2.11.
Radiation from Accelerating Charges
Larmor Formula (non-relativistic):
P=q2a26πε0c3P = \frac{q^2 a^2}{6\pi \varepsilon_0 c^3}P=6πε0c3q2a2
Dipole Radiation Pattern: sin2θ\sin^2\thetasin2θ dependence.
Electromagnetic Momentum Density:
g=ε0E×B\mathbf{g} = \varepsilon_0 \mathbf{E} \times \mathbf{B}g=ε0E×B
2.12. Relativistic Electromagnetism
Four-Vectors:
Aμ=(ϕc,A)A^\mu = \left( \frac{\phi}{c}, \mathbf{A} \right)Aμ=(cϕ,A)
Field Tensor:
Fμν=[0−Ex/c−Ey/c−Ez/cEx/c0−BzByEy/cBz0−BxEz/c−ByBx0]F^{\mu\nu} = \begin{bmatrix}
0 & -E_x/c & -E_y/c & -E_z/c \\ E_x/c & 0 & -B_z & B_y \\ E_y/c & B_z & 0 & -B_x \\ E_z/c
& -B_y & B_x & 0 \end{bmatrix}Fμν=0Ex/cEy/cEz/c−Ex/c0Bz−By−Ey/c−Bz0Bx−Ez/cBy−Bx
0
Maxwell’s equations can be compactly written as:
∂μFμν=μ0Jν\partial_\mu F^{\mu\nu} = \mu_0 J^\nu∂μFμν=μ0Jν
and
∂λFμν+∂μFνλ+∂νFλμ=0\partial_\lambda F_{\mu\nu} + \partial_\mu F_{\nu\lambda} +
\partial_\nu F_{\lambda\mu} = 0∂λFμν+∂μFνλ+∂νFλμ=0
5.11 Weak interactions, CKM & neutrino oscillations
Weak interaction
• Mediated by massive W±, Z^0 → short range.
• Charged current couples left-handed fermions (V−AV-AV−A structure).
CKM matrix (quark mixing)
Weak eigenstates related to mass eigenstates by VCKMV_{\text{CKM}}VCKM. For example
in charged current:
Lcc∝uˉiγμ(1−γ5)VijdjWμ++h.c.\mathcal{L}_{cc} \propto \bar u_i \gamma^\mu(1-\gamma^5)
V_{ij} d_j W_\mu^+ + \mathrm{h.c.}Lcc∝uˉiγμ(1−γ5)VijdjWμ++h.c.
CP violation arises from complex phases in CKM.
Neutrino oscillations
If flavor eigenstates ∣να⟩|\nu_\alpha\rangle∣να⟩ are superpositions of mass eigenstates
∣νi⟩|\nu_i\rangle∣νi⟩:
∣να⟩=∑iUαi∣νi⟩,|\nu_\alpha\rangle = \sum_i U_{\alpha i} |\nu_i\rangle,∣να⟩=i∑Uαi∣νi⟩,
probability of να→νβ\nu_\alpha\to\nu_\betaνα→νβ after distance LLL:
Pα→β=δαβ−4∑i>jℜ(UαiUβi∗Uαj∗Uβj)sin2(Δmij2L4E)+…P_{\alpha\to\beta} =
\delta_{\alpha\beta} - 4\sum_{i>j} \Re(U_{\alpha i} U^*_{\beta i} U^*_{\alpha j} U_{\beta j})
\sin^2\left(\frac{\Delta m_{ij}^2 L}{4E}\right) + \dotsPα→β=δαβ−4i>j∑ℜ(UαiUβi∗Uαj∗Uβj
)sin2(4EΔmij2L)+…
In 2-flavor approximation:
P=sin2(2θ)sin2(Δm2L4E).P = \sin^2(2\theta) \sin^2\left(\frac{\Delta m^2
L}{4E}\right).P=sin2(2θ)sin2(4EΔm2L).
5.12 Practical calculations & examples
Example A — Time dilation numeric check
Particle with lab speed v=0.99cv=0.99cv=0.99c: γ=1/1−0.992≈7.09\gamma = 1/\sqrt{1-0.99^2}
\approx 7.09γ=1/1−0.992≈7.09. A muon lifetime τ0=2.2 μs\tau_0 = 2.2\ \mu\mathrm sτ0=2.2 μs
in its rest frame appears τ=γτ0≈15.6 μs\tau = \gamma \tau_0 \approx 15.6\ \mu\mathrm sτ=γτ0
≈15.6 μs in lab — explains muons from cosmic rays reaching ground.
