APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Lecture No. 01

Introduction to protected cultivation – need, advantages and limitations and present status
– protected cultivation for horticultural crops
1.1 Introduction
India has a wide range of diverse agro-climatic conditions, but vegetable cultivation
practices have generally been restricted to regional and seasonal needs. Although the production
of vegetables has increased to a level of 93.9 million tonnes from an area of 6.3 million hectares
(2000-01), but still the technology used and practices followed are predominantly traditional,
resulting in low productivity and inconsistent quality and quantity of produce supplies to various
markets in the country.
In several parts of the country, especially in northern plains, the soils are highly fertile
but extremes of temperature, ranging from 0-48°C during the year do not allow year round
outdoor vegetable cultivation. Similarly, in several parts of the country biotic stresses mainly
during rainy and post rainy season do not allow successful production of vegetables like tomato,
chillies, okra, sweet peppers, etc. in open fields. As a result most of these vegetables are severely
damaged by the incidence of viruses. In upper reaches of Himalayas, cool dessert condition
prevail where the temperature is extremely low (-5 to -30°C) during winter season and most of
the region remain cut off from rest of the country from November to March due to very heavy
snowfall. Therefore, it is very difficult to grow vegetables in such a climate.
In many countries like European countries, USA, Japan, China, Israel, Morocco, Turkey,
etc. where climate prevents and reduces the choices for year round out door production,
vegetables are being produced in protected environments. Greenhouse being the most efficient
means to overcome climatic diversity, greenhouse vegetable production makes the use of recent
advances in technology to control the environment for maximizing crop productivity per unit
area and increasing the quality of vegetable produce.
India has entered in to the era of greenhouse vegetable cultivation more recently and the
total are under protected vegetable production is not more than 10,000 hectares. India being a
vast country with diverse and extreme agro-climatic conditions, the protected vegetable
cultivation technology can be utilized for year round and off – season production of high value
low volume vegetable crops, production of virus free high quality seedlings, quality hybrid seed
production and as a tool for disease resistance breeding programmes.
Production of vegetables and flowers is significantly influenced by the seasonality and
weather conditions. The extents of abundance and deficiency in production cause considerable
fluctuations in the prices and quality of vegetables and flowers.
Under open field cultivation, while the other factors could be taken care of, it is not
possible to effect control on the environment around the plant. The plant's environment can be
specified by five basic factors, namely, light, temperature, humidity, carbon dioxide and
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

nutrients. The main purpose of protected cultivation is to create a favourable environment for the
sustained growth of plant so as to realize its maximum potential even in adverse climatic
conditions. Greenhouses, rain shelters, plastic tunnels, mulches, insect - proof net houses, shade
nets, etc. are used as protective structures and means depending on the requirements and cost-
effectiveness. Besides modifying the plant's environment, these protective structures provide
protection against wind, rain and insects.
Protected cultivation offers several advantages to produce vegetables and flowers of high
quality and yields, thus using the land and other resources more efficiently. This becomes
relevant to growers in India who have small land holding, say less than one hectare. They would
be interested in a technology, which helps them to produce more crops each year from their land,
particularly during off-season when prices are higher. However, growing vegetables under
protected conditions requires comparatively high input cost and good management practices,
which have direct bearing on the economic viability of the production system. Even if the
protective structures are cost effective, proper planning, management and attention to details are
needed to achieve maximum benefits. Growing vegetables and flowers under location-specific
suitable structures may accrue substantial benefits even to small growers.
1.2 Definition
Protected cultivation is the modification of the natural environment to achieve optimum
plant growth. Modification can be made to both the aerial and root environment to increase crops
yields, extends the growing season and permit growth during periods of the year not commonly
used to grow field crops.
Protected cultivation may also indicate comprehensive system of controlled
environmental agriculture (CEA) in which all aspects of the natural environment are modified
for maximum plant growth and economic return.
1.3 Present Scenario of Protected Cultivation
In general, protected structures are used to overcome low temperatures in temperate
regions or high temperature in the countries having tropical climate. The need of protected
structure directly depends upon the climate of the region, growing season and kind of crop to be
grown. Protected cultivation technologies are being utilized all over the world but the level and
extent of their use may be different among different countries. Therefore, it is necessary to know
the status of protected structures, the crops being grown there the world over and the future
prospects of protected cultivation of horticultural crops in India.
1.3.1 Status of greenhouses for horticultural crop production in different countries
Limited areas around the world are endowed with favourable environment for year round
outdoor crop production. In most cases, production is limited to a given period of the year when
irradiance and temperature are conducive for optimum plant growth. In outdoor conditions, plant
growth and yields are highly variable as they strongly depend upon the prevailing environment.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

So in order to minimize this variability, growing of crops adversely affected by weather

fluctuation encouraged under greenhouse systems.
Greenhouses are the permanent protected structures being used for horticultural crop
production in several countries of the world. These may be of different type according to their
use and need like climate controlled greenhouse or naturally ventilated greenhouse, but all these
are covered with plastic on the top and insect proof net on all sides. Greenhouses are used to
provide the maximum control over varied environmental conditions surrounding the plant. The
greenhouse structure modifies the environmental conditions and allows the crop production in
the regions where outdoor production would not be possible. Greenhouse production also
involves growing of specially or niche-marketed crops like that of tomato, cucumber, etc.
There has been tremendous increase in area under greenhouse cultivation of horticultural
crops in most countries around the last two decades. China, Japan, Spain and Italy are ahead in
the production of horticultural crops in greenhouse. In India, the area under greenhouse
cultivation of horticultural crops is not more than 1,000 hectares and it mainly confined to
Maharasta and Karnataka. There is lot of potential increasing the area under low cost greenhouse
manifold in peri-urban areas of the country for production of high value vegetables during off-
season to take benefit of the high price of the produce.
[Link] High-tech or climate controlled greenhouse: This type of greenhouse is constructed to
achieve higher degree of climate control to enhance the cultivation period of crops. Evaporative
cooling and heaters are used to maintain required temperature inside greenhouse spaces as and
when needed. The climate is usually accomplished through automatic system. Such type of
greenhouses is used for growing high value blemish free crops of tomato, cherry tomato, sweet
pepper and cucumber for long period. These greenhouses are mainly being used in several
European countries, Morocco, Israel, USA and Japan.
These greenhouses are mostly used for long duration cultivation of tomato and sweet
pepper over a longer period of time. In most of the countries, the greenhouses are made of plastic
except the glass houses in Netherlands. Glasshouse and rigid-plastic houses are longer life
structures, and are therefore mostly located in cold regions, where these structures can be used
for crop production throughout the year. Asian continent has maximum area under greenhouses
and China leads amongst countries followed by Italy, Spain and Japan.
[Link] Semi-climate controlled greenhouses: In this kind of greenhouses, the structural frame
is made of galvanized iron pipes, like the climate controlled greenhouse but only exhaust fans
with evaporative cooling pads are provided to maintain a favourable temperature and humidity
during summer. These types of greenhouses are suitable for vegetable cultivation during mild
winter and mild summer only. The basic cost of erection of these greenhouses is half to that of
climate controlled greenhouses and are mainly being used in Turkey, Spain, USA, Morocco,
Israel and Japan.
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[Link] Naturally ventilated or low cost greenhouses: These are simple construction
greenhouses with low initial investment. The frame may be of galvanized iron pipes, wooden
logs or steel pipes but no heating and cooling systems are provided for the structure. The top of
the greenhouses is covered with plastic but the side walls have insect proof nets from ground to a
height of 1.5 to 2 m (5 to 6 feet) with or without manually rollable plastic cover. The initial cost
of these greenhouses is less than half to that of semi-climate controlled greenhouses. These are
mainly used for production of cucumber, muskmelon, tomato etc. These are being used
extensively in China where the area during the last two decade has increased rapidly. Other
countries using such greenhouses are Japan, Israel, Turkey and Morocco, etc.
1.3.2 Status of plastic low tunnels
Plastic low tunnels or row covers are simple and low cost structures for off-season
production of vegetables crops in open field. These are flexible transparent coverings that are
installed over single or multiple rows of vegetables crops during winter season to enhance plant
growth as the micro-climate around the plants gets congenial warmth. The soil temperature is
also raised and the plants are also protected from hails, cold wind injury, frost etc. plastic low
tunnels or row covers originated during the 16th and 17th centuries with the use of jars, cloches
and cold frames placed over the plants during the cold period. Low tunnels can be supported
over the plants using hoops of wire. A transparent or white plastic is stretched over the hoops and
the sides are secured by placing it in the soil. The plastic of the tunnel can be vented during the
cropping season as the temperatures increase within the tunnel environment. Since construction
and dismantling of these facilities occur frequently, therefore, statistical data are less reliable
than from permanent structures, such as greenhouses, glasshouses, walk-in-tunnels, etc.
Although the use of these protected structures started in West and North European
countries and Japan, but, presently, China has the largest area under plastic low tunnels followed
by Japan and other European countries. In India, although the area under plastic low tunnel
cultivation of horticultural crops is not more than 1,000 hectares yet these are highly suitable and
profitable for off-season growing of vegetables in peri-urban areas of Northern plains, cold
dessert areas as well as other areas of hill states like Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal. The
production technology for off-season cultivation of cucurbits under plastic low tunnels has
already been standardized by Indo-Israel Project at Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New
Delhi for commercial cultivation of vegetable crops during off-season. Moreover, with the
introduction and availability of biodegradable plastics for making low tunnels, there may be a
big breakthrough in this technology in India as it will be more eco-friendly and environmentally
sustainable.
1.3.3 Status of floating mulch of floating row cover
Floating mulches are also the temporary and low cost protected structures made without
any mechanical support of wire hoops, which mainly provide protection against adverse
temperature conditions for out of season cultivation of several horticultural crops, especially
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tender warm season vegetables to advance maturity, improve quality and extend the growing
season. Floating mulch or row covers are made of spun bounded or non-woven fabrics which can
be used to cover either single row or multiple of rows. The floating covers have minimal effect
on temperature and light transmission. For self-pollinating vegetable crops and leafy vegetables,
the floating covers can be kept on for the entire duration of the crop. However, when the
temperature rises under the covers during sunny days these need to be removed Europe has
maximum area under floating mulch. These structures can also be used in India for out of season
production of cucurbits in peri-urban areas to catch early markets.
1.3.4 Status of use of plastic mulches
Mulching is the practice of covering soil around plants with an organic or synthetic
material to make conditions more favourable for plant growth, development and crop production.
By proper selection of plastic mulch composition, colour and thickness, it is possible to precisely
control the soil environment. Black plastic mulch is mostly used during summer season for soil
moisture conservation and weed control, whereas the transparent mulch of 30 – 40 micron is
largely used during winter season to increase the soil temperature and micro-climate around the
plants for protection against cold. Coloured plastic mulches are used for reduction of insect
infestation. Yellow colour mulch is mainly being used in several countries like Israel, USA,
European countries for reduction of virus incidence in several vegetable crops like tomato, chilli,
sweet pepper, okra etc. plastic mulches have many advantages, viz. (i) early crop growth,
(ii) check losses through evaporation, (iii) effective weed control, (iv) reduce nutrient loss,
(v) reduce soil compaction, (vi) cleaner crop produce, (vii) checking insect incidence on crops
and (viii) provide natural carbon-dioxide enrichment to crop plants.
The area under plastic mulching for horticultural crop production is wide spread
throughout the world. In Asia, the area under plastic mulches has increased tremendously during
last one decade. Presently, China had the largest area under plastic mulches in world followed by
Japan, Spain and France. In China, the area under use of plastic mulches had increased 6 to 7
times, especially for protected cultivation of different vegetable crops.
1.4 Prospects and Strategies
Protected cultivation, undoubtly, offers several advantages to grow vegetables of high
quality even under unfavorable climatic conditions. This production system, however, requires
high input costs and good management. Whether it is economically viable depends on the cost
incurred on the structures and the remuneration earned for the produce. Above all, to make it a
successful, venture growers need to make proper planning and vigil.
Indigenous technological database need to be sounded to make adoption of protected
cultivation sustainable. Some of the areas which need attention are giver hereunder.
i. Cost-effective design of greenhouses and their manufacturing based on location specific
need to be developed.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

ii. The package of practices including fertigation needs to be worked out for different agro-
climate situations.
iii. Pest and disease management is curcial in protected conditions which provide a favourable
condition for their proliferation. Intensive cultivation in greenhouses give rise to the growth
and development of numerous pathogens including nematodes. Effective and eco-friendly
control measures are to be evolved.
iv. Development of suitable varieties for protected cultivation requires an immediate attention
and efforts to reduce dependence on imported seeds.
v. Protected cultivation is labour intensive. Therefore suitable design of tools, devices and
equipment are required to reduce the cost of cultivation and enhance timeliness of
operations.
vi. A major concern is disposal of used plastics, therefore new generation biodegradable
polymers need to be developed.
1.5 Advantages of Protected Cultivation
(i) Vegetable crops can be grown under unfavourable agro-climatic conditions.
(ii) Certain vegetable crops can be grown round the year in a particular place.
(iii) Crop yields can be several times higher than those of under open field conditions.
(iv) Quality of produce is superior.
(v) Higher input use efficiencies are achieved.
(vi) Management of insects pests, diseases, weeds, etc. is easier under protection.
(vii) Agricultural income per unit area increases.
(viii) It provides an excellent opportunity to produce vegetables for export.
(ix) Protected structures are ideally suited for production of genetically engineered and
micro-propagated vegetable varieties and hybrids.
1.6 Constraints of Protected Cultivation
 Very high basic cost and operational cost
 Irregular power supply
 Little work on designing structures for different locations
 Quality of cladding material quality and their non availability
 Lack of technical knowhow
 Lack of indigenous technology (Zone/region)
 Lack of suitable varieties / hybrids for greenhouse cultivation
 Exotic seeds are very costly
 Poor performance of indigenous varieties
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Lecture No. 02
Greenhouse technology – definition, history and evolution- advantages and limitations
2.1 Introduction
After the advent of green revolution, more emphasis is laid on the quality of the product
along with the quantity of production to meet the ever-growing food requirements. Both these
demands can be met when the environment for the plant growth is suitably controlled. The need
to protect the crops against unfavourable environmental conditions led to the development of
protected agriculture. Greenhouse is the most practical method of achieving the objectives of
protected agriculture, where the natural environment is modified by using sound engineering
principles to achieve optimum plant growth and yields.
2.2 History
A greenhouse is a framed or an inflated structure covered with a transparent or
translucent material in which crops could be grown under the conditions of at least partially
controlled environment and which is large enough to permit persons to work within it to carry
out cultural operations.
The growing of off-season cucumbers under transparent stone for Emperor Tiberius in
st
the 1 century is the earliest reported protected agriculture. The technology was rarely employed
during the next 1500 years. In the 16th century, glass lanterns, bell jars and hot beds covered with
glass were used to protect horticultural crops against cold. In the 17 th century, low portable
wooden frames covered with an oiled translucent paper were used to warm the plant
environment.
In Japan, straw mats were used in combination with oil paper to protect crops from the
severe environmental conditions. Greenhouses in France and England during the same century
were heated by manure and covered with glass panes. The first greenhouse in the 1700s used
glass on one side only as a sloping roof. Later in the century, glass was used on both sides.
Glasshouses were used for fruit crops such as melons, grapes, peaches and strawberries, and
rarely for vegetable production. Protected agriculture was fully established with the introduction
of polyethylene after the World War II. The first use of polyethylene as a greenhouse cover was
in 1948, when Professor Emery Myers Emmert, at the University of Kentucky, used the less
expensive material in place of more expensive glass.
Since 1960, the greenhouse has evolved into more than a plant protector. It is now better
understood as a system of Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA), with precise control of air
and root temperature, water, humidity, plant nutrition, carbon dioxide and light. The greenhouse
of today can be considered as plant or vegetable factories. Almost every aspect of the production
system is automated, with the artificial environment and growing system under nearly total
computer control.
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2.3 Greenhouse Technology

Greenhouse technology is the unique technique of providing favorable conditions to the
plants. Growing plants is both an art and science. In spite of many challenges man has learnt
how to grow plant under natural environment. Even in extreme adverse climatic conditions
where no crops can grow, man has developed a method of growing high value crops which is
called as Greenhouse Technology.
This method is used to protect the plants from adverse climatic condition to the plants
such as cold, wind, precipitation, excessive radiation, extreme temperature, insects and disease.
In Greenhouse technology the environmental conditions are modified using greenhouse / glass
house so that one can grow any plant in any place at any time by providing suitable
environmental conditions with less labour.
Greenhouses are framed or inflated structures covered with transparent or translucent
material large enough to grow crops under partial or fully controlled environmental conditions to
get optimum growth and productivity.
2.4 Greenhouse Effect
In general, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 0.0345% (345 ppm).
But due to the emission of pollutants and exhaust gases into the atmosphere, the percentage of
carbon dioxide increases which forms a blanket in the outer atmosphere. This causes the
entrapping of the reflected solar radiation from the earth surface. Due to this, the atmospheric
temperature increases, causing global warming, melting of ice caps and rise in the ocean levels
which result in the submergence of coastal lines. This phenomenon of increase in the ambient
temperature, due to the formation of the blanket of carbon dioxide is known as greenhouse
effect. The greenhouse covering material acts in a similar way, as it is transparent to short wave
radiation and opaque to long wave radiation. During the daytime the short wave radiation enters
into the greenhouse and gets reflected from the ground surface. This reflected radiation becomes
long wave radiation and is entrapped inside the greenhouse by the covering materials. This
causes the increase in the greenhouse temperature. It is a desirable effect from point of view of
crop growth in the cold regions.
2.5 Advantages of Greenhouse
The following are the different advantages of using the greenhouse for growing crops
under controlled environment:
i. Throughout the year four to five crops can be grown in a greenhouse due to the
availability of required plant environmental conditions.
ii. The productivity of the crop is increased considerably.
iii. Superior quality produce can be obtained as they are grown under suitably controlled
environment.
iv. Gadgets for efficient use of various inputs like water, fertilizers, seeds and plant
protection chemicals can be well maintained in a greenhouse.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

v. Effective control of pests and diseases is possible as the growing area is enclosed.
vi. Percentage of germination of seeds is high in greenhouses.
vii. The acclimatization of plantlets of tissue culture technique can be carried out in a
greenhouse.
viii. Agricultural and horticultural crop production schedules can be planned to take advantage
of the market needs.
ix. Different types of growing medium like peat mass, vermiculate, rice hulls and compost
that are used in intensive agriculture can be effectively utilized in the greenhouse.
x. Export quality produce of international standards can be produced in a greenhouse.
xi. When the crop are not grown, drying and related operations of the harvested produce can
be taken up utilizing the entrapped heat.
xii. Greenhouses are suitable for automation of irrigation, application of other inputs and
environmental controls by using computers and artificial intelligence techniques.
xiii. Self employment for educated youth on farm can be increased.
2.6 Disadvantages of Greenhouse Technology
i. High upfront and operating expenses
ii. Lack of pollination
iii. Careful precautions must be taken to eliminate any pest or diseases to make sure your
next crop won’t be affected
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Lecture No. 03
Types of greenhouses- based on shape, cost, utility and cladding materials

