Electromagnetism — detailed, derivation-
heavy notes
Below is a focused, advanced treatment of classical electromagnetism suitable for higher-
education study: Maxwell’s equations, derivations (wave equation, Poynting theorem,
potentials), boundary conditions, EM in media, radiation (dipole), waves and interfaces
(Fresnel), common practical formulas (coax, waveguide, skin depth), worked examples, and
problem-solving tips.
1. Maxwell’s equations (vacuum, SI units)
Differential form
∇⋅E=ρε0,∇⋅B=0,∇×E=−∂B∂t,∇×B=μ0J+μ0ε0∂E∂t.\begin{aligned} \nabla\cdot\mathbf{E} &=
\frac{\rho}{\varepsilon_0}, \\ \nabla\cdot\mathbf{B} &= 0, \\ \nabla\times\mathbf{E} &= -
\frac{\partial\mathbf{B}}{\partial t}, \\ \nabla\times\mathbf{B} &= \mu_0 \mathbf{J} +
\mu_0\varepsilon_0\frac{\partial\mathbf{E}}{\partial t}. \end{aligned}∇⋅E∇⋅B∇×E∇×B=ε0ρ
,=0,=−∂t∂B,=μ0J+μ0ε0∂t∂E.
Integral form (useful for symmetry/derivations)
∮∂VE⋅dA=1ε0∫Vρ dV,∮∂VB⋅dA=0,∮∂SE⋅dℓ=−ddt∫SB⋅dA,∮∂SB⋅dℓ=μ0∫SJ⋅dA+μ0ε0ddt∫SE⋅dA.\
begin{aligned} \oint_{\partial V}\mathbf{E}\cdot d\mathbf{A} &=
\frac{1}{\varepsilon_0}\int_V \rho\,dV, \\ \oint_{\partial V}\mathbf{B}\cdot d\mathbf{A} &=
0, \\ \oint_{\partial S}\mathbf{E}\cdot d\mathbf{\ell} &= -\frac{d}{dt}\int_{S}\mathbf{B}\cdot
d\mathbf{A}, \\ \oint_{\partial S}\mathbf{B}\cdot d\mathbf{\ell} &=
\mu_0\int_{S}\mathbf{J}\cdot d\mathbf{A} +
\mu_0\varepsilon_0\frac{d}{dt}\int_{S}\mathbf{E}\cdot d\mathbf{A}. \end{aligned}∮∂V
E⋅dA∮∂VB⋅dA∮∂SE⋅dℓ∮∂SB⋅dℓ=ε01∫VρdV,=0,=−dtd∫SB⋅dA,=μ0∫SJ⋅dA+μ0ε0dtd∫SE⋅dA.
Key constants:
ε0≈8.854×10−12 F/m, μ0=4π×10−7 H/m, c=1/μ0ε0≈3.00×108 m/s.\varepsilon_0\approx8.854\ti
mes10^{-12}\,\mathrm{F/m},\ \mu_0=4\pi\times10^{-7}\,\mathrm{H/m},\ c =
1/\sqrt{\mu_0\varepsilon_0}\approx3.00\times10^8\ \mathrm{m/s}.ε0≈8.854×10−12F/m, μ0
=4π×10−7H/m, c=1/μ0ε0≈3.00×108 m/s.
2. Displacement current — why Ampère needed fixing
Ampère’s law without the displacement current
(∇×B=μ0J\nabla\times\mathbf{B}=\mu_0\mathbf{J}∇×B=μ0J) violates charge conservation for
time-varying fields. Use continuity equation
∇⋅J+∂ρ∂t=0\nabla\cdot\mathbf{J} + \frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t} = 0∇⋅J+∂t∂ρ=0
and ∇⋅(∇×B)=0\nabla\cdot(\nabla\times\mathbf{B})=0∇⋅(∇×B)=0 to see we need
∂tE\partial_t\mathbf{E}∂tE term. Maxwell added
μ0ε0∂tE\mu_0\varepsilon_0\partial_t\mathbf{E}μ0ε0∂tE — the displacement current —
restoring consistency and allowing electromagnetic waves.
3. Derivation of electromagnetic wave equation (vacuum)
Start with Faraday and Maxwell–Ampère in free space (ρ=0, J=0\rho=0,\ \mathbf J=0ρ=0, J=0):
∇×E=−∂tB,∇×B=μ0ε0∂tE.\nabla\times\mathbf E = -\partial_t\mathbf B,\qquad
\nabla\times\mathbf B = \mu_0\varepsilon_0\partial_t\mathbf E.∇×E=−∂tB,∇×B=μ0ε0∂tE.
Take curl of Faraday:
∇×(∇×E)=−∂t(∇×B)=−μ0ε0∂t2E.\nabla\times(\nabla\times\mathbf E) = -
\partial_t(\nabla\times\mathbf B) = -\mu_0\varepsilon_0\partial_t^2\mathbf E.∇×(∇×E)=−∂t
(∇×B)=−μ0ε0∂t2E.
Use identity ∇×(∇×E)=∇(∇⋅E)−∇2E\nabla\times(\nabla\times\mathbf
E)=\nabla(\nabla\cdot\mathbf E)-\nabla^2\mathbf E∇×(∇×E)=∇(∇⋅E)−∇2E. In source-free region
∇⋅E=0\nabla\cdot\mathbf E=0∇⋅E=0, so
∇2E−μ0ε0∂2E∂t2=0.\nabla^2\mathbf E - \mu_0\varepsilon_0 \frac{\partial^2\mathbf E}{\partial
t^2} = 0.∇2E−μ0ε0∂t2∂2E=0.
