2.11.
Radiation from Accelerating Charges
Larmor Formula (non-relativistic):
P=q2a26πε0c3P = \frac{q^2 a^2}{6\pi \varepsilon_0 c^3}P=6πε0c3q2a2
Dipole Radiation Pattern: sin2θ\sin^2\thetasin2θ dependence.
Electromagnetic Momentum Density:
g=ε0E×B\mathbf{g} = \varepsilon_0 \mathbf{E} \times \mathbf{B}g=ε0E×B
2.12. Relativistic Electromagnetism
Four-Vectors:
Aμ=(ϕc,A)A^\mu = \left( \frac{\phi}{c}, \mathbf{A} \right)Aμ=(cϕ,A)
Field Tensor:
Fμν=[0−Ex/c−Ey/c−Ez/cEx/c0−BzByEy/cBz0−BxEz/c−ByBx0]F^{\mu\nu} = \begin{bmatrix}
0 & -E_x/c & -E_y/c & -E_z/c \\ E_x/c & 0 & -B_z & B_y \\ E_y/c & B_z & 0 & -B_x \\ E_z/c
& -B_y & B_x & 0 \end{bmatrix}Fμν=0Ex/cEy/cEz/c−Ex/c0Bz−By−Ey/c−Bz0Bx−Ez/cBy−Bx
0
Maxwell’s equations can be compactly written as:
∂μFμν=μ0Jν\partial_\mu F^{\mu\nu} = \mu_0 J^\nu∂μFμν=μ0Jν
and
∂λFμν+∂μFνλ+∂νFλμ=0\partial_\lambda F_{\mu\nu} + \partial_\mu F_{\nu\lambda} +
\partial_\nu F_{\lambda\mu} = 0∂λFμν+∂μFνλ+∂νFλμ=0
5.11 Weak interactions, CKM & neutrino oscillations
Weak interaction
• Mediated by massive W±, Z^0 → short range.
• Charged current couples left-handed fermions (V−AV-AV−A structure).
CKM matrix (quark mixing)
Weak eigenstates related to mass eigenstates by VCKMV_{\text{CKM}}VCKM. For example
in charged current:
Lcc∝uˉiγμ(1−γ5)VijdjWμ++h.c.\mathcal{L}_{cc} \propto \bar u_i \gamma^\mu(1-\gamma^5)
V_{ij} d_j W_\mu^+ + \mathrm{h.c.}Lcc∝uˉiγμ(1−γ5)VijdjWμ++h.c.
CP violation arises from complex phases in CKM.
Neutrino oscillations
If flavor eigenstates ∣να⟩|\nu_\alpha\rangle∣να⟩ are superpositions of mass eigenstates
∣νi⟩|\nu_i\rangle∣νi⟩:
∣να⟩=∑iUαi∣νi⟩,|\nu_\alpha\rangle = \sum_i U_{\alpha i} |\nu_i\rangle,∣να⟩=i∑Uαi∣νi⟩,
probability of να→νβ\nu_\alpha\to\nu_\betaνα→νβ after distance LLL:
Pα→β=δαβ−4∑i>jℜ(UαiUβi∗Uαj∗Uβj)sin2(Δmij2L4E)+…P_{\alpha\to\beta} =
\delta_{\alpha\beta} - 4\sum_{i>j} \Re(U_{\alpha i} U^*_{\beta i} U^*_{\alpha j} U_{\beta j})
\sin^2\left(\frac{\Delta m_{ij}^2 L}{4E}\right) + \dotsPα→β=δαβ−4i>j∑ℜ(UαiUβi∗Uαj∗Uβj
)sin2(4EΔmij2L)+…
In 2-flavor approximation:
P=sin2(2θ)sin2(Δm2L4E).P = \sin^2(2\theta) \sin^2\left(\frac{\Delta m^2
L}{4E}\right).P=sin2(2θ)sin2(4EΔm2L).
5.12 Practical calculations & examples
Example A — Time dilation numeric check
Particle with lab speed v=0.99cv=0.99cv=0.99c: γ=1/1−0.992≈7.09\gamma = 1/\sqrt{1-0.99^2}
\approx 7.09γ=1/1−0.992≈7.09. A muon lifetime τ0=2.2 μs\tau_0 = 2.2\ \mu\mathrm sτ0=2.2 μs
in its rest frame appears τ=γτ0≈15.6 μs\tau = \gamma \tau_0 \approx 15.6\ \mu\mathrm sτ=γτ0
≈15.6 μs in lab — explains muons from cosmic rays reaching ground.