3.1 Classification of Greenhouses

Protected cultivation is the technique of providing favourable environmental or growth
conditions to the plants. A greenhouse is a covered structure which protects plants from vagaries
of weather or environment, i.e. wind, precipitation, excess precipitation, excess solar radiation,
temperature extremes and considerable attack of pests and diseases.
In greenhouses, the growing environment is altered to suit the specific requirements of
plants. It is rather used to protect plants from the adverse climatic conditions by providing
optimum conditions of light, temperature, humidity, CO 2 and air circulation for the best growth
of plants to achieve maximum yield and best quality. Greenhouse is the most practical method of
achieving the objectives of protected agriculture, where the natural environment is modified by
using sound engineering principles to achieve optimum plant growth and yields.
A greenhouse is a framed or an inflated structure covered with a transparent or
translucent material in which crops could be grown under the conditions of at least partially
controlled environment and which is large enough to permit persons to work within it to carry
out cultural operations.
The greenhouse is covered with a transparent material such as plastic, poly vinyl chloride
(PVC) sheet or glass. Based upon its transparency the greenhouse cover transmits most of the
sunlight. The crop, floor and other objects inside the greenhouse absorb the sunlight admitted
inside the greenhouse. These objects in turn emit long wave thermal radiations for which the
greenhouse covering material has lower transparency and as a result of this the solar energy is
trapped thus leading to increased temperature inside the greenhouse. This is known as
greenhouse effect.
Greenhouse structures of various types are used successfully for crop production.
Although there are advantages in each type for a particular application, in general there is no
single type greenhouse, which can be considered as the best. Different types of greenhouses are
designed to meet the specific needs. Greenhouses are classified based on shape or style, utility,
construction, covering materials, cost of construction, etc. In the following sections, the details of
the various types of greenhouses are discussed.
3.2 Greenhouse Types Based on Shape or Style
Greenhouses can be classified based on their shape or style. For the purpose of
classification, the uniqueness of the cross section of the greenhouses can be considered as a
factor. As the longitudinal section tend to be approximately the same for all types, the
longitudinal section of the greenhouse cannot be used for classification. The cross sections depict
the width and height of the structure and the length is perpendicular to the plane of cross section.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Also,
lso, the cross section provides information on the overall shape of the structural
members, such as truss or hoop, which will be repeated on every bay. The commonly followed
types of greenhouse based on shape are lean
lean-to,
to, even span, uneven span, ridge and furrow, saw
tooth and Quonset.
3.2.1 Lean-to type greenhouse
A lean-toto design is used when a greenhouse is placed against the side of an existing
building. It is built against a building, using the existing structure for one or more of its sides
(Fig.3.1). It is usually attached to other buildings. The roof of the building is extended with
appropriate greenhouse covering material and the area is properly enclosed. It is typically facing
south side. The lean-toto type greenhouse is limited to single or double
double-row
row plant benches with a
total width of 2 to 4 m. It can be as long as the building it is attached to.

Fig.
Fig.3.1. Lean to type greenhouse
It should face the best direction for adequate sun exposure. The advantage of the lean-to
lean
type greenhouse is that, it usually is close to available electricity, water and heat. It is a least
expensive structure. This design makes the best use of sunlight and minimizes the requirement of
roof supports. It has the following disadvantages: limited space, limited light, llimited
imited ventilation
and temperature control. The height of the supporting wall limits the potential size of the design.
Temperature control is more difficult because the wall that the greenhouse is built on, may
collect the sun's heat while the translucent cover of the greenhouse may lose heat rapidly. It is a
half greenhouse, split along the peak of the roof.
3.2.2
.2 Even span type greenhouse
The even-span
span is the standard type and full
full-size
size structure, the two roof slopes are of equal
pitch and width (Fig.3.2)..2). This design is used for the greenhouse of small size, and it is
constructed on level ground. It is attached to a house at one gable end. It can accommodate 2 or 3
rows of plant benches. The cost of an even even-span
span greenhouse is more than the cost of a lean-to
le
type, but it has greater flexibility in design and provides for more plants. Because of its size and
greater amount of exposed glass area, the even even-span
span will cost more to heat. The design has a
better shape than a lean-toto type for air circulation to maintain uniform temperatures during the
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

winter heating season. A separate heating system is necessary unless the structure is very close to
a heated building. It will house 2 side benches, 2 walks, and a wide center bench. Several single
and multiple span types are available for use in various regions of India. For single span type the
span in general, varies from 5 to 9 m, whereas the length is around 24 m. The height varies from
2.5 to 4.3 m.

Fig. 3.2. Even span type greenhouse

3.2.3 Uneven span type greenhouse
This type of greenhouse is constructed on hilly terrain. The roofs are of unequal width;
make the structure adaptable to the side slopes of hill (Fig.
(Fig.3.3).
.3). This type of greenhouses are
seldom used now-a-days
days as it is not adaptable for automation.

Fig.3
Fig.3.3. Uneven span type greenhouse
3.2.4
.4 Ridge and furrow type greenhouse
Designs of this type use two or more A A-frame
frame greenhouses connected to one another
along the length of the eave (Fig.3
(Fig.3.4).
.4). The eave serves as furrow or gutter to carry rain and
melted snow away. The side wall is eliminated between the greenhouses, which results in a
structure with a single large interior, consolidation of interior space reduces labour, lowers the
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

cost of automation, improves personal management and reduces fuel consumption as there is less
exposed wall area through which heat escapes. The snow loads must be taken into the frame
specifications of these greenhouses since the snow cannot slide off the roofs as a in case of
individual free standing greenhouses, but melts away. In spite of snow loads, ridge and furrow
greenhouses are effectively used in Europe and Canada and as well suited to the Indian
conditions.

Fig.3.4.
.4. Ridge and furrow type greenhouse

Fig.3
Fig.3.5. Saw tooth type greenhouse
3.2.5
.5 Saw tooth type greenhouse
These are also similar to ridge and furrow type greenhouses, except that, there is
provision for natural ventilation in this type. Specific natural ventilation flow path (Fig. 3.5)
develops in a saw- tooth type greenhouse.
3.2.6 Quonset greenhouse
This is a greenhouse, where the pipe arches or trusses are supported by pipe purling
running along the length of the greenhouse (Fig.
(Fig.3.6).
.6). In general, the covering material used for
this type of greenhouses is polyethylene. Such greenhouses are typically less expensive than the
gutter connected greenhouses and are useful when a small isolated cultural area is required.
These houses are connected either in free, standing style or arranged in an interlocking
in
ridge and furrow. In the interlocking type, truss members overlap sufficiently to allow a bed of
plants to grow between the overlapping portions of adjacent houses. A single large cultural space
thus exists for a set of houses in this type, an aarrangement
rrangement that is better adapted to the automation
and movement of labour.
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Fig.3.6 Quonset greenhouse

3.3 Greenhouse Type Based
ased on Utility
Classification of greenhouses can be made depending on the functions or utilities. Of the
different utilities, artificial cooling and heating of the greenhouse are more expensive and
elaborate. Hence based on the artificial cooling and heating, greenhouses are classified as
greenhouses for active heating and active cooling system.
3.3.1 Greenhouses for active
ctive heating
During the night time, air temperature inside greenhouse decreases. To avoid the cold
bite to plants due to freezing, some amount of heat has to be supplied. The requirements for
heating greenhouse depend on the rate at which the heat is lost to the outside environment.
Various methods are adopted to reduce the heat losses, viz., using double layer polyethylene,
thermo pane glasses (Two layers of factory sealed glass with dead air space) or to use heating
systems, such as unit heaters, central heat, radiant heat and solar heating system.
3.3.2
.2 Greenhouses for active cooling
During summer season, it is desirable to reduce the temperatures of greenhouse than the
ambient temperatures, for effective crop growth. Hence suitable modifications are made in the
greenhouse so that large volumes of cooled air is drawn into greenhouse. This T type of
greenhouse either consists of evaporative cooling pad with fan or fog cooling. This greenhouse is
designed in such a way that it permits a roof opening of 40% and in some cases nearly 100%.

Fig.3.7.
.7. Greenhouse with fan and pad type cooling aarrangement
rrangement
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3.4 Greenhouse Type Based

ased on Construction
The type of construction is predominantly influenced by the structural material, though
the covering material also influences the type. Span of the house in turn dictates the selection of
structural members and their construction. Higher the span, stronger should be the material and
more structural members are used to make sturdy truss type frames. For smaller spans, simpler
designs like hoops can be followed. Therefore based on construction, greenhouses
greenhou can be
broadly classified as wooden framed, pipe framed and truss framed structures.
3.4.1
.1 Wooden framed structures
In general, for the greenhouses with span less than 6 m, only wooden framed structures
are used. Side posts and columns are constructed of wood without the use of a truss. Pine wood
is commonly used as it is inexpensive and possesses the required strength. Timber locally
available, with good strength, durability and machinability also can be used for the construction.
3.4.2 Pipe framed structures
Pipes are used for construction of greenhouses, when the clear span is around 12m (Fig.
3.8).
.8). In general, the side posts, columns, cross ties and purlins are constructed using pipes. In this
type, the trusses are not used.

Fig. 3.8. Wooden framed structures Fig. 3.9.

.9. Pipe framed structures

Fig. 3.10 Truss framed structures

3.4.3 Truss framed structures
If the greenhouse span is greater than or equal to 15 m, truss frames are used. Flat steel,
tubular steel or angular iron is welded together to form a truss encompassing rafters,
afters, chords and
struts (Fig.3.10).
.10). Struts are support members under compression and chords are support members
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

under tension. Angle iron purlins running throughout the length of greenhouse are bolted to each
truss. Columns are used only in very wide truss frame houses of 21.3 m or more. Most of the
glass houses are of truss frame type, as these frames are best suited for pre
pre-fabrication.
fabrication.
3.5 Greenhouse Type Based
ased on Covering Materials
Covering materials are the majo
majorr and important component of the greenhouse structure.
Covering materials have direct influence on the greenhouse effect inside the structure and they
alter the air temperature inside the house. The types of frames and method of fixing also varies
with the covering material. Based on the type of covering materials, the greenhouses are
classified as glass, plastic film and rigid panel greenhouses.
3.5.1 Glass greenhouses
Only glass greenhouses with glass as the covering material existed prior to 1950. Glass as
covering material has the advantage of greater interior light intensity. These greenhouses have
higher air infiltration rate which leads to lower interior humidity and better disease prevention.
Lean-to
to type, even span, ridge and furrow type of designs are used for construction of glass
greenhouse.
3.5.2 Plastic film greenhouses
Flexible plastic films including polyethylene, polyester and polyvinyl chloride are used as
covering material in this type of greenhouses. Plastics as covering material for greenhouses
green have
become popular, as they are cheap and the cost of heating is less when compared to become
popular, as they are cheap and the cost of heating is less when compared to glass greenhouses.
The main disadvantage with plastic films is its short life. For example, the best quality ultraviolet
(UV) stabilized film can last for four years only. Quonset design as well as gutter-connected
gutter
design is suitable for using this covering material.

Fig. 3.11. Glass greenhouse Fig. 3.12. Plastic film greenhouses

3.5.3 Rigid panel greenhouses

Polyvinyl chloride rigid panels, fibre glass
glass-reinforced
reinforced plastic, acrylic and polycarbonate
rigid panels are employed as the covering material in the quonset type frames or ridge and
furrow type frame. This material is more resistant to breakage and the lig
light
ht intensity is uniform
throughout the greenhouse when compared to glass or plastic. High grade panels have long life
even up to 20 years. The main disadvantage is that these panels tend to collect dust as well as to
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

harbour algae, which results in darkening of the panels and subsequent reduction in the light
transmission. There is significant danger of fire hazard.

Fig. 3.13. Rigid panel greenhouses

3.6 Greenhouse Type Based on Cost
The economic feasibility of any type of greenhouse depends upon its cost and the type of
crop to be grown. The green houses are broadly classified into following three categories, based
on the extent of cost.
3.6.1. Low cost or low–tech green house
The low cost greenhouse is a simple chamber made of polythene sheet of 150-200
microns supported on bamboos. Its size depends on the purpose of its utilization and availability
of space and is constructed with locally available materials. There are no specific control devices
for regulating environmental parameters inside the greenhouse. Normally it has one opening,
which is kept open for 1-2 h during the day, especially in the morning to reduce the level of
humidity inside. The temperature within the greenhouse increases by 6-10°C, more than the
external temperature. The solar radiations entering the greenhouse is 30-40% lower than those
reaching the soil surface outside. It could be adopted for vegetable cultivation in winter season.
3.6.2. Medium – tech green house
The green houses have a slightly higher cost than low-tech green house. This type of
greenhouse is constructed by using galvanized iron pipes for permanent framed structure. The
greenhouse has a single layer covering with UV-stabilized polythene sheet of 200 micron
thickness and is fixed to the framed structure with the help of screws. The whole structure is
firmly grouted into the ground to withstand the disturbance against wind. Exhaust fans along
with the thermostat are provided to control the temperature. Evaporative cooling pads and
misting arrangements are also made to maintain a favourable temperature and humidity inside
the green house. This type of greenhouse is suitable for dry as well as warm climatic zones and
can also be adopted for vegetable production.
3.6.3. Hi – tech greenhouse
The design of this type of greenhouse is similar to that of medium-tech, expect that, it is
equipped with automatic control system. This type of greenhouse is suitable for any climatic
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

condition and highly sensitive crops, such as floriculture crop can be grown in these green house.
Different control systems used in hi-tech green houses are:
i. Temperature based control system
ii. Relative humidity based control system
iii. Pressure based control system
iv. Timers based control system
v. Light based control system
These types of green houses has high initial cost, require skilled operators and needs high
maintenance, care and precautions.
3.7 Shading Nets
There are a great number of types and varieties of plants that grow naturally in the most
diverse climate conditions that have been transferred by modern agriculture from their natural
habitats to controlled crop conditions. Therefore, conditions similar to the natural ones must be
created for each type and variety of plant. Each type of cultivated plant must be given the
specific type of shade required for the diverse phases of its development. The shading nets fulfil
the task of giving appropriate micro-climate conditions to the plants.

Fig. 3.14. Shading nets

Shade nettings are designed to protect the crops and plants from UV radiation, but they
also provide protection from climate conditions, such as temperature variation, intensive rain and
winds. Better growth conditions can be achieved for the crop due to the controlled micro-climate
conditions “created” in the covered area, with shade netting, which results in higher crop yields.
All nettings are UV stabilized to fulfil expected lifetime at the area of exposure. They are
characterized of high tear resistance, low weight for easy and quick installation with a
30-90% shade value range. A wide range of shading nets are available in the market which are
defined on the basis of the percentage of shade they deliver to the plant growing under them.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Lecture No. 04
Plant response to greenhouse environment
environment- sunlight, temperature, relative humidity,
carbon dioxide enrichment – soil / media
4.1 Plant Response to Greenhouse Environment
The productivity of a crop is influenced not only by its heredity but also by the micro-
micro
climate around it. The components of crop micro
micro-climate
climate are light, temperature, air compositions
and the nature of the root medium. In open fields, only manipulation of the nature of the root
medium by tillage, irrigation and fertilizer applications is possible. Even in this case, the nature
of the root medium is modified but not controlled. Whereas a greenhouse, due to its closed
boundaries, permits control of any one oorr more of the components of the micro-climate.
micro This
topic deals with the plant response to environment parameters, such as, light, temperature,
relative humidity and ventilation.
4.2 Light
The visible light of the solar radiation is a source of energy for plants. Light energy,
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water all enter into the process of photosynthesis through which
carbohydrates are formed. The production of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the
presence of chlorophyll, using light energy is rresponsible
esponsible for plant growth and reproduction. The
rate of photosynthesis is governed by available fertilizer elements, water, carbon dioxide, light
and temperature (Fig. 4.1)

Fig . 4.1. Factors governing photosynthesis

The visible light of the solar rad
radiation
iation is a source of energy for plants. Light energy,
carbon-dioxide (CO2) and water all enter in to the process of photosynthesis through which
carbohydrates are formed. The production of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the
presence of chlorophyll,
orophyll, using light energy is responsible for plant growth and reproduction. The
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

rate of photosynthesis is governed by available fertilizer elements, water, carbon dioxide, light
and temperature.
The photosynthesis reaction can be represented as follows:

Considerable energy is required to reduce the carbon that is combined with oxygen in
CO2 gas to the state in which it exists in the carbohydrate. The light energy thus utilized is
trapped in the carbohydrate. If the light intensity is diminished, photosynthesis slows down and
hence the growth. If higher than optimal light intensities are provided, growth again slows down
because of the injury to the chloroplasts.
The light intensity is measured by the international unit known as lux. It is direct
illumination
llumination on the surrounding surface that is one meter from a uniform point source of 1
International candle. Greenhouse crops are subjected to light intensities varying from 129.6 k lux
on clear summer days to 3.2 k lux on cloudy winter days. For most ccrops, rops, neither condition is
ideal. Many crops become light saturated, in other words, photosynthesis does not increase at
light intensities higher than 32.2 k lux. Rose and carnation plants will grow well under summer
light intensities. In general, for most other crops foliage is deeper green if the greenhouse is
shaded to the extent of about 40% from mid spring (May) to mid fall (August and September).
Thus, it is apparent that light intensity requirements of photosynthesis vary considerably from
crop to crop. Some of the models of commercially available lux meters are given in Fig.4.2.

Fig.4.2. Hand held Lux light meters

Light is classified according to its wavelength in nanometers (nm). Not all light is
useful in the photosynthesis process. UV light is available in thee short wavelength range, i.e. less
than 400 nm. Large quantities of it is harmful to the plants. Glass screens are opaque to most UV
light and light below the range of 325 nm. Visible and white light has wavelengths of 400 to 700
nm (Fig. 4.3).
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Fig . 4.3. Light spectrum

Far red light (700 to 750 nm) affects plants, besides causing photosynthesis. Infrared rays
of longer wavelengths are not involved in the plant process. It is primarily the visible spectrum
of light that is used in photosynthesis. In the blue and red bands the photosynthetic activity is
higher. When the blue light (shorter wavelengths) alone is supplied to plants, the growth is
retarded, and the plant becomes hard and dark in colour. When plants are grown under red r light
(longer wavelengths), growth is soft and internodes are long, resulting in tall plants. Visible light
of all wavelengths is readily utilized in photosynthesis.
4.3 Temperature
Temperature is a measure of level of the heat present. All crops have temperature range
in which they can grow well. Below this range, the plant life process stop due to ice formation
within the tissue and cells are possibly punctured by ice crystals. At the upper extreme, enzymes
become inactive, and again process essential for life cease. Enzymes are biological reaction
catalyst and are heat sensitive. All biochemical reactions in the plant are controlled by the
enzymes. The rate of reactions controlled by the enzyme often double or triple for each rise of
temperature by 10C,C, until optimum temperature is reached. Further, increase in temperature
begins to suppress the reaction and finally stop it.

a. Analog type b. Digital type c. Maxima- d. Non-contact

contact laser
minima type beam type
Fig. 4.4. Temperature measuring instruments
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

As a general rule, greenhouse crops are grown at a day temperature, which are 3 to 6C6
higher than the night temperature on cloudy days and 88C C higher on clear days. The night
temperature of greenhouse crops is generally in the range of 7 to 21C. Primula, mathiola incana
and calceolaria grow best at 7C,C, carnation and cineraria at 10
10C, rose at 16C,
C, chrysanthemum
and poinsettia at 17 to 18CC and African violet at 21 to 2222C. The temperature measuring and
control systems are available in different model as shown in Fig. 4.4.
4.4 Relative Humidity
As the greenhouse is a closed space, the relative humidity of the greenhouse air will be
more when compared to the ambient air, due to the moisture added by the evapo-transpiration
evapo
process. Some of this moisture is taken away by the air leaving from the greenhouse due to
ventilation. Sensible heat inputs also lower the relative humidity of the air to some extent. In
order to maintain the desirable relative humidity levels in the greenhouses, processes like
humidification or dehumidification are carried out. For most crops, the acceptable range of
relative humidity is between 50 and 80%. However for plant propagation work, relative humidity
humi
up to 90% may be desirable.
In summer, due to sensible heat addition in the daytime, and in winters for increasing the
night time temperatures of the greenhouse air, more sensible heat is added causing a reduction in
the relative humidity of the air. For this purpose, evaporative cooling pads and fogging system of
humidification are employed. When the relative humidity is on the higher side, ventilators,
chemical dehumidifiers and cooling coils are used for de de- humidification. Hand held type
instruments used in humidity measurements are given in Fig.4.5.