Example B — Relativistic energy of 1 GeV electron
Electron rest energy mec2≈0.511 MeVm_e c^2 \approx 0.511\ \mathrm{MeV}me
c2≈0.511 MeV. For 1 GeV kinetic energy, total E≈1000.511 MeVE \approx 1000.511\
\mathrm{MeV}E≈1000.511 MeV, γ≈1956\gamma \approx 1956γ≈1956, p≈E/cp \approx
E/cp≈E/c (ultrarelativistic).
Example C — Cross section order of magnitude
QED Bhabha scattering e+e−→e+e−e^+e^- \to e^+e^-e+e−→e+e− at tree level:
∣M∣2∼e4|\mathcal{M}|^2 \sim e^4∣M∣2∼e4. Typical cross sections at GeV scale are ~barns to
picobarns depending on energy and process; compute via formula in 5.10.
5.13 Open questions & frontier topics (brief)
• Quantum gravity (how to quantize GR). Leading approaches: string theory, loop
quantum gravity.
• Hierarchy problem and naturalness (why Higgs mass small).
• Dark matter — particle candidates (WIMPs, axions).
• Neutrino mass mechanism (Dirac vs Majorana).
• Matter–antimatter asymmetry (baryogenesis, CP violation beyond SM).
5.14 Summary — core formulas & reminders
• Lorentz factor: γ=(1−v2/c2)−1/2\gamma = (1-v^2/c^2)^{-1/2}γ=(1−v2/c2)−1/2.
• Energy–momentum: E2=p2c2+m2c4E^2 = p^2 c^2 + m^2 c^4E2=p2c2+m2c4.
• Four-force: dpμ/dτ=qFμνuνdp^\mu/d\tau = q F^\mu{}_\nu u^\nudpμ/dτ=qFμνuν.
• Maxwell (covariant): ∂μFμν=μ0Jν\partial_\mu F^{\mu\nu} = \mu_0 J^\nu∂μFμν=μ0Jν.
• Einstein eqns: Gμν=8πGc4TμνG_{\mu\nu} = \dfrac{8\pi G}{c^4} T_{\mu\nu}Gμν
=c48πGTμν.
• Dirac eqn: (iℏγμ∂μ−mc)ψ=0(i\hbar \gamma^\mu \partial_\mu - m c)\psi = 0(iℏγμ∂μ
−mc)ψ=0.
• Cross section formula (2→2): dσ/dΩ=164π2s∣pf∣∣pi∣∣M∣2d\sigma/d\Omega =
\dfrac{1}{64\pi^2 s} \dfrac{|p_f|}{|p_i|} |\mathcal{M}|^2dσ/dΩ=64π2s1∣pi∣∣pf∣∣M∣2.
General Relativity & Cosmology — detailed
notes
1. Conceptual foundations
• Equivalence principle (EP): Locally (in a small enough region) physics in a freely
falling frame is indistinguishable from special relativity → gravity = spacetime geometry.
• Gravity is not a force on particles: free particles follow geodesics (paths of extremal
proper time) in curved spacetime.
• Metric tensor gμν(x)g_{\mu\nu}(x)gμν(x) encodes distances:
ds2=gμνdxμdxνds^2 = g_{\mu\nu} dx^\mu dx^\nuds2=gμνdxμdxν
Signature used here: (−,+,+,+)(-,+,+,+)(−,+,+,+) (common in GR).
2. Geodesics — derivation (variational)
Action (proper time) for timelike worldline:
S=−mc∫dτ=−mc∫−gμνx˙μx˙ν dλ,S = -m c \int d\tau = -m c \int \sqrt{-g_{\mu\nu}\dot x^\mu \dot
x^\nu}\, d\lambda,S=−mc∫dτ=−mc∫−gμνx˙μx˙νdλ,
where x˙μ=dxμ/dλ\dot x^\mu = dx^\mu/d\lambdax˙μ=dxμ/dλ and λ\lambdaλ is an affine
parameter.
Euler–Lagrange yields geodesic equation:
d2xαdτ2+Γμναdxμdτdxνdτ=0,\frac{d^2 x^\alpha}{d\tau^2} +
\Gamma^\alpha_{\mu\nu}\frac{dx^\mu}{d\tau}\frac{dx^\nu}{d\tau} = 0,dτ2d2xα+Γμναdτdxμ
dτdxν=0,
where Christoffel symbols (connection) are
Γμνα=12gαβ(∂μgβν+∂νgβμ−∂βgμν).\Gamma^\alpha_{\mu\nu} = \tfrac12
g^{\alpha\beta}(\partial_\mu g_{\beta\nu} + \partial_\nu g_{\beta\mu} - \partial_\beta
g_{\mu\nu}).Γμνα=21gαβ(∂μgβν+∂νgβμ−∂βgμν).
