as humidity and precipitation.

[Link]

Radar systems take measurements by emitting

short pulses of microwaves that are reflected by
water droplets and ice crystals in the atmosphere.
Computers analyze the returning waves and [Link]
[Link]/cd/factsheets/wea
generate an image of clouds or precipitation. ther_radar/index_e.cfm

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 Climate Data from Weather Satellites (Page 361)

The development of weather satellites marked a major advance in

our ability to monitor climatic conditions. Today hundreds of
satellites orbiting Earth measure many different components of our
climate system with great accuracy.

Two types of climate-monitoring satellites are geostationary

satellites (satellites that remain in the same position relative to
Earth’s surface) and polar orbiting satellites (satellites that move
north and south over the poles as Earth turns beneath them).

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 The Earth Observing System (EOS) (Page 362)

In 1997, Canada, the United States, and Japan launched the first of a
series of satellites intended to make long-term observations of Earth’s
changing atmosphere, land, and ecosystems. There are over 20
satellites currently in orbit as part of this program.

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 Monitoring Technologies
Click the “Start” buttons to review climate-monitoring technologies.

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 Modelling Climates and Climate Change (Page 364)

A climate model is a mathematical or computer program that

describes, simulates, and predicts the interactions of the atmosphere,
oceans, land surface, and ice of Earth to simulate past, present, and
future climatic conditions.

A general circulation
model (GCM) is a
complex computer
program that uses
mathematical equations
to describe the physical
processes of the
atmosphere and
manipulates the
variables that affect the
system.
Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Limitations and Sources of Uncertainty in Climate Models
(Pages 365-366)

Climate models are not without margins of uncertainty or error.

These uncertainties must be taken into account when using the
models to make predictions of future climatic conditions. In addition
to the precision of the Earth based measurements taken other
sources of uncertainty include the:
• sophistication of the model
•quality and quantity of data
•complexity of the variables
Clouds represent a challenge
to the designers of climate
models as they can both trap
heat (causing warming) and
reflect heat (causing
cooling).
Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
 Comparing the Accuracy of Climate Models (Page 367)

The accuracy of different climate models is often based on the

model’s ability to predict changes that have already occurred. The
more closely the model matches actual measurements, the more
confidence scientists have in the accuracy of the model.
The graph on the left
compares 19 different models
that attempt to predict how
temperatures will change
over an eighty-year period.

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 Climate Forcing Agents (Page 368)

A forcing agent is any substance or process that alters the global

energy balance and causes climate to change. The effects of a variety
of forcing agents are examined in the model below.

The condensed water

vapour trails left by
airplanes are called
contrails.

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 Section 9.2 Review (Page 369)

Concepts to be reviewed:
• the role of satellites in collecting data to help monitor Earth’s
climate
• how computer simulations can be used to predict future climates
• a general circulation model (GCM) and how it is used to predict
climatic change
• the accuracy and uncertainty related to computer models
• the factors that most computer models suggest contribute to climate
change

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 9.3 Taking Action to Slow Climate Change
(Page 370)

Although scientists do not know exactly how rapidly climate change

may occur or how much damage it may cause to ecosystems and
human society, they do know that human activities affect climate.

[Link]

What can humans do to reduce these effects?

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
 Educating Yourself About Climate Change
(Page 371)

There are many different perspectives, both scientific and non-

scientific, related to climate change. In order to make well-informed
personal choices, you must become familiar with this issue.

The Internet is a valuable source of current data and interpretations of

the data from a variety of sources. Possible solutions and/or actions
that can be taken are also suggested.
Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Detecting Bias in Information About Climate Change
(Page 372)
A bias is a tendency toward a particular perspective or point of view
that prevents objective assessment of a topic.
The following questions can help you evaluate information sources
for bias.

• Is the information from a respected scientific journal that is

reviewed by professional scientists?
• What is the source of the information? (An educational institution,
government department, or private corporation or institute?)
• Does the author of the source have an agenda? (A political or
organization affiliation, or is he or she selling a product/service?)
Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
 Calculating Your Carbon Footprint (Page 373)

A carbon footprint represents the effect that human activities have on

the environment in terms of the amount of greenhouse gases
produced. It is measured in units of carbon dioxide.

Analyzing your own

carbon footprint is
a useful way to
determine how you
could make a
difference in terms
of altering activities
or behaviours that
might be driving
climate change.

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 Reducing Your Carbon Footprint (Page 374)

A carbon offset is a means of reducing or avoiding greenhouse gas

emissions by purchasing credits to reduce a carbon footprint.
Although the impact of one person altering their habits might seem
insignificant, the impact of every person taking the same action will
be substantial.

Actions that reduce or eliminate the need to burn fossil fuels and
contributions to programs that help compensate for carbon-producing
behaviours (such as tree planting) can have immediate effects on the
size of your carbon footprint.
Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
 Global Contributions to Climate Change (Page 376)

The global warming potential (GWP), as illustrated in the image

below, is disproportionate among different global regions because of
differences in population and lifestyle.

As lifestyles change and/or populations grow, the GWP of regions can

change as well.
Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
International Initiatives to Combat Climate Change
(Pages 376-377)

Effective solutions to climate change must involve a great deal of

international cooperation. The chart below summarizes some of the
key steps taken to date.

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

International Initiatives to Combat Climate Change
(Pages 376-377)

Countries will continue to meet and attempt to come to a consensus as

to what actions must be taken to combat climate change globally.

Future conferences will attempt to develop a

comprehensive approach to dealing with
climate change that all countries can agree on.
Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(Page 377)
Established in 1988, the IPCC assesses human activities related to
climate change and regularly meets and reports on the issue.

[Link] Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 Educating and Empowering Consumers (Page 378)

Governments can help individuals combat climate change by passing

laws or regulations and sponsoring incentive programs and by
educating consumers to make choices that benefit the environment.

[Link]
fit-homes/pdf/[Link]

[Link]

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

 Using Alternative Sources of Energy (Page 380)

One of the best long-term ways to reduce the emission of greenhouse

gases is to develop sources of energy that produce fewer greenhouse
gases or none at all.

Alternate methods of generating power for

Canadians include using wind, solar, biomass,
hydroelectric, tidal, and nuclear sources.

Consumers can use energy

sources such as wind and
solar on a single-home
basis and can also heat and
cool their homes using
currently available
geothermal systems.
Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
 Section 9.3 Review (Page 381)

Concepts to be reviewed:
• educating yourself about the issue of climate change in order to
make informed decisions
• knowing the size of your carbon footprint
• finding ways to reduce the size of your carbon footprint
• actions governments and international panels can take to combat
climate change

Copyright © 2010 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.