Dial type hair hygrometer Temperature cum humidity indicator Whirling hygrometer
Fig. 4.5.. Instruments used in greenhouses for measuring relative humidity
4.5 Ventilation
A greenhouse is ventilated for either reducing the temperature of the greenhouse air or for
replenishing carbon dioxide supply or for moderating the relative humidity of the air. Air
temperatures above 35C C are generally not suited for the cro
crops
ps in greenhouse. It is quite possible
to bring the greenhouse air temperature below this upper limit during spring and autumn seasons
simply by providing adequate ventilation to the greenhouse. The ventilation in a greenhouse can
either be natural or forced.
ed. In case of small greenhouses (less than 6 m wide) natural ventilation
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

can be quite effective during spring and autumn seasons. However, fan ventilation is essential to
have precise control over the air temperature, humidity and carbon dioxide levels.

a. Anemometer b. CO2 level indicator

Fig. 4.6. Instruments used in greenhouses for measuring wind velocity and CO 2 level
4.6 Carbon Dioxide
Carbon is an essential plant nutrient and is present in the plant in greater quantity than
any other nutrient. About 40% of the dry matter of the plant is composed of carbon. Under
normal conditions, carbon dioxide (CO2) exits as a gas in the atmosphere slightly above 0.03%
or 345 ppm. During the day, when photosynthesis occurs under natural light, the plants in a
greenhouse draw down the level of CO2 to below 200 ppm. Under these circumstances,
infiltration or ventilation increases carbon dioxide levels, when the outside air is brought in, to
maintain the ambient levels of CO2. If the level of CO2 is less than ambient levels, CO2 may
retard the plant growth. In cold climates, maintaining ambient levels of CO 2 by providing
ventilation may be uneconomical, due to the necessity of heating the incoming air in order to
maintain proper growing temperatures. In such regions, enrichment of the greenhouse with CO 2
is followed. The exact CO2 level needed for a given crop will vary with other variables in
greenhouse production such as light, temperature, nutrient levels, cultivar and degree of maturity.
Most crops will respond favourably to CO 2 at 1000 to 1200 ppm.
4.7 Root Media
Root medium plays an important role for the cultivation of crops in pots as well as in the
field, known as growing medium for greenhouse crop cultivation. It must serve as reservoir for
plant nutrients, hold water in such a way that is easily available to the plant while providing the
path for exchange of gases between roots and the atmosphere above the root medium. Moreover,
it must also provide support to the plant. The desirable properties of a root media are:
a. Stability of organic matter
b. Maintenance of carbon: nitrogen ratio
c. Keeping desirable bulk density
d. Capacity for moisture retention and aeration
e. Balance of pH level
f. Higher level of CEC
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Lecture No.: 05
Planning and design of greenhouses – criteria for site selection – orientation – structural
design - design criteria of greenhouse for cooling and heating purposes.
A greenhouse, is basically the purpose of providing and maintaining a growing
environment that will result in optimum production at maximum yield. The agriculture in the
controlled environment is possible in all the regions irrespective of climate and weather. It is an
enclosing structure for growing plants, greenhouse must admit the visible light portion of solar
radiation for the plant photosynthesis and, therefore, must be transparent. At the same time, to
protect the plants, a greenhouse must be ventilated or cooled during the day because of the heat
load from the radiation. The structure must also be heated or insulated during cold nights. A
greenhouse acts as a barrier between the plant production areas and the external or the general
environment.
5.1 Site Selection and Orientation
A greenhouse is designed to withstand local wind, snow and crop loads for a specific
cropping activity. In this way, the structure becomes location and crop specific. The building site
should be as level as possible to reduce the cost of grading, and the site should be well aerated
and should receive good solar radiation. Provision of a drainage system is always possible. It is
also advisable to select a site with a natural windbreak. In regions where snow is expected, trees
should be 30.5 m away in order to keep drifts back from the greenhouses. To prevent shadows on
the crop, trees located on the east, south, or west sides should be at a distance of 2.5 times their
height.
5.2 Design Criteria of Construction
For locating the greenhouse, a piece of land larger than the grower’s immediate need
should be acquired. The ultimate size of the greenhouse range should be estimated. Area should
then be added to this estimated figure to accommodate service buildings, storage, access drives
and a parking lot. The floor area of service buildings required for small firms is about 13% of the
greenhouse floor area, and it decreases with the increase in size of the farm. On an average,
service buildings occupy 10% of the growing area. The service building is centrally located in a
nearly square design of the firm, which minimizes distance of movement of plants and materials.
Doors between the service buildings and the greenhouse should be wide enough to facilitate full
use of the corridor width. Doors at least 3.1 m wide and 2.7 m high are common. It is good to
have the greenhouse gutter at least 3.7 m above the floor to accommodate automation and
thermal blanket and still leave the room for future innovations.
5.3 Structural Design
The most important function of the greenhouse structure and its covering is the protection
of the crop against hostile weather conditions (low and high temperatures, snow, hail, rain and
wind), diseases and pests. It is important to develop greenhouses with a maximum intensity of
natural light inside. The structural parts that can cast shadows in the greenhouse should be
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

minimized. The different structural designs of greenhouse based on the types of frames are
available. A straight side wall and an arched roof is possibly the most common shape for a
greenhouse, but the gable roof is also widely used. Both structures can be free standing or gutter
connected with the arch roof greenhouse. The arch roof and hoop style greenhouses are most
often constructed of galvanized iron pipe. If tall growing crops are
to be grown in a greenhouse or when benches are used, it is best to use a straight side wall
structure rather than a hoop style house, this ensures the best operational use of the greenhouse.
A hoop type greenhouse is suitable for low growing crops, such as lettuce, or for nursery stock
which are housed throughout the winter in greenhouses located in extremely cold regions. A
gothic arch frame structure can be designed to provide adequate side wall height without loss of
strength to the structure (Fig.5.1).

Fig.5.1. Roofs suitable for greenhouse

 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Loads in designing the greenhouse structures include the weight of the structure itself and,
if supported by the structure, loads of the equipment for the heating and ventilation and water
lines. Greenhouse structures should be designed to resist a 130 km/h wind velocity. The actual
load depends on wind angle, greenhouse shape and size, and the presence or absence of openings
and wind breaks. The ultimate design of a greenhouse depends on the following aspects:
(i) The overall structural design and the properties of the individual structural components.
(ii) The specific mechanical and physical properties which determine the structural
behaviour of the covering materials.
(iii) The specific sensitivity of the crop to light and temperature to be grown in the
greenhouse.
(iv) The specific requirements relevant to the physical properties of the covering material.
(v) The agronomic requirements of the crop.
5.4 Covering Materials
The following factors are to be considered while selecting the greenhouse covering
material i.e., light transmission, weight, resistant to impact, and durability to outdoor weathering
and thermal stability over wide range of temperatures. Before selecting the covering material,
two important points should be taken into consideration: the purpose for which greenhouse
facility is intended and service life of material. In temperate regions where high temperatures are
required, the covering material with high light transmission and far IR absorption must be
selected. Also the loss of heat by conduction should be minimum.
5.4.1 Covering material life span
i. Glass and acrylic sheet - 20 years
ii. Polycarbonate and fibreglass-reinforced polyester sheet - 5-12 years
iii. Polyethylene - 2-6 months
iv. Polyethylene stabilized for UV rays - 2-3 years
The ideal greenhouse selective covering material should have the following properties:
i. It should transmit the visible light portion of the solar radiation which is utilized by
plants for photosynthesis.
ii. It should absorb the small amount of UV in the radiation and convert a portion of it
to fluoresce into visible light, useful for plants.
iii. It should reflect or absorb IR radiation which are not useful to plants and which
causes greenhouse interiors to overheat.
iv. Should be of minimum cost.
v. Should have usable life of 10 to 20 years.
5.5 Construction of Glass Greenhouses
Glass greenhouses have an advantage of greater interior light intensity over plastic panel
and film plastic covered greenhouses. Glass greenhouses tend to have a higher air infiltration
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

rate, which leads to lower interior humidity, which is advantageous for disease prevention. On
the other hand, glass greenhouses have a higher initial cost than double-layer film plastic
greenhouses. While comparing the price of a glass greenhouse to a film plastic greenhouse, one
needs to take into account the initial purchase price of each as well as the cost of re-covering the
film plastic greenhouse every three to four years.
Several types of glass greenhouses are designed to meet specific needs. A lean-to-type
design is used when a greenhouse is placed against the side of an existing building. This design
makes the best use of sunlight and minimizes the requirements for roof supports. It is found
mostly in the retail industry. An even-span greenhouse is one in which the two roof slopes are of
equal pitch and width. By comparison, an un-even-span greenhouse has roofs of unequal width,
which makes the structure adaptable to the side of a hill. This style is seldom used today because
such greenhouses are not adaptable to automation. Finally, a ridge-and-furrow design uses, two
or more A- frame greenhouses connected to one another along the length of the eave. The
sidewall is eliminated between greenhouses, which results in a structure with a single large
interior. Basically, three frame types are used in glass greenhouses, which are wood frames (6.1
m in width), pipe frames (12.2 m in width) and truss frames (15.2 m in width). Latest glass
greenhouses are primarily of the truss frame type. Truss frame greenhouses are the best suited
for prefabrication.
All-metal greenhouses proved cheaper to maintain since they required no painting. At
present, virtually all glass greenhouse construction is of the metal type. The structural members
of the glass greenhouse cast shadows that reduce plant growth during the dark months of the
year. Aluminum sash bars are stronger than wooden ones; hence wider panels of glass can be
used with aluminum bars. The reduction in materials and the reflectance of aluminum have given
these metal greenhouses a great advantage over wooden greenhouses in terms of higher interior
light intensity.
Glass greenhouse construction of today can be categorized as high profile or low profile.
The low profile greenhouse is most popular in the Netherlands and is known as the Venlo
greenhouse. The low profile greenhouses uses single panels of glass extend from eave to ridge.
The low profile greenhouse slightly reduces exposed surface area, thereby reducing the heating
cost, but more expensive to cool. The high profile greenhouses require more than single panel to
cover the eave to ridge. A problem with this design is the unsealed junction between pieces of
glass in the inner layer. Moisture and dust may enter between the layers and reduce light
transmission.
5.6 Construction of Pipe Framed Greenhouses
The choice of construction of pipe framed greenhouses often favours low initial
investment and relatively long life. Galvanized mild steel pipe as a structural member in
association with wide width UV- stabilized low density polyethylene (LDPE) film is a common
option of greenhouse designers.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

5.6.1 Material requirement

The structural members of greenhouse are
(a) hoops
(b) foundation
(c) lateral supports
(d) polygrip assembly
(e) end frame
The following materials are required for a greenhouse having 4 m x 20 m floor area:
(i) GI pipe class A (25 mm diameter, 85 cm long, 30 m total length)
(ii) GI pipe class B (15 mm diameter, 6.0 m long, 21 No.s)
(iii)GI sheet (20 gauge, size 90 24 cm, 4 sheets)
(iv) MS flat (25 3 mm size, 4 m length)
(v) Lateral support to end frames (10 mm diameter rod, 10 m length)
(vi) Cement concrete ( 1: 3: 6 mix, 1.0 m 3)
(vii)UV- stabilized LDPE film (single layer 800 gauge, 5.4 m 2/kg, 154 m2)
(viii)
Polygrip (channel 2000 x 3.5 x 4 cm, 2 Nos.; Angle 2000 x2x2 cm, 2 Nos.; both made
from the procured 20 gauge GI sheet, key 6 mm diameter, 56 mm length)
(ix) Wooden end frames (5 x 5 cm wood, 0.15 m3)
(x) Nuts and bolts 9.6 mm diameter, 35 mm long, 70 sets)
(xi) Miscellaneous items like nails, hinges and latches as per requirement
5.6.2 Procedure of erection
i. A 4m by 20 m rectangular area is marked on the site, preferably orienting the longer
dimension in east-west direction. This rectangle will act as the floor plan of the greenhouse
(Fig.5.1).
ii. Mark four points on the four corners of the rectangle.
iii. Start from one corner point and move along the length of marked rectangle, marking a
point every 1.25 m distance until reaching the other corner (16 bays; 17 points). The same
procedure is repeated on the other side of the rectangle.
iv. Dig 10 cm diameter holes upto 70 cm depth on all marked points with the help of bucket
auger (or) a crowbar. This way a total of 34 holes on both the parallel sides of the
greenhouse floor is obtained.
v. Polygrip sections formed according to the drawing into two 20 m length.
vi. Fix the prefabricated polygrip channels to the foundation pipes on 1.25 m spacing with the
help of 6 mm diameter bolts.
vii. Set these assemblies on temporary supports between the holes with the foundation pipes
hanging vertically in the holes.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

viii. Pour cement concrete mix of 1: 3 : 6 around foundation pipes in such a way that the lower
15 cm to 20 cm ends are covered in concrete. The concrete is compacted around the
foundation pipes with the help of the crowbar and is allowed to cure for 2-3 days.
ix. After curing, fill the soil around the foundation pipes to the ground level and compact it
well.
x. Position end frames on the two ends. Mark the position of legs and dug holes for fixing of
legs. Now install both the end frames.
xi. Put the ringside of lateral support members on adjacent foundation pipe to the corner, and
other side is hooked to the end frame.
xii. Put all the hoops in the foundation pipes in such away that straight portion of hoop is
inserted into the foundation and rests on the bolt used for fixing of polygrip channel.
xiii. Take a 20 m long ridge line by spacing 15 mm diameter pipes together. Put the 20m long
pipe at the ridge line of the hoops.
xiv. Use cross connectors on the ridge line pipe, in such a way that one half of it remains on the
one side of the hoop and the other half on the other side.
xv. Put two bolts of 6 mm diameter in the holes provided in the ends of cross-connector. Tie a
few of them with the help of nuts.
xvi. Repeat the same procedure for joining all the hoops with ridge line pipe.
xvii. While forming cross-connectors, the distance between the cross-connectors or hoops
should be maintained 1.25 m center to center. This poly grip mechanism will provide a
firm grip of the ridge line pipe and hoops at right angles without allowing for slippage.
xviii. Spread polyethylene film over the structure from one end to the other end without wrinkles
and keeping the edges together.
xix. Place polyethylene film between the polygrip channel and right angle strip and secure them
under pressure with the help of iron rods. The film is stretched gently and fixed on the
other parallel side by polygrip. This way the polyethylene is secured on both the longer
sides.
xx. On the other two remaining ends, polyethylene is nailed to the end frames using wooden
battens and nails.
xxi. The remaining portion of the end frames is covered with polyethylene film, which is
secured with wooden battens and nails.
xxii. Mechanical ventilation, heating and cooling equipment is installed on the frames as per the
crop requirement.
APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Fig. 5.2 Construction of Pipe Framed Greenhouses

 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Lecture No.: 06
Equipment and components of a greenhouse – summer cooling and winter cooling, natural
ventilation and forced ventilation
Precise control of various parameters of greenhouse environment is necessary to optimize
energy inputs and thereby maximize the economic returns. Basically, the objective of
environmental control is to maximize the plant growth. The control of greenhouse environment
means the control of temperature, light, air composition and nature of the root medium. A
greenhouse is essentially meant to permit at least partial control of microclimate within it.
Obviously green houses with partial environmental control are more common and economical.
From the origin of greenhouse to the present there has been a steady evolution of controls. Five
stages in this evolution include manual controls, thermostats, step-controllers, dedicated micro
processors and computers. This chain of evolution has brought about a reduction in control
labour and an improvement in the conformity of greenhouse environments to their set points.
The benefits achieved from greenhouse environmental uniformity are better timing and good
quality of crops, disease control and conservation of energy.
6.1 Active Summer Cooling Systems
Active summer cooling is achieved by evaporative cooling process. The evaporative
cooling systems developed are to reduce the problem of excess heat in green house. In this
process cooling takes place when the heat required for moisture evaporation is derived from the
surrounding environment causing a depression in its temperature. The two active summer
cooling systems in use presently are fan-and pad and fog systems. In the evaporative cooling
process the cooling is possible only up to the wet bulb temperature of the incoming air.
6.1.1 Fan-and pad cooling system
The fan and pad evaporative cooling system has been available since 1954 and is still the
most common summer cooling system in green houses (Fig.6.1). Along one wall of the green
house, water is passed through a pad that is usually placed vertically in the wall. Traditionally,
the pad is composed of excelsior (wood shreds), but today it is commonly made of a cross-fluted
cellulose material somewhat similar in appearance to corrugated card board. Exhaust fans are
placed on the opposite wall. Warm outside air is drawn in through the pad. The supplied water in
the pad, through the process of evaporation, absorbs heat from the air passing through the pad as
well as from surroundings of the pad and frame, thus causing the cooling effect. Vetiver grass
mats can also be used as cooling pads.
6.1.2 Fog cooling system
The fog evaporative cooling system, introduced in green houses in 1980, operates on the
same cooling principle as the fan and pad cooling system but uses quite different arrangement
(Fig.6.2). A high pressure pumping apparatus generates fog containing water droplets with a
mean size of less than 10 microns using suitable nozzles. These droplets are sufficiently small to
stay suspended in air while they are evaporating. Fog is dispersed throughout the green house,
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

cooling the air everywhere. As this system does not wet the foliage, there is less scope for
disease
isease and pest attack. The plants stay dry throughout the process. This system is equally useful
for seed germination and propagation since it eliminates the need for a mist system.