Example B — Relativistic energy of 1 GeV electron
Electron rest energy mec2≈0.511 MeVm_e c^2 \approx 0.511\ \mathrm{MeV}me
c2≈0.511 MeV. For 1 GeV kinetic energy, total E≈1000.511 MeVE \approx 1000.511\
\mathrm{MeV}E≈1000.511 MeV, γ≈1956\gamma \approx 1956γ≈1956, p≈E/cp \approx
E/cp≈E/c (ultrarelativistic).
Example C — Cross section order of magnitude
QED Bhabha scattering e+e−→e+e−e^+e^- \to e^+e^-e+e−→e+e− at tree level:
∣M∣2∼e4|\mathcal{M}|^2 \sim e^4∣M∣2∼e4. Typical cross sections at GeV scale are ~barns to
picobarns depending on energy and process; compute via formula in 5.10.
5.13 Open questions & frontier topics (brief)
• Quantum gravity (how to quantize GR). Leading approaches: string theory, loop
quantum gravity.
• Hierarchy problem and naturalness (why Higgs mass small).
• Dark matter — particle candidates (WIMPs, axions).
• Neutrino mass mechanism (Dirac vs Majorana).
• Matter–antimatter asymmetry (baryogenesis, CP violation beyond SM).
5.14 Summary — core formulas & reminders
• Lorentz factor: γ=(1−v2/c2)−1/2\gamma = (1-v^2/c^2)^{-1/2}γ=(1−v2/c2)−1/2.
• Energy–momentum: E2=p2c2+m2c4E^2 = p^2 c^2 + m^2 c^4E2=p2c2+m2c4.
• Four-force: dpμ/dτ=qFμνuνdp^\mu/d\tau = q F^\mu{}_\nu u^\nudpμ/dτ=qFμνuν.
• Maxwell (covariant): ∂μFμν=μ0Jν\partial_\mu F^{\mu\nu} = \mu_0 J^\nu∂μFμν=μ0Jν.
• Einstein eqns: Gμν=8πGc4TμνG_{\mu\nu} = \dfrac{8\pi G}{c^4} T_{\mu\nu}Gμν
=c48πGTμν.
• Dirac eqn: (iℏγμ∂μ−mc)ψ=0(i\hbar \gamma^\mu \partial_\mu - m c)\psi = 0(iℏγμ∂μ
−mc)ψ=0.
• Cross section formula (2→2): dσ/dΩ=164π2s∣pf∣∣pi∣∣M∣2d\sigma/d\Omega =
\dfrac{1}{64\pi^2 s} \dfrac{|p_f|}{|p_i|} |\mathcal{M}|^2dσ/dΩ=64π2s1∣pi∣∣pf∣∣M∣2.
11. Structure formation & linear perturbation theory (brief)
• Start with FLRW + small perturbations. In Newtonian gauge scalar perturbation Φ\PhiΦ
obeys growth equation for matter perturbations δ=δρ/ρ\delta = \delta\rho/\rhoδ=δρ/ρ:
δ¨+2Hδ˙−4πGρmδ=0.\ddot\delta + 2H\dot\delta - 4\pi G\rho_m \delta = 0.δ¨+2Hδ˙−4πGρmδ=0.
During matter domination, δ∝a\delta \propto aδ∝a (grows), during radiation domination growth
suppressed.
• Power spectrum P(k)P(k)P(k) encodes amplitude of Fourier modes: cosmological
observations (CMB anisotropies, large-scale structure) constrain initial conditions
(inflation).
12. Cosmological history (thermal timeline, concise)
• Inflation: early accelerated expansion, solves horizon & flatness, generates nearly scale-
invariant primordial perturbations.
• Reheating: inflaton decays → hot plasma.
• Radiation domination: nucleosynthesis (Big Bang Nucleosynthesis, BBN) at
T∼T\simT∼ MeV produces light elements; sets baryon-to-photon ratio constraints.
• Recombination: z∼1100z\sim1100z∼1100, electrons + protons → neutral H; photons
decouple → CMB (observed T0≈2.725T_0\approx2.725T0≈2.725 K).