Interpretation: connection tells how vectors parallel-transport; geodesics are “straightest” curves.
3. Riemann curvature tensor and contractions
Riemann tensor
Measures failure of parallel transport to commute:
Rρσμν=∂μΓνσρ−∂νΓμσρ+ΓμλρΓνσλ−ΓνλρΓμσλ.{R^\rho}_{\sigma\mu\nu} = \partial_\mu
\Gamma^\rho_{\nu\sigma} - \partial_\nu \Gamma^\rho_{\mu\sigma} +
\Gamma^\rho_{\mu\lambda}\Gamma^\lambda_{\nu\sigma} -
\Gamma^\rho_{\nu\lambda}\Gamma^\lambda_{\mu\sigma}.Rρσμν=∂μΓνσρ−∂νΓμσρ+Γμλρ
Γνσλ−ΓνλρΓμσλ.
Properties: antisymmetric in last two indices, Bianchi identities.
Ricci tensor and scalar
Contraction:
Rσν=Rρσρν,R=gσνRσν.R_{\sigma\nu} = {R^\rho}_{\sigma\rho\nu},\qquad R = g^{\sigma\nu}
R_{\sigma\nu}.Rσν=Rρσρν,R=gσνRσν.
Einstein tensor
Gμν=Rμν−12gμνR,G_{\mu\nu} = R_{\mu\nu} - \tfrac12 g_{\mu\nu} R,Gμν=Rμν−21gμνR,
which obeys ∇μGμν=0\nabla^\mu G_{\mu\nu} = 0∇μGμν=0 (contracted Bianchi identity). This
matches ∇μTμν=0\nabla^\mu T_{\mu\nu}=0∇μTμν=0 (energy–momentum conservation).
4. Einstein field equations (EFE) — form & justification
From geometric side (curvature) to matter side (stress–energy):
Gμν+Λgμν=8πGc4Tμν.G_{\mu\nu} + \Lambda g_{\mu\nu} = \frac{8\pi G}{c^4}
T_{\mu\nu}.Gμν+Λgμν=c48πGTμν.
• Λ\LambdaΛ is the cosmological constant.
• TμνT_{\mu\nu}Tμν is stress–energy of matter/fields.
Derivation (sketch): can be obtained by varying the Einstein–Hilbert action:
S=c316πG∫d4x −g(R−2Λ)+Smatter[g,Φ].S = \frac{c^3}{16\pi G}\int d^4x\,\sqrt{-g}(R -
2\Lambda) + S_{\text{matter}}[g,\Phi].S=16πGc3∫d4x−g(R−2Λ)+Smatter[g,Φ].
Vary gμνg_{\mu\nu}gμν and set δS=0\delta S=0δS=0 → EFE.
Units: RHS has dimension energy density, factor 8πG/c48\pi G/c^48πG/c4 chosen so Newtonian
limit is recovered.
5. Weak-field limit and Newtonian gravity
Write metric as gμν=ημν+hμνg_{\mu\nu} = \eta_{\mu\nu} + h_{\mu\nu}gμν=ημν+hμν,
∣h∣≪1|h|\ll1∣h∣≪1. In linearized gravity (Lorenz gauge ∂μhˉμν=0\partial^\mu \bar
h_{\mu\nu}=0∂μhˉμν=0 with hˉμν=hμν−12ημνh\bar h_{\mu\nu}=h_{\mu\nu}-
\tfrac12\eta_{\mu\nu}hhˉμν=hμν−21ημνh), EFE → wave eqn:
□hˉμν=−16πGc4Tμν.\Box \bar h_{\mu\nu} = -\frac{16\pi G}{c^4} T_{\mu\nu}.□hˉμν
=−c416πGTμν.
For static, T00≈ρc2T_{00} \approx \rho c^2T00≈ρc2, hˉ00≈−2Φ/c2\bar h_{00} \approx -
2\Phi/c^2hˉ00≈−2Φ/c2 → Poisson:
∇2Φ=4πGρ,\nabla^2 \Phi = 4\pi G \rho,∇2Φ=4πGρ,
so Φ\PhiΦ is Newtonian potential.