Fig.6.1. Fan-and
and Pad cooling system Fig.6.2. Fog evaporative cooling system
Both types of summer evaporative cooling system can reduce the greenhouse air
temperature. The fan-and
and pad system can lower the temperature of incoming air by about 80% of
the difference between the dry and wet bulb temperatures while the fog cooling system can lower
the temperature by nearly 100% difference. This is, due to the fact that complete evaporation of
the water is not taking place because of bigger droplet size in fad and pad, whereas in the fog
cooling system, there will be comp
complete
lete evaporation because of the minute size of the water
droplets. Thus lesser the dryness of the air, greater evaporative cooling is possible.
6.1.3 Design of active summer cooling system
The rate of air exchange is measured in cubic metres per minute (m 3/min). The National
Greenhouse Manufacturers’ Association indicates in its 1993 standards for ventilating and
cooling greenhouses that a rate of removal of 2.5 m 3/min/m2 of greenhouse floor is sufficient.
This applies to a greenhouse under 305 m ((1,000ft) in elevation, with an interior light
ligh intensity
o
not exceeding 53.8 k lux and an air temperature rise of 4 C from the pad to the fans. Standard
tables of correction factors of the rate of air removal are available to account for any deviation
from these standard
dard conditions. Since it is relatively tedious to calculate the volume using this
method, a direct value of 3.4 to 5.2 m 3/min/m2 of floor area can be used as recommended.
recommended
The rate of air removal from the greenhouse must increase as the elevation of the
greenhouse
eenhouse site increases. The density of air decreases and becomes lighter with increasing
elevation. The ability of air to remove solar heat from the greenhouse depends upon its weight
and not is volume. Thus larger volume of air must be drawn through the greenhouse at high
elevations then that is drawn through at low elevations in order to have an equivalent cooling
effect. Hence the value of elevation factor (F elev) is directly proportional to the elevation. The
values of elevation factors, used to correc
correctt the rate of air removal for a particular elevation are
listed in Table 6.1.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Table 6.1. Correction factors of the rate of air removal for elevations above sea level.

Elevation above
< 300 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400
sea level (m)
Felev 1.00 1.04 1.08 1.12 1.16 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.3
(Source: National Greenhouse Manufacturers’ Association, 1993)

The rate of air removal is also dependent upon the light intensity in the greenhouse. As
light intensity increases, the heat input from the sun increases, requiring a greater rate of air
removal from the greenhouse. Hence, the value of light factor (F light) varies directly with the light
intensity. The values of light factors used to adjust the rate of air removal are listed in Table 6.2.
An intensity of 53.8 k lux is accepted as a desirable level for crops in general and is achieved
with a coat of shading compound on the greenhouse covering or with a screen material above the
plants in the greenhouse.

Table 6.2. Correction factors of the rate of air removal for maximum light intensity in the
greenhouse

Light intensity
43.1 48.4 53.8 59.2 64.6 70.0 75.3 80.1 86.1
(k lux)
Flight 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60
(Source: National Greenhouse Manufacturers’ Association)
Solar energy warms the air as it passes from the pad to the exhaust fans. Usually, a 4 oC
rise in temperature is tolerated across the greenhouse. If it becomes important to have uniform
temperature across the greenhouse, it will be necessary to raise the velocity of the air movement
through the greenhouse. To maintain less temperature difference across the greenhouse more air
as to be circulated, hence the temperature factor (Ftemp) increases as the difference in temperature
decreases. The temperature factors used for various possible temperature rises are given in Table
6.3.
Table 6.3. Correction factors of the rate of air removal for a given pad-to-fan temperature rises

Temperature Rise 5.6 5.0 4.4 3.9 3.3 2.8 2.2

Ftemp 0.70 0.78 0.88 1.00 1.17 1.40 1.75
(Source: National Greenhouse Manufacturers’ Association)
The pad and fans should be placed on opposite walls, either end walls or side walls of the
greenhouse and the distance between them is important .These may be the ends walls or the side
walls of the greenhouse. A distance of 30 to 61 m (100 to 200 ft) is the best. The size of the
exhaust fan should be selected to achieve proper temperature difference and good circulation. If
the pad to fan distance is less, then there is less opportunity time for the flowing air to cool the
surroundings. To achieve a given degree of cooling more amount of air is required when pad to
fan distance is less and vice versa. So, the velocity of incoming air to be modified accordingly.
The velocity factors (Fvel) used to compensate for pad to fan distance are listed in Table 6.4
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Table 6.4. Correction factors of the rate of air removal for a given pad -to- fan distances

Pad-to-fan
6.1 7.6 9.1 10.7 12.2 13.7 15.2 16.8 18.3
distance (m)
F vel 2.24 2.00 1.83 1.69 1.58 1.48 1.41 1.35 1.29
Pad-to-fan
19.8 21.3 22.9 24.4 25.9 27.4 29.0 >30.5
distance (m)
Fvel 1.24 1.20 1.16 1.12 1.08 1.05 1.02 1.00
(Source: National Greenhouse Manufacturers’ Association)
The rate of air removal required for a specific greenhouse can be calculated using the
factors given in Table 6.1 through 6.4. Firstly, the rate of air removal required for a greenhouse
is determined under standard conditions (Qstd) using the following equation:

Qstd = L × W × 2.5 …(6.1)

where, L and W represent the greenhouse length and width, respectively. Now the standard rate
of air removal is corrected by multiplying it by the larger of the following two factors: F house or
Fvel is read directly from Table 6.4, whereas Fhouse is calculated from:

Fhouse = Felev × Flight × Ftemp … (6.2)

Thus, the final adjusted (Q adj) capacity of the exhaust fans must be

Qadj = Qstd × (Fhouse or Fvel) … (6.3)

The size and number of exhaust fans must be selected next. The collective capacity of the
fans should be at least equal to the rate of air removal at a required a static water pressure of 30
pa (0.1inch). If slant – wall housing fans are used, which has the fan outside the louvers the fans
should be rated at 15 Pa (0.05 inch) static water pressure. The static pressure value takes into
account the resistance the fans meet in drawing air through the pad and fan itself. Air –delivery
rating for various sized of fans listed in Table 6.5. Fans should not be spaced more than 7.6 m
(25 ft) apart. The required capacity of each fan in this case can be determined by dividing the
Qadj by the number of fans required. These fans are selected for their rated performance levels
from the tables and are evenly spaced along the end of the greenhouse, at plant height if possible,
to guarantee a uniform flow of air through the plants.

The excelsior (wood fibre) pads of 2.5 to 4 cm (1 to 1.5 inch) thick are used. These are
replaced annually and they support an airflow rate of 45 m 3/min/m2. Cross-fluted cellulose pads
come in units of 30 cm (1ft) wide and are 5, 10, 15 or 30 cm (2,4,6 or 12 in) thick. They can last
up to 10 years, and the commonly used 10 cm (4 in) thick pad can accommodate an air intake of
75 m3/min/m2. The total area of pad required is determined by dividing the volume of air that
must be removed from the greenhouse in unit time by the volume of air that can be moved
through the square meter of pad or can directly be obtained from Table 6.5. Water must be
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

delivered to the top of a 10 cm thick pad at the rate of 6.2 l/min/m of pad. The sump volume
should be 30.5 l/m2 for 10 cm thick pad and 40.7 l/m2 for 15 cm thick pad. These sump volumes
are designed for an operating water level at half the depth of the tank and will provide space to
accommodate water returning from the pad when system is turned off. Water should be delivered
to the top of an excelsior pad at the rate of 13.6 l/min/m of pad, regardless of the height of the
pad. Since all water will return to the sump when the system is turned off, a sump capacity of
19 l/m of pad is required.

6.2 Active Winter Cooling Systems

Excess heat can be a problem during the winter. In the winter, the ambient temperature
will be below the desired temperature inside the green house. Owing to the greenhouse effect the
entrapment of solar heat can raise the temperature to an injurious level if the greenhouse is not
ventilated. The actual process in winter cooling is tempering the excessively cold ambient air
before it reaches the plant zone. Otherwise, hot and cold spots in the greenhouse will lead to
uneven crop timing and quality. This mixing of low temperature ambient air with the inside
warm air cools the greenhouse in the winter. Two active winter cooling systems commonly
employed are convection tube cooling and horizontal air flow (HAF) fan cooling systems.
6.2.1 Convection tube cooling
The general components of convection tube are the louvered air inlet, a polyethylene convection
tube with air distribution holes, a pressurizing fan to direct air in to the tube under pressure, and
an exhaust fan to create vacuum. When the air temperature inside the greenhouse exceeds the set
point, the exhaust fan starts functioning thus creating vacuum inside the green house. The louver
of the inlet in the gable is then opened through which cold air enters due to the vacuum. The
pressurizing fan at the end of the clear polyethylene convection tube, operates to pick up the cool
air entering the louver. A proper gap is available for the air entry, as the end of the convection
tube is separated from the louvered inlet by 0.3 to 0.6 m and the other end of the tube is sealed.
Round holes of 5 to 8 cm in diameter are provided in pairs at opposite sides of the tube spaced at
0.5 to 1 m along the length of the tube. In general, the total area of all holes in a single tube
should be 1.5 to 2 times the cross sectional area of the tube.

Fig.6.3. Convection tube cooling Fig.6. 4. Horizontal air flow cooling

 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Cold air under pressure in the convection tube shoots out of holes on either side of the
tube in turbulent jets. In this system, the cold air mixes with the warm greenhouse air well above
the plant height. The cool mixed air, being heavier gently flows down to the floor level, effects
the complete cooling of the plant area. The pressurizing fan forcing the incoming cold air in to
the convection tube must be capable of moving at least the same volume of air as that of the
exhaust fan, thereby avoiding the development of cold spots in the house. When cooling is not
required, the inlet louver closes and the pressurizing fan continues to circulate the air within the
greenhouse. The process minimizes the temperature gradient at difference levels. The circulation
of air using convection tube consumes more power than a circulation system.
6.2.2 Horizontal air flow cooling
Horizontal air flow cooling (HAF) cooling system uses small horizontal fans for moving
the air mass and is considered to be an alternative to convection tube for the air distribution. In
this method the greenhouse may be visualized as a large box containing air and the fans located
strategically moves the air in a circular pattern. This system should move air at 0.6 to 0.9
m3/min/m2 of the greenhouse floor area. Fractional horse power fans of 31 to 62 W (1/30 to 1/15
hp) with a blade diameter of 41cm are sufficient for operation. The fans should be arranged in
such a way that air flows are directed along the length of the greenhouse and parallel to the
ground. The fans are placed at 0.6 to 0.9 m above plant height and at intervals of 15 m. They are
arranged such that the air flow is directed by one row of the fans along the length of the
greenhouse down one side to the opposite end and then back along the other side by another row
of fans (Fig. 6.4.).
Greenhouses of larger widths may require more number of rows of fans along its length.
Temperatures at plant height are more uniform with HAF system than with convection tube
system. The HAF system makes use of the same exhaust fans, inlet louvers and controls as the
convection tube system. The only difference is the use of HAF fans in the place of convection
tubes for the air distribution. Cold air entering through the louvers located at the higher level in
the gables of the greenhouse is drawn by the air circulation created by the net work of HAF fans
and to complete the cycle, proper quantity of air is let out through the exhaust fans. The
combined action of louvered inlet, HAF fans and the exhaust fans distribute the cold air
throughout the greenhouse. Similarly to the convection tubes, the HAF fans can be used to
distribute heat in the greenhouse When neither cooling nor heating is required, the HAF fans or
convection tube can be used to bring warm air down from the upper level of the gable and to
provide uniform temperature in the plant zone. It is possible to integrate summer and winter
cooling systems with heating arrangements inside a greenhouse for the complete temperature
control requirements for certain days of the season.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

6.2.3 Design of active winter cooling system

Under standard conditions, a volume of 0.61 m 3/min of air should be removed from the
greenhouse for each square meter of floor area. The air volume obtained multiplying the floor
area by this value would define the capacity of the exhaust fan. During winter, the outside air
temperature will be less than that is inside the greenhouse. Hence simple mixing of the outside
ambient air by convection tubes does the actual winter cooling, the winter factor (F winter) based
on temperature difference between inside and outside air, will be varying inversely with the
required temperature difference. The compensating factors to be used in active winter cooling are
given in Table 6.6.

Table 6.5. Correction factors of the rate of air removal for a given pad -to- fan distances

Fan size, Horse

Rate of air removal at Pad area per Fan in m2 (ft2)
inches power
30 Pa static pressure, Excelsior 4’’ Excelsior 6’’ Excelsior
m3/min (ft3/min)
0.25 127 (4500) 2.8 (30) 4.5 (48) 1.2 (13)
24 0.33 161 (5700) 3.5 (38) 2.1 (23) 1.5 (16)
0.50 184 (6500) 4.0 (43) 2.4 (26) 1.8 (19)
0.75 215 (7600) 4.7 (51) 2.8 (30) 2.0 (22)
0.33 209 (7400) 4.6 (49) 2.8 (30) 2.0 (22)
30 0.50 249 (8800) 5.5 (59) 3.3 (35) 2.3 (25)
0.75 289 (10200) 6.3 (68) 3.8 (41) 2.7 (29)
0.33 249 (8800) 5.5 (59) 3.3 (35) 2.3 (25)
36 0.50 300 (10600) 6.6 (71) 4.0 (43) 2.9 (31)
0.75 359 (12700) 7.9 (85) 4.7 (51) 3.4 (37)
1.00 402 (14200) 8.8 (95) 5.3 (57) 3.8 (41)
0.50 354 (12500) 7.8 (84) 4.6 (50) 3.3 (36)
42 0.75 425 (15000) 9.3 (100) 5.6 (60) 4.0 (43)
1.00 475 (16800) 10.4 (112) 6.3 (68) 4.5 (48)
0.50 416 (14700) 9.1 (98) 5.5 (59) 3.9 (42)
48 0.75 504 (17800) 11.1 (119) 6.7 (72) 4.7 (51)
1.00 555 (19600) 12.2 (131) 7.2 (78) 5.2 (56)
1.00 648 (22900) 14.2 (153) 8.5 (92) 6.1 (66)
54 1.50 730 (25800) 16.0 (172) 9.7 (104) 6.9 (74)
Source: ACME Engineering and Manufacturing Corporation, Muskogee, OK (1993)

Table 6.6. Correction factors standard rate of air removal in a winter greenhouse cooling system
based on temperature difference

Temperature 10.0 9.4 8.9 8.3 7.8 7.2 6.7 6.1 5.6 5.0
difference (oC)
Fwinter 0.83 0.88 0.94 1.00 1.07 1.15 1.25 1.37 1.50 1.67
(Source: National Greenhouse Manufacturers’ Association
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

As in the case of the summer cooling system, standard conditions also specify an
elevation under 305 m and a maximum interior light intensity of 53.8 k lux. If other elevation or
light intensity specifications are desired, factors must be selected from Tables 6.1 and 6.2 are
used to correct the rate of air entry. Convection tubes are conventionally oriented from the end to
end in the greenhouse. One convection tube placed down the center of the house will cool houses
up to 9.1 to 18.3 m wide are cooled by two tubes placed equidistantly across the greenhouse.
Holes along the tube exist in pairs on the opposite vertical sides. The holes vary in size according
to the volume of greenhouse to be cooled. The number and diameter of tubes needed to cool a
greenhouse can be determined from Table 6.7. If two or more tubes are needed, they should be of
equal size and should be spaced evenly across the greenhouse. Recommendations in Table 6.7
are based on an air flow rate approximately 518 m3/min/m2 of cross sectional area in the tube.
When the greenhouse is large and the required number of 76 cm diameter tubes becomes
cumbersome, tubes may be installed with air inlets in both ends. These inlets double the amount
of cool air that can be brought in through a single tube.

Table 6.7. Number (N) and diameter (D) of air distribution tubes required for winter cooling of
greenhouse of various sizes.

Greenhouse Greenhouse Length

width, m 15 m 30 m 46 m 61 m 76 m
N D, cm N D, cm N D, cm N D, cm N D, cm
4.6 1 46 1 46 1 61 1 76 1 76
6.1 1 46 1 61 1 76 1 76 2 61
7.6 1 46 1 61 1 76 2 61 2 76
9.1 2 46 2 46 2 61 2 76 2 76
10.7 2 46 2 61 2 61 2 76 3 76
12.2 2 46 2 61 2 76 2 76 3 76
15.2 2 46 2 61 2 76 3 76 3 76
(Source: National Greenhouse Manufacturers’ Association)

Note: Tubes run the length of the greenhouse and are spaced equidistantly across the greenhouse.
Tubes derive cold air from a louvered air inlet on one side only.

6.3 Greenhouse Ventilation

Ventilation is the process of allowing the fresh air to enter in to the enclosed area by
driving out the air with undesirable properties. In the greenhouse context, ventilation is essential
for reducing temperature, replenishing CO2 and controlling relative humidity. Ventilation
requirements for green houses vary greatly, depending on the crop grown and the season of
production. The ventilation system can be either a passive system (natural ventilation) or an
active system (forced ventilation) using fans. Usually green houses that are used seasonally
employ natural ventilation only. The plant response to specific environment factor is related to
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

the physiological processes and hence the latter affects the yield and quality. Hence, controlling
of environment is of great importance to realize the complete benefit of CEA. Manual
maintenance of uniform environmental condition inside the greenhouse is very difficult and
cumbersome. A poor maintenance results in less crop production, low quality and low income.
For effective control of automatic control systems like micro processor and computer are used
presently to maintain the environment.
6.3.1 Natural ventilation
In the tropics, the sides of greenhouse structures are often left open for natural
ventilation. Tropical
ical greenhouse is primarily a rain shelter, a cover of polyethylene over the crop
to prevent rainfall from entering the growing area. This mitigates the problem of foliage diseases.
Ventilators were located on both roof slopes adjacent to the ridge and al also
so on both side walls of
the greenhouse. The ventilators on the roof as well as those on the side wall accounts, each about
10% of the total roof area. During winter cooling phase, the south roof ventilator was opened in
stages to meet cooling needs. When greater cooling was required, the north ventilator was
opened in addition to the south ventilator. In summer cooling phase, the south ventilator was
opened first, followed by the north ventilator. As the incoming air moved across the greenhouse,
it was warmed
med by sunlight and by mixing with the warmer greenhouse air. With the increase in
temperature, the incoming air becomes lighter and rises up and flows out through the roof
ventilators.

Fig. 6.5. Natural ventilation system

This sets up a chimney effect (Fig.6.5), ), which in turn draws in more air from the side
ventilators creating a continuous cycle. This system did not adequately cool the greenhouse. On
hot days, the interior walls and floor were frequently injected with water to help cooling.
[Link] Rollll up side passive ventilation in poly houses
houses: In roll up method of ventilation,
allowing the air to flow across the plants. The amount of ventilation on one side, or both sides,
may be easily adjusted in response to temperature, prevailing wind and rain (Fig.6.6).
(Fig. During the
periods of excessive heat, it may be necessary to roll the sides up almost to the top. Passive
ventilation can also be accomplished by manually raising or parting the polyethylene sheet. The
open vent areas must be covered with screen
screenss to prevent virus diseases. The holes must be large
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

enough to permit free flow of air. Screens with small holes block air movement and cause a build
up of dust. Rollup side passive ventilation on plastic greenhouses is only effective on free
standing greenhouses
nhouses and not on gutter connected greenhouses.