• Matter domination: structure grows; later accelerated expansion (dark energy) begins at
z∼0.7z\sim0.7z∼0.7.
13. Exact solutions (catalog & uses)
• Minkowski — flat spacetime.
• Schwarzschild — static spherically symmetric vacuum.
• Reissner–Nordström — charged BH.
• Kerr — rotating BH.
• Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) — homogeneous isotropic
cosmologies.
• de Sitter / anti-de Sitter — constant curvature; de Sitter important for inflation & dark
energy.
14. Worked examples
Example 1 — Perihelion precession (approx)
From Schwarzschild geodesic, one gets equation for orbit u(ϕ)=1/ru(\phi)=1/ru(ϕ)=1/r:
d2udϕ2+u=GML2+3GMu2/c2.\frac{d^2 u}{d\phi^2} + u = \frac{GM}{L^2} + 3GM u^2
/c^2.dϕ2d2u+u=L2GM+3GMu2/c2.
Treating last term as perturbation gives precession per orbit:
Δϕ=6πGMa(1−e2)c2.\Delta\phi = \frac{6\pi GM}{a(1-e^2)c^2}.Δϕ=a(1−e2)c26πGM.
Plug Mercury values yields ≈43″/century (observed excess).
Example 2 — Light deflection by Sun
Bending angle for light passing at impact parameter bbb:
Δθ=4GMc2b.\Delta\theta = \frac{4GM}{c^2 b}.Δθ=c2b4GM.
For grazing Sun (b≈R⊙b\approx R_\odotb≈R⊙), Δθ≈1.75\Delta\theta\approx1.75Δθ≈1.75
arcseconds (measured in 1919).
Example 3 — Age of matter-dominated flat universe with Λ=0\Lambda=0Λ=0
For k=0,Λ=0k=0, \Lambda=0k=0,Λ=0, a(t)∝t2/3a(t)\propto t^{2/3}a(t)∝t2/3,
H=2/(3t)H=2/(3t)H=2/(3t) → age t0=2/(3H0)t_0 = 2/(3H_0)t0=2/(3H0).
15. Useful formula summary (GR & cosmology)
• Christoffel:
Γμνα=12gαβ(∂μgβν+∂νgβμ−∂βgμν)\Gamma^\alpha_{\mu\nu} = \tfrac12
g^{\alpha\beta}(\partial_\mu g_{\beta\nu}+\partial_\nu g_{\beta\mu}-\partial_\beta
g_{\mu\nu})Γμνα=21gαβ(∂μgβν+∂νgβμ−∂βgμν).
• Riemann:
Rρσμν=∂μΓνσρ−∂νΓμσρ+ΓμλρΓνσλ−ΓνλρΓμσλ{R^\rho}_{\sigma\mu\nu} =
\partial_\mu \Gamma^\rho_{\nu\sigma} - \partial_\nu \Gamma^\rho_{\mu\sigma} +
\Gamma^\rho_{\mu\lambda}\Gamma^\lambda_{\nu\sigma} -
\Gamma^\rho_{\nu\lambda}\Gamma^\lambda_{\mu\sigma}Rρσμν=∂μΓνσρ−∂νΓμσρ
+ΓμλρΓνσλ−ΓνλρΓμσλ.
• Einstein eqns:
Gμν+Λgμν=8πGc4TμνG_{\mu\nu} + \Lambda g_{\mu\nu} = \dfrac{8\pi G}{c^4}
T_{\mu\nu}Gμν+Λgμν=c48πGTμν.
• Schwarzschild radius:
rs=2GM/c2r_s = 2GM/c^2rs=2GM/c2.
• Friedmann eqns:
H2=8πG3ρ+Λc23−kc2a2H^2 = \dfrac{8\pi G}{3}\rho + \dfrac{\Lambda c^2}{3} -
\dfrac{k c^2}{a^2}H2=38πGρ+3Λc2−a2kc2,
a¨/a=−4πG3(ρ+3p/c2)+Λc23\ddot a/a = -\dfrac{4\pi G}{3}(\rho + 3p/c^2) +
\dfrac{\Lambda c^2}{3}a¨/a=−34πG(ρ+3p/c2)+3Λc2.
• Redshift:
1+z=a0/ae1+z = a_0/a_e1+z=a0/ae.
• Luminosity/Angular distances relations:
DL=(1+z)2DAD_L = (1+z)^2 D_ADL=(1+z)2DA.