Similarly for B\mathbf BB. Plane-wave solution: E(r,t)=E0ei(k⋅r−ωt)\mathbf E(\mathbf
r,t)=\mathbf E_0 e^{i(\mathbf k\cdot\mathbf r -\omega t)}E(r,t)=E0ei(k⋅r−ωt) with dispersion
ω=c∣k∣\omega = c|\mathbf k|ω=c∣k∣, and k⋅E0=0\mathbf k\cdot\mathbf E_0 =0k⋅E0=0
(transverse).
Characteristic impedance of free space
Z0=μ0ε0≈377 Ω,Z_0 = \sqrt{\frac{\mu_0}{\varepsilon_0}} \approx 377\ \Omega,Z0=ε0μ0
≈377 Ω,
and in plane wave B0=k^×E0/c\mathbf B_0 = \hat k \times \mathbf E_0 / cB0=k^×E0/c,
S=1μ0E×B=1Z0E02k^\mathbf S = \frac{1}{\mu_0}\mathbf E\times\mathbf B = \frac{1}{Z_0}
E_0^2 \hat kS=μ01E×B=Z01E02k^ (time average ⟨S⟩=12Z0E02\langle S \rangle =
\tfrac{1}{2Z_0} E_0^2⟨S⟩=2Z01E02).
4. Energy in EM fields — Poynting theorem
Start with dot product of E\mathbf EE with Maxwell–Ampère and B\mathbf BB with Faraday:
E⋅(∇×B)=μ0E⋅J+μ0ε0E⋅∂tE,\mathbf E\cdot(\nabla\times\mathbf B) = \mu_0 \mathbf
E\cdot\mathbf J + \mu_0\varepsilon_0 \mathbf E\cdot\partial_t\mathbf E,E⋅(∇×B)=μ0E⋅J+μ0ε0
E⋅∂tE, B⋅(∇×E)=−B⋅∂tB.\mathbf B\cdot(\nabla\times\mathbf E) = -\mathbf
B\cdot\partial_t\mathbf B.B⋅(∇×E)=−B⋅∂tB.
Subtract and use vector identity ∇⋅(E×B)=B⋅(∇×E)−E⋅(∇×B)\nabla\cdot(\mathbf E\times\mathbf
B) = \mathbf B\cdot(\nabla\times\mathbf E) - \mathbf E\cdot(\nabla\times\mathbf
B)∇⋅(E×B)=B⋅(∇×E)−E⋅(∇×B) to get
∇⋅S+∂u∂t=−E⋅J,\nabla\cdot\mathbf S + \frac{\partial u}{\partial t} = -\mathbf E\cdot\mathbf
J,∇⋅S+∂t∂u=−E⋅J,
where
S=1μ0E×B(Poynting vector),u=12(ε0E2+1μ0B2)(energy density).\mathbf S =
\frac{1}{\mu_0}\mathbf E\times\mathbf B\quad\text{(Poynting vector)},\qquad u =
\frac{1}{2}\left(\varepsilon_0 E^2 + \frac{1}{\mu_0}B^2\right)\quad\text{(energy
density)}.S=μ01E×B(Poynting vector),u=21(ε0E2+μ01B2)(energy density).
Interpretation: rate of decrease of EM energy in a volume + net outward flux = work done on
charges.
5. Potentials and gauges (Lorenz & Coulomb), retarded
potentials
Define scalar potential ϕ\phiϕ and vector potential A\mathbf AA:
B=∇×A,E=−∇ϕ−∂tA.\mathbf B = \nabla\times\mathbf A,\qquad \mathbf E = -\nabla\phi -
\partial_t\mathbf A.B=∇×A,E=−∇ϕ−∂tA.
Gauge freedom: (ϕ,A)→(ϕ−∂tχ, A+∇χ)(\phi,\mathbf A)\to(\phi - \partial_t\chi,\ \mathbf A +
\nabla\chi)(ϕ,A)→(ϕ−∂tχ, A+∇χ).
Lorenz gauge: ∇⋅A+μ0ε0∂tϕ=0\nabla\cdot\mathbf A + \mu_0\varepsilon_0\partial_t\phi =
0∇⋅A+μ0ε0∂tϕ=0. Then potentials satisfy wave equations:
□ϕ=−ρε0,□A=−μ0J,□≡∇2−1c2∂t2.\Box \phi = -\frac{\rho}{\varepsilon_0},\qquad \Box \mathbf
A = -\mu_0 \mathbf J,\quad \Box \equiv \nabla^2 - \frac{1}{c^2}\partial_t^2.□ϕ=−ε0ρ,□A=−μ0
J,□≡∇2−c21∂t2.
Retarded potentials
ϕ(r,t)=14πε0∫ρ(r′,tr)∣r−r′∣d3r′,A(r,t)=μ04π∫J(r′,tr)∣r−r′∣d3r′,\phi(\mathbf r,t) =
\frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0}\int \frac{\rho(\mathbf r',t_r)}{|\mathbf r-\mathbf r'|} d^3r',\quad
\mathbf A(\mathbf r,t) = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi}\int \frac{\mathbf J(\mathbf r',t_r)}{|\mathbf r-
\mathbf r'|} d^3r',ϕ(r,t)=4πε01∫∣r−r′∣ρ(r′,tr)d3r′,A(r,t)=4πμ0∫∣r−r′∣J(r′,tr)d3r′,
where tr=t−∣r−r′∣/ct_r = t - |\mathbf r-\mathbf r'|/ctr=t−∣r−r′∣/c. These give causal fields and are
used to compute radiation.