Fig.6.6. Roll up side passive ventilation system Fig.6.7. Forced Ventilation

6.3.2 Forced ventilation
In forced or active ventilation, mechanical devices such as fans are used to expel the air.
This type of ventilation can achieve uniform cooling. These include summer fan-and-pad
fan and fog
cooling systems and the winter convection tube and horizontal airflow systems. For mechanical
ventilation, low pressure, medium volume propeller blade fans, both directly connected and belt
driven are used for greenhouse ventilation. They are placed at the end of the greenhouse opposite
to the air intake, which is normally covered by gravity or motorized louvers. The fan’s
fan vents or
louvers, should be motorized, with their action controlled by fan operation. Motorized louvers
prevent the wind from opening the louvers, especially when heat is being supplied to the green
house. Wall vents should be placed continuously across the end of the greenhouse to avoid hot
areas in the crop zone. Evaporative cooling in combination with the fans is called as fan-and-pad
fan
cooling system.
The fans and pads are usually arranged on opposite wa walls
lls of the greenhouse (Fig.6.7).
(Fig.
The common types of cooling pads are made of excelsior (wood fib fibre),
), aluminium
alumin fibre, glass
fibre, plastic fibre and cross-fluted
fluted cellulose material. Evaporative cooling systems are especially
efficient in low humidity environments.
ronments. There is growing interest in building greenhouses
combining both passive (natural) and active (forced) systems of ventilation. Passive ventilation is
utilized as the first stage of cooling, and the fan
fan-pad
pad evaporative cooling takes over when the
passive system is not providing the needed cooling. At this stage, the vents for natural ventilation
are closed. When both options for cooling are designed in greenhouse construction, initial costs
of installation will be more. But the operational costs ar
aree minimized in the long run, since natural
ventilation will, most often meet the needed ventilation requirements. Fogging system is an
alternative to evaporative pad cooling. They depend on absolutely clean water, free f of any
soluble salts, in order to prevent
vent plugging of the mist nozzles. Such cooling systems are not as
common as evaporative cooling pads, but when they become more cost competitive, they will be
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

adopted widely. Fogging systems are the second stage of cooling when passive systems are
inadequate.
6.4 Microprocessors
Dedicated microprocessors can be considered as simple computers. A typical
microprocessor will have a keypad and a two or three line liquid crystal display of, sometimes,
80-character length for programming. They generally do not have a floppy disk drive. They have
more output connections and can control up to 20 devices. With this number of devices, it is
cheaper to use a microprocessor. They can receive signals of several types, such as, temperature,
light intensity, rain and wind speed. They permit integration of the diverse range of devices,
which is not possible with thermostats. The accuracy of the microprocessor for temperature
control is quite good. Unlike a thermostat, which is limited to a bimetallic strip or metallic tube
for temperature sensing and its mechanical displacement for activation, the microprocessor often
uses a thermistor. The bimetallic strip sensor has less reproducibility and a greater range between
the ON and OFF steps. Microprocessors can be made to operate various devices, for instance, a
microprocessor can operate the ventilators based on the information from the sensor for the wind
direction and speed. Similarly a rain sensor can also activate the ventilators to prevent the
moisture sensitive crop from getting wet. A microprocessor can be set to activate the CO 2
generator when the light intensity exceeds a given set point, a minimum level for photosynthesis.
6.5 Computers
Now-a-days, computer control systems are common in greenhouse installation
throughout Europe, Japan and the United States. Computer systems can provide fully integrated
control of temperature, humidity, irrigation and fertilization, CO 2, light and shade levels for
virtually any size growing facility. Precise control over a growing operation enables growers to
realize saving of 15 to 50% in energy, water, chemical and pesticide applications. Computer
controls normally help to achieve greater plant consistency, on-schedule production, higher
overall plant quality and environmental purity.
A computer can control hundreds of devices within a greenhouse (vents, heaters, fans, hot
water mixing valves, irrigation valves, curtains and lights) by utilizing dozens of input
parameters, such as outside and inside temperatures, humidity, outside wind direction and
velocity, CO2 levels and even the time of the day or night. Computer systems receive signals
from all sensors, evaluate all conditions and send appropriate commands every minute to each
piece of equipment in the greenhouse range thus maintaining ideal conditions in each of the
various independent greenhouse zones defined by the grower (Fig.6.8 and 6.9). Computers
collect and record data provided by greenhouse production managers. Such a data acquisition
system will enable the grower to gain a comprehensive knowledge of all factors affecting the
quality and timeliness of the product. A computer produces graphs of past and current
environmental conditions both inside and outside the greenhouse complex. Using a data printout
option, growers can produce reports and summaries of environmental conditions such as
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

temperature, humidity and the CO 2 status for the given day, or over a longer period of time for
current or later use.

[Link] control system in [Link] for control of

greenhouse greenhouse environment
As more environmental factor in the greenhouse is controlled, there comes a stage when
individual controls cannot be coordinated to prevent system overlap. An example is the
greenhouse thermostat calling for heating while the exhaust fans are still running. With proper
software program, which uses the environmental parameters as input from different sensors, can
effectively coordinate all the equipment without overlap and precisely control all parameters
affecting plant development
velopment as desired. Despite the attraction of the computer systems, it should
be remembered that the success of any production system is totally dependent on the grower’s
knowledge of the system and the crop management. Computers can only assist by adding
precision to the overall greenhouse production practice, and they are only as effective as the
software it runs and the efficiency
iency of the operator. The advantages and disadvantages
disa of
computerized control system are as follows:
6.5.1 Advantages
i. The computer always knows what all systems are doing and, if programmed properly,
can coordinate these systems without overlap to provide the optimum environment.
ii. The computer can record the environmental data, which can be displayed to show
current conditions or stored and processed ones to provide a history of the cropping
period, and if desired it may also be displayed in table or graph form.
iii. A high-speed
speed computer with networking facility can control several remotely located
greenhouses, by placing the computer in a central area and the results can be monitored
frequently by the management.
iv. With proper programming and sensing systems, the computer can anticipate weather
changes and d make adjustments in heating and ventilation systems, thus saving the
energy.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

v. The computer can be programmed to sound an alarm if conditions become unacceptable

to and to detect sensor and equipment failure.

6.5.2 Disadvantages
i. High initial cost of investment.
ii. Requires qualified operators.
iii. High maintenance, care and precautions are required.
iv. Not economical for small scale and seasonal production.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Lecture No.: 07
Materials for construction of greenhouses – wood, iron, glass, polyethylene film
The materials commonly used to build frames for greenhouse are i. wood,
ii. bamboo, iii. steel, iv. galvanized iron pipe, v. aluminium and vi. reinforced cement concrete
(RCC). The selection of above materials is based on their specific physical properties,
requirements of design strength, life expectancy, cost of construction materials, etc.
7.1 Wood
Wood and bamboo are generally used for low cost polyhouses. In low cost polyhouses,
the wood is used for making frames consisting of side posts and columns, over which the
polythene sheet is fixed. The commonly used woods are pine and casuarina, which are strong
and less expensive. In pipe-framed polyhouses, wooden battens can be used as end frames for
fixing the covering material. In tropical areas, bamboo is often used to form the gable roof of a
greenhouse structure. Wood must be painted with white colour paint to improve light conditions
within the greenhouse. Care should be taken to select a paint that will prevent the growth of
mould. Wood must be treated for protection against decay. Chromated copper arsenate and
ammonical copper arsenate are water based preservatives that are applied to the wood that may
come into contact with the soil. Red wood or cypress (natural decay resistance woods) can be
used in desert or tropical regions, but they are expensive.
7.2 Galvanised Iron (GI), Aluminium, Steel and Reinforced Cement Concrete
Galvanised iron (GI) pipes, tubular steel and angle iron are generally used for side posts,
columns and purlins in greenhouse structure, as wood is becoming scarce and more expensive. In
galvanising operation, the surface of iron or steel is coated with a thin layer of zinc to protect it
against corrosion. The commonly followed processes to protect against corrosion are:
(i) Hot dip galvanising (hot process) process: The cleaned member is dipped in molten
zinc, which produces a skin of zinc alloy to the steel.
(ii) Electro-galvanising (cold process) process: The cleaned member is zinc plated similar
to other forms of electro-plating
The galvanising process makes the iron rust proof, to eliminate the problem of rusting of
structural members. Aluminum and hot dipped GI are comparatively maintenance free. In
tropical areas, double dipping of steel is required, as single dip galvanising process does not give
a complete cover of even thickness to the steel. Aluminum and steel must be protected by
painting with bitumen tar, to protect these materials from corrosion, while these materials contact
with the ground. Now-a-days, the greenhouse construction is of metal type, which is more
permanent. RCC is generally limited to foundations and low walls. In permanent bigger
greenhouses, floors and benches for growing the crops are made of concrete.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

7.3 Glass
Glass has been traditional glazing material all over the world. Widely used glass for
greenhouse are, i. single drawn or float glass and ii. hammered and tempered glass. Single drawn
or float glass has the uniform thickness of 3 to 4 mm. Hammered and tempered glass has a
thickness of 4 mm. Single drawn glass is made in the traditional way by simply pulling the
molten glass either by hand or by mechanical equipment. Float glass is made in modern way by
allowing the molten glass to float on the molten tin. Coating with metal oxide with a low
emissivity is used for saving of energy with adequate light transmittance. Hammered glass is a
cast glass with one face (exterior) smooth and the other one (interior) rough. It is designed to
enhance light diffusion. This glass is not transparent, but translucent. Tempered glass is the glass,
which is quickly cooled after manufacture, adopting a procedure similar to that used for steel.
This kind of processing gives higher impact resistance to the glass, which is generally caused by
hail. Glass used as a covering material of greenhouses, is expected to be subjected to rather
severe wind loading, snow and hail loading conditions. The strength mainly depends on the
length/width ratio of the panel and on the thickness of the panel, but the most widely used
thickness is 4 mm.
7.4 Polyethylene Film
Polyethylene is principally used today for two reasons - (i) plastic film greenhouses with
permanent metal frames cost less than glass greenhouses and (ii) plastic film greenhouses are
popular because the cost of heating them is approximately 40% lower compared to single-layer
glass or fibreglass-reinforced plastic greenhouses. The disadvantages are: these covering
materials are short lived compared to glass and plastic panels. UV light from the sun causes the
plastic to darken, thereby lowering transmission of light, also making it brittle, which leads to its
breakage due to wind. A thermal screen is installed inside a glass greenhouse that will lower the
heat requirement to approximately that of a double-layer plastic film greenhouse, but this
increases the cost of the glass greenhouse.
Polyethylene film was developed in the late 1930s in England and spread around the
middle of this century. Commonly used plastic for greenhouse coverings are thermoplastics.
Basic characteristics of thermoplastics are: i. it consists of long chain molecules, soften with
heating and harden with cooling and this process is reversible and ii. it constitute a group of
material that are attractive to the designer for two main reasons: (a) they have the specific
physical properties, viz., stiffness, robustness and resilience to resist loads and deformations
imposed during normal use and (b) it can readily be processed using efficient mass production
techniques, which result in low labour charge.
The main reason to use polyethylene year round for greenhouse covering is due to
presence of UV-inhibitor in it. Otherwise it lasts for only one heating season. UV-inhibited
plastic cover may last for a period of up to 5 years. UV-grade polyethylene is available in widths
up to 15.2 m in flat sheets and up to 7.6 m in tubes. Standard lengths include 30.5, 33.5, 45.7, 61
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

and 67 m. Some companies provide custom lengths upto a maximum of 91.5 m. Condensation on
ploythene film is a big problem. Condensation causes disease development, development of
water logged condition and oxygen deficient inside the greenhouse. Condensation reduces light
intensity within the greenhouse. To avoid this problem, anti-fog surfactant, which discourages
condensation, is built into the film or panel. Warm objects, such as plants, the greenhouse frame
and soil radiate infrared (IR) energy to colder bodies at night, which result in loss of heat in
greenhouse. Since polyethylene is a poor barrier to radiant heat, it is formulated with IR-blocking
chemicals into it during manufacture, will stop about half of the radiant heat loss. On cold and
clear nights, as much as 25% of the total heat loss of a greenhouse can be prevented in this way
and on cloudy nights only 15% is prevented. UV-stabilised polyethylene, on an average,
transmits about 87% of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) into the greenhouse. IR
absorbing polyethylene, reduces radiant heat loss, transmits about 82% of photosynthetically
active radiation (PAR) into the greenhouse. The amount of light passing through two layers of a
greenhouse covering is approximately the square of the decimal fraction of the amount passing
through one layer. Eg. When 87% passes through one layer of UV-inhibited polyethylene, only
76% (0.87 x 0.87) passes through two layers. Similarly, when 82% passes through one layer of
IR-absorbing polyethylene, only 67% (0.82 x 0.82) passes through two layers.
7.5 Poly Vinyl Chloride Film (PVC films)
Poly Vinyl Chloride Film (PVC films) are UV light resistant vinyl films of 0.2 to 0.3 mm
and are guaranteed for up to 5 years, respectively. The cost of 0.3 mm vinyl film is three times
that of 0.15 mm polyethylene. Vinyl film is produced in rolls upto 1.27 m wide. Vinyl films tend
to hold a static electrical charge, which attracts and holds dust. This in turn reduces light
transmittance unless the dust is washed off. Vinyl films are seldom used in the United States. In
Japan, 95% of greenhouses are covered with plastic film, out of which 90% are covered with
vinyl film.
7.6 Tefzel T2 Film
The most recent addition of greenhouse film plastic covering is Tefzel T 2 film (ethylene
tetra fluoro ethylene). Earlier, this film was used as covering on solar collectors. Anticipated life
expectancy is 20 years. The light transmission is 95% and is greater than that of any other
greenhouse covering material. A double layer has a light transmission of 90% (0.95 x 0.95).
Tefzel T2 film is more transparent to infrared (IR) radiation than other film plastics. Hence, less
heat is trapped inside the greenhouse during hot weather. As a result, less cooling energy is
required. Disadvantage is that, the film is available only in 1.27 m wide rolls. This requires
clamping rails on the greenhouse for every 1.2 m. If reasonable width strips become available,
the price is not a problem, because a double layer covering will still cost less than a
polycarbonate panel covering with its aluminium extrusions, and will last longer, and will have
much higher light intensity inside the greenhouse.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

7.7 Poly Vinyl Chloride Rigid Panel

Initially, PVC rigid panels showed much promise as an inexpensive covering material
(almost 40% of cost of long lasting fibreglass reinforced plastics), has the life of 5 years. After
commercial application, these panels indicated that the life expectancy was much shorter, less
than 2 years. This is undesirable factor, because the cost of PVC panels was 4 to 5 times that of
polyethylene film and they required much more time to install. Now-a-days, PVC rigid panels
are not in use.
7.8 Fibreglass-Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Rigid Panel
Fibreglass reinforced plastic (FRP) was more popular as a greenhouse covering material
in the recent past. Advantage of FRP is that it is more resistant to breakage by factors, such as
hail or vandals. Sunlight passing through FRP is scattered by the fibres in the panels, as a result
the light intensity is rather uniform throughout the greenhouse in comparison with a glass
covering. Disadvantages with these are the panels subjected to etching and pitting by dust
abrasion and chemical pollution. Based on the grade, the usable life period of FRP panel varies.
Some grades give 5 to 10 years, while better grades can last up to 20 years. FRP panels are
flexible enough to conform to the shape of quonset greenhouses, which make FRP a very
versatile covering material. FRP can be applied to the inexpensive frames of plastic film
greenhouses or to the more elaborate frames of glass type greenhouses. The price of FRP
greenhouse lies between that of a plastic film greenhouse and that of a glass greenhouse. But the
cost is compensated by the elimination of the need for replacement of film plastic in every year
or alternate years. Corrugated panels were used because of their greater strength. Flat panels are
used occasionally for the end and side walls, where the load is not great. It is available in 1.3 m
width, length up to 7.3 m and in a variety of colours. The total quantity of light transmitted
through clear FRP is approximately equivalent to that transmitted through glass, but diminishes
in relation its colour. For greenhouse crops in general, only clear FRP permits a satisfactory level
of light transmission (88 to 90%). Coloured FRP has found a limited use in greenhouses intended
for growing houseplants that require low light intensity and in display greenhouses for holding
plants during the sales period. FRP has advantage over glass is that, it cools easily. FRP
greenhouses require fewer structural members since sash bars are not needed.
7.9 Acrylic and Polycarbonate Rigid Panel
These panels have been available for about 15 years for greenhouse use. The panels have
been used for glazing the side and end walls of plastic film greenhouses and retrofitting old glass
greenhouse. Acrylic panels are highly inflammable, where as polycarbonate panels are non
inflammable. Acrylic panels are popular due to their higher light transmission and longer life.
Acrylic panels are available in thickness of 16 and 18 mm, and have 83% of PAR light
transmission. Acrylic panels cannot be bent, but the thinner panels can be bent to fit curved proof
greenhouses. These panels are also available with a coating to prevent condensation drip.
Polycarbonate panels are preferred for commercial greenhouses due to lower price, flame
resistance and greater resistance to hail damage. Polycarbonate panels are available in thickness
of 4,6, 8, 10 and 16 mm. These panels are also available with a coating to prevent condensation
drip and also with an acrylic coating for extra protection from UV light.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Lecture No. 08.:

Irrigation systems in greenhouses - rules of watering, hand watering, perimeter watering,
overhead sprinklers, boom watering and drip irrigation
8.1 Irrigation Systems in Greenhouses
A well-designed irrigation system will supply the precise amount of water needed each
day throughout the year. The quantity of water needed would depend on the growing area, the
crop, weather conditions, the time of year and whether the heating or ventilation system is
operating. Water needs are also dependent on the type of soil or soil mix and the size and type of
the container or bed. Watering in the greenhouse most frequently accounts for loss in crop
quality. Though the operation appears to be the simple, proper decision should be taken on how,
when and what quantity to be given to the plants after continuous inspection and assessment.
Since under watering (less frequent) and over watering (more frequent) will be injurious to the
crops, the rules of watering should be strictly adhered to. Several irrigation water application
systems, such as hand writing, perimeter watering, overhead sprinklers, boom watering and drip
irrigation, over sprinklers, boom watering and drip irrigation which are currently in use.
8.2 Rules of Watering
The following are the important rules of application of irrigation.
Rule 1: Use a well drained substrate with good structure
If the root substrate is not well drained and aerated, proper watering cannot be achieved.
Hence substrates with ample moisture retention along with good aeration are indispensable for
proper growth of the plants. The desired combination of coarse texture and highly stable
structure can be obtained from the formulated substrates and not from field soil alone.
Rule 2: Water thoroughly each time
Partial watering of the substrates should be avoided; the supplied water should flow from
the bottom in case of containers, and the root zone is wetted thoroughly in case of beds. As a
rule, 10 to 15% excess of water is supplied. In general, the water requirement for soil based
substrates is at a rate of 20 l/m2 of bench, 0.3 to 0.35 litres per 16.5 cm diameter pot.
Rule 3: Water just before initial moisture stress occurs
Since over watering reduces the aeration and root development, water should be applied
just before the plant enters the early symptoms of water stress. The foliar symptoms, such as
texture, colour and turbidity can be used to determine the moisture stress, but vary with crops.
For crops that do not show any symptoms, colour, feel and weight of the substrates are used for
assessment.
8.3 Hand Watering
The most traditional method of irrigation is hand watering and in present days is
uneconomical. Growers can afford hand watering only where a crop is still at a high density,
such as in seed beds, or when they are watered at a few selected pots or areas that have dried
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

sooner than others. In all cases, the labour saved will pay for the automatic system in less than
one year. It soon will become apparent that this cost is too high. In addition to this deterrent to
hand watering, there is great risk of applying too little water or of waiting too long between
watering. Hand watering requires considerable time and is very bboring. oring. It is usually performed
by inexperienced employees, who may be tempted to speed up the job or put it off to another
time. Automatic watering is rapid and easy and is performed by the grower itself. Where hand
watering is practiced, a water breaker sshould
hould be used on the end of the hose. Such a device
breaks the force of the water, permitting a higher flow rate without washing the root substrate out
of the bench or pot. It also lessens the risk of disrupting the structure of the substrate surface.
8.4 Perimeter Watering
Perimeter watering system can be used for crop production in benches or beds (Fig.8.1).
A typical system consists of a plastic pipe around the perimeter of a bench with nozzles that
spray water over the substrate surface below the folia
foliage.
ge. Either polythene or PVC pipe can be
used. While PVC pipe has the advantage of being very stationery, polythene pipe tends to roll if
it is not anchored firmly to the side of the bench. This causes nozzles to rise or fall from proper
orientation to the substrate surface. Nozzles are made of nylon or a hard plastic and are available
to put out a spray are of 180°, 90° or 45°. Regardless of the types of nozzles used, they are
staggered across the benches so that each nozzle projects out between two other nozzles
n on the
opposite side. Perimeter watering systems with 180° nozzles require one water valve for benches
up to 30.5 m in length.

Fig. 8.1 Perimeter Watering Fig. 8.2 Overhead Sprinklers

8.5 Overhead Sprinklers
While the foliage on the majority of crops should be kept dry for disease control
purposes, a few crops do tolerate wet foliage. These few crops can most easily and cheaply be
irrigated from overhead. Bedding plants, azalea liners, and some green plants are ar crops
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

commonly watered from overhead. A pipe is installed along the middle of a bed. Riser pipes are
installed periodically to a height well above the final height of the crop (Fig.8.2). A total height
of 0.6 m is sufficient for bedding plants flats and 1.8 m for fresh flowers. A nozzle is installed at
the top of each riser. Nozzles vary from those that throw a 360° pattern continuously to types
that rotate around a 360° circle. Trays are sometimes placed under pots to collect water that
would otherwise fall on the ground between pots and wasted. Each tray is square and meets the
adjacent tray. In this way nearly all water is intercepted. Each tray has a depression to
accommodate the pot and is then angled upward from the pot toward the tray perimeter. The
trays also have drain holes, which allow drainage of excess water and store certain quantity,
which is subsequently absorbed by the substrate.
8.6 Boom Watering
Boom watering can function either as open or a closed system, and is used often for the
production of seedlings grown in plug trays. Plug trays are plastic trays that have width and
length dimensions of approximately 30 × 61 cm, a depth of 13 to 38 mm, and contain about 100
to 800 cells. Each seedling is grown in its own individual cell. Precision of watering is extremely
important during the 2 to 8 week production time of plug seedlings. A boom watering system
generally consists of a water pipe boom that extends from one side of a greenhouse bay to the
other. The pipe is fitted with nozzles that can spray either water or fertilizer solution down onto
the crop. The boom is attached at its center point to a carriage that rides along rails, often
suspended above the centre walk of the greenhouse bay. In this way, the boom can pass from one
end of the bay to the other. The boom is propelled by an electric motor. The quantity of water
delivered per unit area of plants is adjusted by the speed at which the boom travels.
8.7 Drip Irrigation
Drip irrigation, often referred to as trickle irrigation, consists of laying plastic tubes of
small diameter on the surface or subsurface of the field or greenhouse beside or beneath the
plants. Water is delivered to the plants at frequent intervals through small holes or emitters
located along the tube (Fig.8.3). Drip irrigation systems are commonly used in combination with
protected agriculture, as an integral and essential part of the comprehensive design. When using
plastic mulches, row covers, or greenhouses, drip irrigation is the only means of applying
uniform water and fertilizer to the plants. Drip irrigation provides maximum control over
environment variability; it assures optimum production with minimal use of water, while
conserving soil and fertilizer nutrients; and controls water, fertilizer, labour and machinery costs.
Drip irrigation is the best means of water conservation. In general, the application
efficiency is 90 to 95%, compared with sprinkler at 70% and furrow irrigation at 60 to 80%,
depending on soil type, level of field and how water is applied to the furrows. Drip irrigation is
not only recommended for protected agriculture but also for open field crop production,
especially in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. One of the disadvantages of drip irrigation
is the initial cost of equipment per acre, which may be higher than other systems of irrigation.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Fig.8.3. Drip irrigation system

However, these costs must be evaluated through comparison with the expense ex of land
preparation and maintenance often required by surface irrigation. Basic equipment for irrigation
consists of a pump, a main line, delivery pipes, manifold, and drip tape laterals or emitters as
shown in figure. The head, between the pump and the pipeline network, usually consists of
control valves, couplings, filters, time clocks, fertilizer injectors, pressure regulators, flow
meters, and gauges. Since the water passes through very small outlets in emitters, it is an
absolute necessity that itt should be screened, filtered, or both, before it is distributed in the pipe
system. The initial field positioning and layout of a drip system is influenced by the topography
of the land and the cost of various system configurations.
8.8 Misters and Foggers
Fogging system is fairly effective and uniform method of greenhouse cooling that
provides a reasonable increase in relative humidity inside greenhouse. Foggers are connected to
lateral with micro-tube
tube and it is hanging over iron wire iin
n greenhouse (3 m above). Misters are
attached to stakes in beds. Foggers and misters spray about 70 micron size of water in air and
evaporated before falling onto the crop canopy. Foggers and misters are equipped with an
anti-leak
leak devices which does not aallow
llow flow of water droplets to fall down after the system is
switched off. They have small discharge rate with small area coverage. The operating pressure of
fogger and mister varies from 3 to 5 kg/cm 2. Generally the time of operation of foggers and
misterss are 30 to 60 second, three or four times in an hour at specific time interval.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Lecture No. 10.

Typical applications of greenhouses – passive solar greenhouse, hot air greenhouse heating
system and greenhouse drying – cost estimation and economic analysis.
The northern parts of our country experience cold winters, where heating system need to
be employed in the greenhouses along with cooling systems for summer. Whereas the southern
region greenhouses need only cooling systems since the winter cold effect is not that severe.
Greenhouse heating is required in cold weather conditions, if the entrapped heat is not sufficient
during the nights. The heat is always lost from the greenhouse when the surroundings are
relatively cooler. Heat must be supplied to a greenhouse at the same rate with which it is lost in
order to maintain a desired temperature: Heat losses can occur in three different modes of heat
transfer, namely conduction, convection, and radiation. Maintenance of desired higher
temperature, compared with the surroundings needs heating systems and heat distribution
systems. For the purpose of greenhouse heating, apart from conventional systems, solar energy
can also be used and the heat can be stored using water and rock storage. Different heat
conservation practices are available to effectively utilize the heat energy of greenhouse heating,
apart from conventional systems, solar energy can also be used and the heat can be stored using
water and rock storage. Different heat conservation practices are available to effectively utilize
the heat energy.
10.1 Modes of Heat Loss
The heating systems, in a continuous process, should supply the heat just enough to
compensate which is lost. Most heat is lost by conduction through the covering materials of the
greenhouse. Different materials, such as aluminium sash bars, glass polyethylene, and cement
partition walls, vary in conduction according to the rate at which each conducts heat from the
warm interior to the colder exterior. A good conductor of heat looses more heat in a shorter time
than a bad conductor and vice versa. There are only limited ways of insulating the covering
material without blocking the light transmission. A dead air space between two coverings
appears to be the best system. A saving of 40% of the heat requirement can be achieved when a
second covering is applied. For example greenhouse covered with one layer of polyethylene
looses, 6.8 W of heat through each square meter of covering every hour when the outside
temperature is 1C lower than the inside. When second layer of polyethylene is added, only 3.97
W/m2 is lost (40% reduction).
A second mode of heat loss is that of convection (air infiltration). Spaces between panes
of glass or FRP and ventilators and doors permit the passage of warm air outward and cold air
inward. A general assumption holds that the volume of air held in a greenhouse can be lost as
often as once very 60 minutes in a double layer film plastic or polycarbonate panel greenhouse,
every 40 minutes in a FROP or a new glass greenhouse every 30 minutes in an old well
maintained glass greenhouse, and every 15 minutes in an old poorly maintained glass
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

greenhouse. About 10% of total heat loss from a structurally tight glass greenhouse occurs
through infiltration loss.
A third mode of heat loss from a greenhouse is that of radiation. Warm objects emit
radiant energy, which passes through air to colder objects without warming the air significantly.
The colder objects become warmer. Glass, vinyl plastic, FRP, and water are relatively opaque to
radiant energy, whereas polyethylene is not. Polyethylene, greenhouses can lose considerable
amounts of heat through radiation to colder objects outside, unless a film of moisture forms on
the polyethylene to provide a barrier.
10.2 Heating Systems
The heating system must provide heat to the greenhouse at the same rate at which it is
lost by conduction, infiltration, and radiation. There are three popular types of heating systems
for greenhouses. The most common and least expensive is the unit heater system. In this system,
warm air is blown from unit heaters that have self contained fireboxes. These heaters consist of
three functional parts. Fuel is combusted in a firebox to provide heat. The heat is initially
contained in the exhaust, which rises through the inside of a set of thin walled metal tubes on it
way to the exhaust stack. The warm exhaust transfers heat to the cooler metal walls of the tubes.
Much of the heat is removed from the exhaust by the time it reaches the stack through
which it leaves the greenhouse. A fan in the back of the unit heater draws in greenhouse air,
passing it over the exterior side of the tubes and then out from the heater to the greenhouse
environment again. The cool air passing over hot metal tubes is warmed and the air is circulated.
A second type of system is central heating system, which consists of a central boiler than
produces steam or hot water, plus a radiating mechanism in the greenhouse to dissipate the heat.
A central heating system can be more efficient than unit heaters, especially in large greenhouse
ranges. In this system, two or more large boilers are in a single location. Heat is transported in
the form of hot water or steam through pipe mains to be growing area, and several arrangements
of heating pipes in greenhouse is possible (Fig.10.1). The heat is exchanged from the hot water
in a pipe coil located across the greenhouse or an in-bed pipe coil located in the plant zone. Some
greenhouses have a third pipe coil embedded in a concrete floor. A set of unit heaters can be
used in the place of the overhead pipe coil, obtaining heat from hot water or steam from the
central boiler.
The third type of system is radiation heating system. In this system, gas is burned within
pipes suspended overhead in the greenhouse. The warm pipes supply heat to the plants. Low
intensity infrared radiant heaters can save 30% or more, of fuel compared to conventional
heaters. Several of these heaters are installed in tandem in the greenhouse. Lower air
temperatures are possible since only the plants and root substrate are heated directly by this
mode of heating.
The fourth possible type of system is the solar heating system, but it is still too expensive
to be a viable option. Solar heating systems are found in hobby greenhouses and small
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

commercial firms. Both water and rock energy storage systems are used in combination with
solar energy. The high cost of solar heating systems discourages any significant use by the
greenhouse industries.
10.2.1 Heat distribution systems
Heat is distributed from the unit heaters by one of two common methods. In the
convection tube method, warm air from unit heaters are distributed through a transparent
polyethylene tube running through the length of the greenhouse. Heat escapes from the tube
through holes on either side of the tube in small jet streams, which rapidly mix with the
surrounding air and set up a circulation pattern to minimize temperature gradients.
The second method of heat distribution is horizontal airflow. In this system, the
greenhouse may be visualized as a large box containing air, and it uses small horizontal fans for
moving the air mass. The fans are located above plant height and are spaced about 15 m (50 ft)
apart in two rows. Their arrangement is tha, the heat originating at one corner of the greenhouse
is directed from one side of the greenhouse to the opposite end and then back along the other side
of the greenhouse. Proper arrangement of fans is necessary for effective distribution in horizontal
airflow system for various greenhouse sizes. Both of these distribution systems can also be used
for general circulation of air and for introducing cold outside air during winter cooling.
10.2.2 Solar heating system
Solar heating is often used as a partial or total alternative to fossil fuel heating systems.
Few solar heating systems exist in greenhouses today. The general components of solar heating
system (Fig.10.1) are collector, heat storage facility, exchange to transfer the solar derived heat
to the greenhouse air, backup heater to take over when solar heating does not suffice and set of
controls.
Various solar heat collectors are in existence, but the flat plate collector has received
greatest attention. This consists of a flat black plate (rigid plastic, film plastic, sheet metal, or
board) for absorbing solar energy. The plate is covered on the sun side by two or more
transparent glass or plastic layers and on the backside by insulation. The enclosing layers serve
to hold the collected heat within the collector. Water or air is passed through the copper tubes
placed over the black plate and absorb the entrapped heat and carry it to the storage facility. A
greenhouse itself can be considered as a solar collector. Some of its collected heat is stored in the
soil, plants, greenhouse frame, floor, and so on. The remaining heat is excessive for plant growth
and is therefore vented to the outside. The excess vented heat could just as well be directed to a
rock bed for storage and subsequent use during a period of heating. Collection of heat by flat-
plate collection is most efficient when the collector is positioned perpendicular to the sun at solar
noon. Based on the locations, the heat derived can provide 20 to 50% of the heat requirement.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Fig.10.1. Solar heating system for Fig. 10.2. Rock heating storage system for
greenhouse greenhouse
10.3 Water and Rock Storage
Water and rocks are the two most common materials for the storage of heat in the
greenhouse. One kg of water can hold 4.23 kJ of heat for each 1C rise in temperature. Rocks
can store about 0.83 kJ for each 1C. To store equivalent amounts of heat, a rock bed would have
to be three times as large as a water tank. A water storage system is well adapted to a water
collector and a greenhouse heating system which consists of a pipe coil or a unit heater which
contains a water coil. Heated water from the collector is pumped to the storage tank during the
day. As and when heat is required, warm water is pumped form the storage tank to a hot water or
steam boiler or into the hot water coil within a unit heater. Although the solar heated water will
be cooler than the thermostat setting on the boiler, heat can be saved, since the temperature of
this water need be raised as high as to reach the output temperature of water or steam from the
boiler. A temperature rise of 17C above the ambient condition is expected during the daytime in
solar storage units. Each kilogram of water can supply 71.1 kJ of heat, and each kilogram of rock
can supply 14.2 kJ of heat, as it cools by 17C. A rock storage bed can be used with an air
collector and forced air heating system. In this case, heated air form the collector, along with air
excessively heated inside the greenhouse during the day, is forced through a bed of rocks
(Fig.10.2). The rocks absorb much of the heat. The rock bed may be located beneath the floor of
the greenhouse or outside the greenhouse, and it should be well insulated against heat loss.
During the night, when heat is required in the greenhouse, cool air from inside the greenhouse is
forced through the rocks, where it is warmed and the passed back into the greenhouse. A clear
polyethylene tube with holes along either side serves well to distribute the warm air uniformly
along the length of the greenhouse. Conventional convection tubes can be used for distributing
solar heated air. The water or rock storage unit occupies a large amount of space and a
considerable amount of insulation is provided if the unit is placed outside.
Placing it inside the greenhouse offers an advantage in that escaping heat is beneficial
during heating periods, but it is detrimental when heating is not required. Rock beds can pose a
problem in that they must remain relatively dry. Water evaporating from these beds will remove
considerable heat.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

10.4 Economics of Greenhouse Production

Regardless of the type, protected agricultural systems are extremely expensive. The
equipment and production cost may be more than compensated by the significantly higher
productivity of protected agricultural systems as compared with open field agriculture. The cost
and returns of protected agriculture vary greatly, depending on the system used, the location and
the crop grown. By design, all protected agricultural systems of cropping are intensive in use of
land, labour, and capital. Greenhouse agriculture is the most intensive system of all. The
intensity of land use is greatly dependent upon the system of protected agriculture. Year-round
greenhouse crop production is therefore much more intensive than seasonal use of mulches and
row covers. Coinciding with intensity are yields, which are normally far greater per ha from year
round than from seasonal systems. The normal benefit of higher yields of CEA over the open
field agriculture depends on the system used and the region of production.
10.5 Capital requirements
The capital requirements differ greatly among the various systems of protected
agriculture. Mulching is least expensive while greenhouses require the most capital per unit of
land. Total cost involved in the production is the sum of fixed cost and operating cost (Fig.10.3 ).
The fixed capital costs include land, fixed and mobile equipment, and structures like grading,
packing and office. Fixed costs also include taxes and maintenance. The fixed capital costs for
greenhouses clearly exceed those of other systems of protected agriculture, but vary in expense
according to type of structure, and environmental control and growing systems. Operating costs
include labour, fuel, utilities, farm chemicals and packaging materials. The operating or variable
costs and fixed costs are annual expenditures and these can be substantial. Annual costs may
correlate to some extent with capital investment. The flow diagram of capital requirements of
production is shown in figure.
In estimating the capital requirements, the farmer must include the cost of the entire
system as well as the mulch. While greenhouse production systems may be far more expensive
than open field systems of equal land area, open field systems of protected agriculture are
normally more expensive in field area than in greenhouse production. Greenhouses are
expensive, especially if the environment is controlled by the use of heaters, fan and pad cooling
systems and computer controls.
10.6 Economics of Production
Production economics considers the various components of fixed and variable costs,
compares them with the income and evaluates the net return, on unit area basis. On an average
basis, wages account for approximately 85% of the total variable cost. Wages are the greatest
expenditure in greenhouse production, followed by amortization costs and then energy costs, and
energy expenditure, when heating is necessary. About two-fifths of the expenses are fixed costs
and about three-fifths are variable costs. Depreciation and interest on investment accounts for
most of the fixed costs.
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10.6.1 Conditions influencing returns

A number of variables which may not show up in the yearly financial balance sheet
influence the returns to greenhouse operators, such as economics of scale, physical facilities,
cropping patterns and government incentives. The size of any system of protected agriculture
will depend on the market objectives of the farmer. Most protected agricultural endeavours are
family operated. Often the products are retailed directly to the consumer through a road side
market at the farm site. In the developed world, greenhouse operations tend to be a size that can
be operated by one family (0.4 to 0.8 ha). A unit of 0.4 ha can be operated by two or three
labourers, with additional help at periods of peak activity. The labour wages can usually be
provided by the owner and his family. Moreover, the owner will pay close attention to
management, which is the most important factor. Labour costs may rise significantly if it is
necessary to recruit labour from outside the family. Greenhouse owners who hire a highly
qualified manager may have to operate a larger greenhouse than family size greenhouses in order
to offset the additional salary paid.
The greenhouse system economy can be improved with increased size when:
i. There is a unique opportunity to mechanize certain operations.
ii. Labour can be more efficiently utilized.
iii. Low cost capital is available.
iv. There are economics in the purchase of packaging materials and in
marketing.
v. Some special management skills are available.
The physical facilities and location of the greenhouse influence the economics. Another
variable that influence the profits from the greenhouse is intensity of production, which is
determined by the structures with complete environmental control system facilities year round
production and early harvest, thus enabling the grower to realize higher profits. Year –round
production offers year round employment to the labourers. It is found that the environmentally
controlled greenhouse produced only one- third more revenue than high tunnel structure. With
the improved transportation facilities, the new areas of production in combination with the
following factors contribute to the lower costs.
i. High sun light intensity undiminished by air pollution.
ii. Mild winter temperatures.
iii. Infrequent violent weather conditions.
iv. Low humidity during the summer for cooling.
v. Availability of water with low salinity levels.
Cropping pattern will have bearing on the greenhouse structure. A high –tunnel structure
or any structure not fitted with environmental controlled equipment for heating and cooling will
be used only on a seasonal basis. It is common to switch over from greenhouse vegetable
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

production to flower production, especially in structures with more elaborate environmental

control systems.
Growers throughout the world are currently experimenting with alternative crops, such as
herbs. As eating habits change, with times and as the consumers are becoming increasingly
conscious of diet and the nutritional value of fruits and vegetables, growers must continually
look for alternative to existing cropping patterns. Government policies also influence the
financial returns from the crops. Government may provide grants or low interest loans, subsidies
towards construction costs, fuels, and use of plastics, such as drip irrigation systems, mulches,
row covers and covering materials. Such incentives from the Government encourage the growers
and stimulate the greenhouse industry.
10.7 Utilization of Greenhouse during Off-Season
Drying is traditional method for preserving the food. It also helps in easy transport since
the dried food becomes lighter because of moisture evaporation. Drying of seed prevents
germination and growth of fungi and bacteria. The traditional practice of drying agricultural
produce in the developing countries is sun drying, which is seasonal, intermittent, slow, and
unhygienic. To overcome the problems of sun drying, mechanical drying is introduced with the
following advantages: (i) fast drying, (ii) large volumes of produce can be handled (iii) drying
parameters can be controlled and quality of the produce can be maintained. The energy demand
of conventional mechanical dryers is met by electricity, fossil fuels, and firewood is becoming
scarce. Solar energy can be an alternative source for drying of food and solar dryers are
employed for the purpose. The use of the greenhouse as a dryer is the latest development. The
drying capabilities of the greenhouse can be utilized for curing tobacco leaves, while guarding
the harvest from rain damage.
10.7.1 Drying of agricultural produce
In an efficiently managed greenhouse CEA, there will not be any time gap between crops.
However, for some other management reasons, if crops are not grown in a particular period, the
greenhouse can be utilized as a solar dryer. A small amount of 15 to 30% of the incoming solar
radiation is reflected back from the surface of the greenhouse, with the remainder is transmitted
into the interior. Most of this transmitted radiation is absorbed by plants, soil and other internal
surfaces, the rest being reflected. The usage of greenhouse for the purpose of the drying is of
recent origin. They were successful in advocating the year round utilization of the greenhouse
facility and thus reducing the operation cost per unit output. In general, the produce is spread as
thin layers in trays covering the greenhouse area.
The trays can be fabricated with sheet metal and wire mesh. Trays should be arranged
horizontally on existing growing benches or frames. For better operation, proper ventilation
should be provided by either forced or natural ventilation, to remove the moisture liberating from
the produce and to control the air temperature inside the greenhouse. The natural ventilation can
be enhanced by using a black LDPE chimney connected to the greenhouse.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

10.7.2 Curing of tobacco

Tobacco is an important foreign exchange earning commercial crop of India, which
provides employment opportunities to lakhs of people. Curing of tobacco is a delicate and vital
process in producing good quality leaves. Tobacco curing essentially refers to drying of the
harvested fresh tobacco leaves under controlled temperature, humidity and ventilation in order
to initiate the essential bio-chemical processes. The success of curing also depends on the
condition of the harvested leaves and their degree of maturity. The usual curing methods are flue,
air, pit, fire and sun curing. The open field sun curing is the cheapest method of curing. The
drying capabilities of greenhouse can be successfully utilized for curing the tobacco. Different
stages of tobacco curing require specific environmental conditions for the best product, which
can be maintained easily in a greenhouse. The harvested tobacco leaves are made into bunches of
few leaves by knots and arranged serially to form a string with free ends left for fixing it.
Scaffoldings should be erected inside the greenhouse and the string of leaves is tied to them, for
the tobacco curing process. To increase the capacity, the strings are tied with judicious gap
between them and also put in tiers. As curing progresses, the leaves loose moisture and the string
will become lighter and the initial sag in the strings can be corrected. For maintaining uniform
product quality, the strings can be cycled among the tiers in a specified sequence. Humidity and
temperature control by proper ventilation and frequent inspection is important in tobacco curing
operations.
10.7.3 Greenhouse dryer
The thought of a greenhouse dryer is to combine the function of the solar collector with a
greenhouse system. The roof and wall of this solar dryer can be made of transparent materials
such as glass, fibre glass, UV stabilized plastic or polycarbonate sheets. The transparent
materials are fixed on a steel frame support or pillars with bolts and nuts and sealing to prevent
humid air or rain water leaking into the chamber other than those introduced from the inlet
opening. To increase solar radiation absorption, black surfaces should be provided within the
structure. Inlet and exhaust fans are placed at proper position within the structure to guarantee
even distribution of the drying air. If designed properly, greenhouse dryers can allow a greater
degree of control over the drying process than the cabinet dryers and they will be more
appropriate for large scale drying. A natural convection greenhouse dryer consisted of two
parallel rows of drying platforms (along the long side) of galvanized iron wire mesh surface laid
over wooden beams. A fixed inclined glass roof over the platform allowed solar radiation over
the product. The dryer, aligned lengthwise in the north-south axis, had black coated internal
walls for improved absorption of solar radiation. A ridge cap made of folded zinc sheet over the
roof provides an air exit vent. Shutters at the outer sides of the platforms regulated the air inlet. A
simplified design of the typical greenhouse-type natural circulation solar dryer consists of a
transparent semi-cylindrical drying chamber with an attached cylindrical chimney, rising
vertically out of one end, while the other end is equipped with a door for air inlet and access to
the drying chamber. The chimney (designed to allow for a varying height) has a maximum
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

possible height of 3.0 m above the chamber and a diameter of 1.64 m. The drying chamber was a
modified and augmented version of a commercially
commercially-available
available poly tunnel type greenhouse.

Fig.10.3. Total cost of production

The dryer operates by the action of solar-energy
energy striking directly on the product within
the dryer. The product and a vertically
vertically-hung,
hung, black absorbing curtain within the chimney absorb
the solar radiation and are heated which, in turn, heats surrounding air. As this heated air rises
and flows
lows up the chimney to the outside of the dryer, fresh replenishing air is drawn in from the
other end of the dryer. Apart from the obvious advantages of passive solar
solar-energy
energy dryers over the
active types (for applications in rural farm locations in develop
developing
ing countries), the advantages of
the natural circulation solar-energy
energy ventilated greenhouse dryer over other passive solar-energy
solar
dryer designs include its low cost and its simplicity in both on on-the-site
site construction and
operation. Its major drawback is iits
ts susceptibility to damage under high wind speeds.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Fig.10.4. Greenhouse dryer

10.8 Types of Solar Dryers
10.8.1. Tent dryer
Tent solar dryers are cheap and simple to build and consist of a frame of wood poles
covered with plastic sheet. Black plastic should be used on the wall facing away from the sun.
The product to be dried is placed on a support above the ground. It takes same amount of time
for drying of products as in open air drying. The main purpose of the dryers is to provide
protection from dust,
st, dirt, rain, wind or predators and they are usually used for fruit, fish, coffee
or other products for which wastage is otherwise high. Tent dryers can also be taken down and
stored when not in use. They have the disadvantage of being easily damaged by strong winds.

Fig.10.9. Solar cabinet dryer

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10.8.2. Box dryer

The box-type solar dryer has been widely used for small scale food drying. It consists of
a wooden box with an attached transparent lid. The inside surface is painted black and the
product is supported on a mesh tray above the dryer floor. Air flows into the chamber through
holes in the front and exits from vent holes at the top of the back wall.
10.8.3. Solar cabinet dryer
The cabinet is a large wooden or metal box and the product is located in trays or shelves
inside a drying cabinet. If the chamber is transparent, the dryer is named as integral-type or direct
solar dryer. If the chamber is opaque, the dryer is named as Distributed type or indirect solar
dryer. Mixed-mode dryers combine the features of the integral (direct) type and the distributed
(indirect) type solar dryers. The combined action of solar radiation incident directly on the
product to be dried and hot air provides the necessary heat required for the drying process. In
most cases, the air is warmed during its flow through a low pressure drop solar collector and
passes through air ducts into the drying chamber and over drying trays containing the crops. The
moist air is then discharged through air vents or a chimney at the top of the chamber. It should be
insulated properly to minimise heat losses and made durable (within economically justifiable
limits). Construction from metal sheets or water resistant cladding, e.g. paint or resin, is
recommended. Heated air flows through the stack of trays until the entire product is dry. As the
hot air enters through the bottom tray, this tray will dry first. The last tray to dry is the one at the
top of the chamber.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Lecture No. 11

Physical properties – size – shape – sphericity - density - specific gravity, aero-

hydrodynamic properties – terminal velocity- drag coefficient

Engineering properties are the properties which are useful and necessary in the design
and operation of equipment employed in the field of agricultural processing. They are also useful
for design and development of other farm machinery. As mentioned earlier unit operations such
as cleaning, grading, drying, dehydration, storage, milling, handling and transportation, thermal
processing of foods are among the important operations in agricultural processing. In these
operations while handling of grains and other commodities the properties which play important
role are physical, mechanical, frictional, rheological, aero and hydrodynamic, electrical and
optical properties of the bio materials. Basic information on these properties is of great
importance and help for the engineers, food scientists and processors towards efficient process
and equipment development. An attempt has been made to describe some of the engineering
properties usually encountered in post production handling of agricultural crops.
11.1 Physical Properties
The physical properties such as size, shape, surface area, volume, density, porosity,
colour and appearance are important in designing particular equipment or determining the
behaviour of the product for its handling. Various types of cleaning grading and separation
equipment are designed on the basis of physical properties of seeds such as size, shape, specific
gravity, surface roughness, colour etc. For designing an air screen grain cleaner, the shape and
size of the grain determine the shape and size of screen openings, angle of inclination and
vibration amplitude and frequency of screens.
The density of the grains decides the size of screening surface. The frontal area and
related diameters and density are essential for determination of terminal velocity of the grain.
Terminal velocity is necessary to decide about the winnowing velocity of air blast for separation
of lighter materials in air screen grain cleaners. The shape of product is an important parameter
which affects conveying characteristics of solid materials by air or water. The shape is also
considered in calculation of various cooling and heating loads of food materials.
The frontal area and the related diameters are essential for determination of terminal
velocity Reynold’s number and drag coefficient. The density and specific gravity are needed for
calculating the thermal diffusivity in heart transfer operations, in determining Reynold’s number,
in pneumatic and hydraulic handling of the agricultural materials. The surface characteristics,
colour and appearance are exploited for selective separation and storage of fruits and vegetables.
Some of the important physical properties are described below.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

11.1.1 Shape and size

The following parameters may be measured for describing the shape and size of the granular
agricultural materials.

(i) Roundness: It is a measure of the sharpness of the solid material. The most widely accepted
methods for determining the roundness of irregular particle are given below.

(ii) Sphericity: Sphericity may be defined as the ratio of the diameter of a sphere of the same
volume as that of the particle and the diameter of the smallest circumscribing sphere or generally
the largest diameter of the particle. Th
This
is parameter shows the shape character of the particle
relative to the sphere having same volume. If De is the diameter of a sphere having same volume
as that of the particle and Dc is the diameter of the smallest circumscribing sphere, then the
sphericity can be expressed as under.
De
Sphericity =
Dc
The spericity can also be defined as:
Di
Sphericity =
Dc
where ,
Di = diameter of the largest inscribing circle.
Dc = diameter of the smallest circumscribing circle
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Shape: Shape is an important property to specify the geometry of the crop. They are important
for the design of packaging system and sieve for grading/ separation. Following are some of the
important shapes and examples.
Table.11.1. Important shapes of agricultural crops and examples.

Shape Description Example

Round Approaching spheroid like. eg. Lemon, apple etc.
Oblate Flattened at stem end apex eg. Pomegranate, pumpkin
Oblong Vertical diameter greater than the horizontal eg. Ashguard.
diameter.
Conic Tapered towards the apex. eg. radish, carrot.
Ovate Egg shaped and broad at the stem end. eg. Mango, brinjal etc.
Obovate Inverted ovate. eg. Cashew fruit
Elliptical Approaching ellipsoid. eg. Guava etc.
Truncate Having both ends flattened and squared. eg. Apple, orange etc.
Unequal One half portion larger than the another half
portion.
Ribbed In cross-section, sides are more or less eg. Bitter gourd, ribbed
angular. gourd.
Regular Horizontal section approaches to a circle. eg. Grapes etc.
Irregular Horizontal cross-section departs from a
circle.

11.1.2 Density and specific gravity

The density of any material may be expressed as below,
Weight of the material, kg
Density =
Volume of the material, m3

The density and specific gravity values of grains and other commodities and silos,
separation of desirable materials from impurities, cleaning and grading, evaluation of the grain
maturity, texture and softness of fruits, quality evaluation of the products etc. Some of the
agricultural products having irregular shaped material is generally determined by displacement
method which has been described here.
Determination of the volume by Platform scale: The platform scale is a simple technique
which is commonly used for determination of volume of large materials like fruits and
vegetables. The weight of material is determined by weighing on the scale in air, thereafter, the
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

material is forced into the water with the help of a rod. The later reading of the scale while the
material is submerged minus the weight of container and water is the actual weight of the
displaced water.
The volume density and specific gravity of the material are estimated by following
formulae.
Weight of displace water, kg
3
Volume,m = ----------------------------------------
Weight density of water, kg/m3
Weight of material in air, kg
3
Weight density, kg/m = -------------------------------------------
Volume of the material, m3
Weight in air x specific gravity of water
Specific gravity = ----------------------------------------------------
Weight of displaced water

11.1.3 Mass: Mass of agricultural materials is important to design the handling system. It is
expressed in gram / kilo gram/ quintal/ tonnes. Mass increases with moisture content as the water
adds mass to the material.
11.1.4 1000 seed/ grain weight: It is the measure between the numbers and the mass. Normally
1000 seeds/ grains are picked in random and weighed. This is useful in taking the required quantity
of seeds or grains. This property increases with increase in moisture content as the moisture content
adds weight to the grain/ seed.
11.1.5 Volume: Volume of the substances are estimated from the dimensions. The bulk materials
like grains, occupy the bulk volume and excluding the pore space, it is the true volume.
Bulk volume: Volume of the bulk materials including pore space between granular pack. It is
normally measured from the container or bin the bulk grain occupies.
True volume: Volume of the fruits / vegetables is measured by water displacement method. Also
the volume of the bulk materials, excluding the pore space.
11.1.6 Porosity: Porosity is defined as the percentage of volume of inter-granular space to the total
volume of grain bulk.
Porosity = (Void volume or pore volume / Total volume) x 100%
Porosity increases with the increase in the moisture content as the swelling of the grains increases
the volume and thereby the porosity. Porosity is used to estimate the total void volume available in
the bulk mass of the grain for fumigation, filling with gases, aeration, etc.
11.1.7 Density: Density is the ratio of mass to volume.
Bulk density : Bulk density is the ratio of mass to volume of the bulk material with void space. It is
calculated as the ratio of the mass of the material to the volume of the container filled with the
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

material. Expressed as “g/cc” or “kg/m3”. With increase in moisture content both the mass and
volume of the material increase. However the increase in the volume will be more for the granular
materials resulting decrease in the bulk density. Bulk density is used for conversion between the
mass and volume.
True density: True density is the ratio of mass to volume of the bulk material without void space. It
is calculated as the ratio of the mass of the material to the true volume of the material in the
container. This is also called as particle density / solid density. Expressed as “g/cc” or “kg/m3”.
With increase in moisture content both the mass and volume of the material increase. However the
increase in the volume will be more for the granular materials resulting decrease in the bulk density.
True density is used for conversion between the mass and volume. True density is determined from
the true volume or porosity. Pycnometer is the instrumentation facility used for the measurement of
true volume / porosity. The following relationship is used for the determination of the true density
from the bulk density and porosity.
True density = Bulk density / (1- Porosity*)
* porosity is substituted in decimal.
11.1.8 Friction: The frictional properties such as coefficient of friction and angle of repose are
important in designing of storage bins, hoppers, chutes, pneumatic conveying system, screw
conveyors, forage harvesters, threshers etc. The rolling resistance or maximum angle of stability
in rolling of round shape agricultural materials is useful in designing handling equipment e.g.
conveying of fruits and vegetables by gravity flow.
In mechanical and pneumatic conveying systems, the material generally moves or slides in direct
with the trough, casing and other components of the machine. Thus various parameters
affect the power requirement to drive the machine. Among these parameters, the frictional losses
are one of the factors which must be overcome by providing additional power to the machine.
Hence, the knowledge of frictional properties of the agricultural materials is necessary; therefore,
some of the important frictional properties of agricultural products have been described here.
Static friction: The friction may be defined as the frictional forces acting between surfaces of
contact oat rest with respect to each other.
Kinetic friction: It may be defined as the friction forces existing between the surfaces in relative
motion.
If F is the force of friction and W is the force normal to the surface of contact, then the
coefficient of friction “” is given by the relationship
=F/W
The coefficient of friction may also be given as the tangent of the angle of the inclined surface
upon which the friction force tangential to the surface and the component of the weight normal to
the surfaces are acting.
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11.1.9 Angle of repose: The angle of repose is the angle between the base and the slope of the
cone formed on a free vertical fall of the granular material to a horizontal plane. It is defined as
the angle made by the grain with the horizontal when heaped naturally. The size, shape, moisture
content and orientation of the grains affect the angle of repose.
There are two angles of repose, (1) static angle of repose, and (2) dynamic angle of repose.
Static angle of repose: It is the angle of friction when u by granular material to just slide upon
itself.
Dynamic angle of repose: It comes in picture when bulk of the grain is in motion like discharge
of grain from bins and hoppers. The dynamic angle of repose is more important than static angle.
Measurement of angle of repose:
Method I: A wooden frame full of grain sample is mounted on a tilting top drafting table. The
table top is tilted till the grain starts moving over the inclined surface. The angle of inclination is
measured which is angle of repose of the grain sample.
Method II: This apparatus consists of a circular platform immersed in a box filled with grain and
with a glass window in one side. The platform is supported by three adjustable screw legs and is
surrounded by a metal funnel leading to a discharge hole. The grain is allowed to escape from the
box, leaving a free-standing cone of grains on the platform. A traveling microscope is used to
measure the heights. The angle of repose, Ø, is obtained from the geometry of the cone as given
below.
Ø = tan-1 (h / 2r)
Where h and r are the height and radius of the heap in cm. The angle of repose for some of the
grains is given in Table 3.
Table 11.2. Angle of repose of some grains
Grain Angle of repose, degree
Wheat 23 – 28
Paddy 30 – 45
Maize 30 – 40
Barley 28 – 40
Millets 20 – 25
Rye 23 - 28

Effect of moisture content of the angle of repose: It has been found that the angle of repose
increases with the increase of moisture content of material. This variation of angle of the repose
with moisture content occurs because surface layer of moisture surrounding the particle holds the
aggregate of grain together by the surface tension.
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11.2 Aero and Hydrodynamic Properties

The aero and hydrodynamic properties such as terminal velocity of agricultural products
are important and required for designing of air and water conveying systems and the separation
equipment. The physical properties such as density, shape and size, drag coefficient etc., are
required for calculating the terminal velocity of the material. For example, in pneumatic
conveying and separation processes of the material is lifted only when the air velocity is greater
than its terminal velocity.
11.2.1 Terminal velocity: The terminal velocity of a particle may be defined as equal to the air
velocity at which a particle remains in suspended state in a vertical pipe against gravity.
The air velocity at which an object remains in a suspended state against gravity in a vertical pipe
under the action of air current is called terminal velocity of the object. In free fall, the object attains
a constant terminal velocity, Vt, when the gravitational accelerating force, Fg becomes equal to the
resisting upward drag force Fr. with increase in moisture content the terminal velocity increases due
to the increase in the mass of the material due to addition of water. Terminal velocity is required in
the design and operation of winnowers. For effective winnowing of the grains, the velocity of air
from the blower has to be adjusted below the terminal velocity of the good grains and above the
terminal velocity of the chaff and impurities. If the velocity of air in the blower exceeds the terminal
velocity of the grains, the good grains will be lifted by the air released by the blower.
Resistance of grain bed to air flow: In the design of blowers for grain dryers, it is necessary to
know the resistance exerted by the grain bed to the air current blown through it. This resistance
depends upon: (a) the bed thickness (b) the air velocity (c) orientation of the grain and (d) type of
grain.
Table 11.3. Density and terminal velocity of some of the agricultural materials
Grain Density, kg/m3 Terminal velocity, m/s
Wheat 998-1238 9-11.5
Rye 1158-1218 8.5-10
Oats 738-968 8-9
Corn 1138-1198 34.9
Soybean 1029-1152 44.3

Table 11.4. Terminal velocity and drag coefficient for groundnut and soybean
Grain Terminal velocity m/s Drag Coefficient
Groundnut kernel (RS-1) 12.31-13.78 0.52-0.64
Soybean (Punjab-1) 12.30-13.92 0.38-0.62
Soybean (Lee) 13.30-14.55 0.33-0.51
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

11.3 Electrical and Dielectric Properties

Electrical properties like conductance, resistance and capacitance depend on moisture
content of material thus used for indirect determination of moisture content. Dielectric constant,
Loss tangent, Dielectric loss factor and AC conductivity are the dielectric properties. These
properties are influenced by the moisture content and frequency. As these properties are much
influenced by the moisture content, these properties are much exploited for the moisture
determination.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Lecture No. 12
Thermal properties- specific heat- thermal conductivity- thermal diffusivity, Application of
Engineering properties of cereals, pulses and oilseeds in PHT equipment design and
operation

12.1 Thermal properties

The thermal properties like specific heat, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity,
enthalpy, surface heat transfer coefficient, emissivity etc. are important for the development of
any thermal processing system. The thermal processing may include heating, cooling, freezing,
drying etc. There are some other thermal properties like melting or freezing points, latent heats,
heat of adsorption, heat of respiration, coefficient of thermal expansion etc., but these are not of
much importance for the most heat transfer applications.
12.2 Specific heat: The specific heat may be defined as the amount of heat in kilocalories that
must be added to or removed from 1kg of a substance to change its temperature by 1°C. The
specific heat of wet agricultural material is the sum of specific heats of bone dry material and its
moisture content.
The specific heat of bone dry grain varies from 0.35-0.45 kJ/kg K.
The specific heat is measured by calorimeter, generally a simple thermos vacuum bottle.
The differential scanning - calorimeter (DSC) is suitable for measuring the specific heat.
12.3 Thermal conductivity: The thermal conductivity may be defined as the rate of heat flow
through unit thickness of material per unit area normal to the direction of heat flow and per unit
time for unit temperature difference. It is a measure of ability of the material to conduct heat.
The thermal conductivity can be expressed by the following equation.
Q = k A ΔT/ΔX
Where,
Q = rate of heat transfer, W
A =area of heat transfer, m2
ΔT=temperature difference in the direction of heat flow, K
ΔX = thickness of wall / surface, m
k = thermal conductivity, W/m K
12.4 Thermal diffusivity: The thermal diffusivity may be calculated by dividing the thermal
conductivity with the product of specific heat and mass density. It may be expressed as,
D = k / (Cp )
Where ,
D = thermal diffusivity, m2/s
k = thermal conductivity, W/m K
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

 = mass density, kg/m3

Cp = specific heat, kJ/kg K
Thermal diffusivity is important in determination of heat transfer rates in solid food
materials of any shape. Physically it shows the relationship between the ability of a material to
conduct heat to its ability to store heat. The common method of determination of thermal
diffusivity is to calculate from experimentally measured values of thermal conductivity, specific
heat and mass density. In most of the cases the specific heat can be estimated from the product
composition, so only experimental measurements of thermal conductivity and mass density are
required.
12.5 Application of engineering properties of biological materials
This section deals with the application of various engineering properties like physical,
frictional, aerodynamic, thermal, optical, dielectric, electrical, acoustic, rheological and textural
properties in the harvesting, post harvest handling, processing, storage and how it affects
consumer’s perception of food quality and safety.
The engineering selection and design of food processes and equipment requires
knowledge of the properties of food materials. These properties are of great importance in the
simulation and design of food processes and in the computer-aided process engineering. Their
influence is even greater in problems of conceptual design, in which a wrong estimation of a
property can lead to an infeasible design plan. Not only the knowledge of properties aids in
engineering design and control but also gives information about the product quality, its
acceptability by the consumer of different groups and its behaviour in post production, during
storage, during consumption and post consumption.
12.5.1 Physical properties: The knowledge of some important physical properties such as
shape, size, volume, surface area, thousand grain weights, density, and porosity of different
grains is necessary for the design of various separating, handling, storing and drying systems.
The function of many types of machines is influenced decisively by the size and shape of the
fruit participating. The size and shape are, for instance, important in their electrostatic separation
from undesirable materials and in the development of sizing and grading machinery. Bulk
density, true density, and porosity (the ratio of inter-granular space to the total space occupied by
the grain) can be useful in sizing grain hoppers and storage facilities; they can also affect the rate
of heat and mass transfer of moisture during aeration and drying processes; Density is used to
separate materials with different densities or specific gravities. Separation of properly matured
peas can be separated from the immature and infected ones by water flotation methods. Grain
bed with low porosity will have greater resistance to water vapour escape during the drying
process, which may lead to higher power to drive the aeration fans. Cereal grain densities have
been of interest in breakage susceptibility and hardness studies. For instance, bulk density values
for raw and parboiled paddy have practical applications in the calculation of thermal properties
in heat transfer problems, in determining Reynolds number in the pneumatic handling of the
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

material, and in separating the product from undesirable materials. It plays an important role in
other applications that include the design of silos and storage bins and the maturity and quality of
paddy, which are essential to grain marketing. The resistance of bulk grain to airflow is in part a
function of the porosity and the kernel size.
12.5.2 Frictional properties: Frictional properties such as angle of repose and coefficient of
friction are important in designing equipment for solid flow and storage structures and the angle
of internal friction between seed and wall in the prediction of seed pressure on walls. The
coefficient of static friction plays also an important role in transports (load and unload) of goods
and storage facilities. It is important in filling flat storage facility when grain is not piled at a
uniform bed depth but rather is peaked. Coefficient of friction is important in designing storage
bins, hoppers, chutes, screw conveyors, forage harvesters, and threshers. The material generally
moves or slides in direct contact with trough, casing, and other components of the machine. The
various parameters affect the power requirement to drive the machine. The frictional losses are
one of the factors, which must be overcome by providing additional power to the machine.
Hence, the knowledge of coefficient of friction of the agricultural materials is necessary.
12.5.3. Aero and hydro-dynamic properties: The aerodynamic properties and hydrodynamic
properties like terminal velocity and drag coefficient of agricultural products are important and
required for the designing of air/ hydro conveying systems and the separation equipment. The
physical properties, such as density, shape, size, etc., are required for calculating the terminal
velocity and drag coefficient of the agricultural produce. In the handling and processing of
agricultural products, air is often used as a carrier for transport or for separating the desirable
products from unwanted materials, therefore the aerodynamic properties, such as terminal
velocity and drag coefficient, are needed for air conveying and pneumatic separation of
materials. As the air velocity, greater than terminal velocity, lifts the particles to allow greater
fall of a particle, the air velocity could be adjusted to a point just below the terminal velocity.
The fluidization velocity for granular material and settling velocity are also calculated for the
body immersed in viscous fluid.
12.5.4. Resistance of grain bed to air flow: In the design of blowers for grain dryers, it is
necessary to know the resistance exerted by the grain bed to the air current blown through it. This
resistance depends upon: (a) the bed thickness (b) the air velocity (c) orientation of the grain and (d)
type of grain.
12.5.5. Electrical and di-electric properties: Electrical properties like conductance, resistance and
capacitance depend on moisture content of material thus used for indirect determination of moisture
content. Dielectric constant, Loss tangent, Dielectric loss factor and AC conductivity are the
dielectric properties. These properties are influenced by the moisture content and frequency. As
these properties are much influenced by the moisture content, these properties are much exploited
for the moisture determination.
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12.5.6. Thermal properties: These properties are involved in almost every food processing
operation. Knowledge of the thermal properties of foods is essential in the analysis and design of
various food processes and food processing equipment involved in heat transport, with respect to
heat transfer or energy use, such as in extrusion cooking, drying, sterilization, cooking etc. The
most important thermal properties in food processing such as, specific heat capacity (Cp),
thermal conductivity(k), and thermal diffusivity(a). Specific heat has an important role in
determination of energy cost and for the dimensions of machinery and equipment that are needed
in thermal processes. Furthermore, specific heat (Cp) of food materials changes according to
their physical and chemical properties. The thermal conductivity (k) of food determines how fast
heat can be evenly transferred to the entire food mass, which in turn affects the quality of the
final product. When heating and cooling of materials involves unsteady state or transient heat
conduction, the material temperature changes with time and knowledge of the thermal diffusivity
(a) is required for predicting temperature in these processes.
12.5.7. Dielectric properties: Dielectric properties play a major role in determining the
interaction between the food material being processed and the electromagnetic energy. The
degree of heating of a food material subjected to microwave or radio frequency processing is
strongly influenced by the dielectric properties of the food. Dielectric heating or volumetric
heating occurs due to polarization and ionization of molecules, which are effectively used in
drying, sterilization, pasteurization and other thermal processing operations. Dielectric properties
consist of dielectric constant (ε′) and dielectric loss factor (ε″). Dielectric constant is a measure
of the ability of a material to store electromagnetic energy whereas dielectric loss factor is a
measure of the ability of a material to convert electromagnetic energy to heat. Loss tangent (tan
δ), a parameter used to describe how well a product absorbs microwave energy, is the ratio of ε″
to ε′. A product with a higher loss tangent will heat faster under microwave field as compared to
a product with a lower loss tangent.
12.5.8. Electrical properties: Some electrical properties which are of importance in agro
processing are electrical conductance, resistance, impedance. Electrical conductance or
capacitance has been used for determining the moisture content of grain. Electrostatic separation
of grains is also used for separating grains, based on the ability of the grain to hold electrostatic
charge. Electrical conductivity of the grain decides the ability of the material to hold electrostatic
charge. Recently ohmic heating has been in use for drying, pasteurization, blanching and other
thermal processing of foods, based on resistance heating. Ohmic processing, sometimes
described as resistive heating, consists of passing mains alternating current directly through a
conductive food, which in turn leads to heat generation. Because heating accompanies the
current; heat distribution throughout the product is far more rapid and even, which in turn can
result in better flavour retention and particulate integrity compared to conventional processes.
The efficiency of ohmic heating is dependent on the conductive nature of the food to be
processed and hence knowledge of the conductivity of the food as a whole and its components is
essential in designing a successful heating process.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Lecture No. 13

Moisture measurement, direct method and indirect method of moisture measurements,

drying and dehydration, drying theory, drying rate curves- constant rate period, CMC-
falling rate period , equilibrium moisture content.

13.1 MOISTURE CONTENT

Moisture content is the amount of water present in a product and is expressed on the basis
of water and usually expressed in per cent. This per cent moisture content may be expressed on
wet basis and dry basis.
Let,
Ww = wet weight of the sample, g
Wd = dry et weight of the sample, g
Wm = (Ww – Wd) = moisture weight of the sample, g
Wm
Moisture content, % on wet basis = Mwb = 100
Ww … (1)
Wm
Moisture content, % on dry basis = Mdb =  100
Wd … (2)
Moisture content on wet weight basis is for commercial and dry basis is for research and
equation substitutions. The moisture content expressed at any time on dry basis is proportional to
the moisture weight.
Wm
Mwb = 100 … (3)
(Wm  Wd )
Wm
Mdb = 100 … (4)
Wd
Wm
Wd   100
M db … (5)
Substituting Wd in the equation (3),
Wm
M wb   100
Wm
(Wm  )
M db
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Wm

Wm M db  Wm
M db
M db  Wm

Wm (1  M db )
M db
M wb 
(1  M db )
Mdb = Mwb + [Link]
Mdb(1- Mwb) = Mw
M wb
M db 
(1  M wb )
Methods of determination of moisture content
Moisture content is determined by using primary or direct method and secondary or in-direct
method.
13.1.1 Direct Method: In this method the moisture content is estimated by directly weighing and
measurement of water or moisture present.
[Link] Oven method (hot air oven and vacuum oven)
Samples of known weight is placed in hot air oven and dried at specified temperature and
duration. From the reduction in the weight due to loss of moisture / water, the moisture content is
estimated. There are standards which prescribes the temperature and duration of drying of
samples.
ASCC – American Society of Cereal Chemists
ASTM – American Standards of Testing and Methods
ASAbE – American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers
ASTA – American Spice Traders Association

Material Standard Temperature, ºC Duration, h

Grains and nuts ASCC 130±1ºC 1 or 2 h
100±1ºC 24 h
Fruits and vegetables ASAE 70ºC at 600 mm Hg 6h
Spices ASTA 110±1ºC - distillation 1 to 3 h
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[Link] Distillation method

a. Toluene distillation method (Dean
(Dean-Stark apparatus)
Dean-Stark
Stark apparatus is used in the distillation method of moisture estimation. This
apparatus consists of a round bottom flask, condenser, and moisture collection tube. The
moisture / water collection tube is provided with or without graduation and a cock to drain the
water.
The flask and Dean-Stark
Stark apparatus are connected to the condenser. The weighed and
ground samples (about 5 to 10 g) is placed in the flask and filled with toluene or zylone or
known volume of water to completely immerse the sample. T Toluene
oluene and zylone are used in the
distillation process being they are fire proof. The apparatus is placed in a heating mantle and
heated at 82, 100 and 110ºC, for zylone, water and toluene, respectively. Cooling water is
circulated from a running source.
When the water / toluene / zylone is heated, the sample also will get heated and the
moisture present in the sample will evaporate and reach the condenser. With the cooling water
circulated in the condenser, the moisture vapour and the vapour of toluene / zylone will get
condensed and collected in the moisture collection tube. From the graduations provided, the
amount of water collected can be noted. If water is used for distillation, the same may be
deducted to estimate the moisture collected.

Fig.13.1. Dean-Stark Apparatus

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b. Toluene distillation method (Brown Dual apparatus)

Brown Dual apparatus used for moisture estimation is similar to Dean-Stark apparatus.
This apparatus consists of a round bottom flask, condenser, and moisture collection tube. The
moisture / water collection tube is provided with graduation.
The flask and apparatus are connected to the condenser. The weighed and ground samples
(about 5 to 10 g) is placed in the flask and filled with mineral oil of known volume to completely
immerse the sample. The apparatus is placed in a heating mantle and heated at 100ºC. Cooling
water is circulated from a running source.

Fig.13.2. Brown-Dual Apparatus

When the mineral oil is heated, the sample also will get heated and the moisture present in
the sample will evaporate and reach the condenser. With the cooling water circulated in the
condenser, the moisture in the vapour form will get condensed and collected in the moisture
collection tube. From the graduations provided, the amount of water collected can be noted.
Care should be taken to heat the sample below the boiling point of mineral oil.
[Link] Direct measurement using Infra-Red moisture meter
It is an instrument for measuring the moisture content of materials that do not
change in their chemical structure while losing water/ moisture under exposure to infra-red
radiation / higher temperature.
This consists of an infra-red lamp to supply heat for drying the sample under infra-
red radiation. The input power to the lamp can be varied from 0- 250 Watts. As a result, greater
penetration of heat is possible than in conventional methods. The input voltage is varied by a
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dimmerstat/ auto transformer. There are two aluminium discs mounted on bush bearings,
vertically and torsion wire is fixed between them and passes through pointer assembly. One of
the two discs is graduated from 0- 100% of moistures in 0.2 % divisions. By heating the sample
from the infra-red source, the loss in moisture is estimated. Nowadays, halogen lamps are used in
place of infra- red lamps.
Procedure:
a. Turn the scale-lamp ‘on’ by means of the toggle switch.
b. By turning the scale adjusting knob rotate the scale until the 100% mark coincides with
the index.
c. Move the pointer to the index by turning the pointer- adjusting knob in a direction
opposite to that in which the pointer must move to coincide with index.
d. Rotate the scale until the 0% mark coincides with the index. The pointer is now above the
index.
e. Raise the lamp housing and carefully distribute the test material on the sample pan until
the pointer returns to the index. Approximately 25 gms. of material is needed. This
weight of material then corresponds to 100 divisions of the scale.
f. Lower the lamp housing and turn on the infra-red lamp by means of the toggle switch.
g. Adjust the dimmerstat knob for required temperature (experience).
h. Due t o drying, the moisture will be lost and as a result the pointer will raise above the
index.
i. When the pointer comes to the stationary position, rotate the scale until the pointer
returns to the index.
j. Read the scale and it will give the moisture lost in percent of moisture content on wet
basis. This can be converted into dry basis.
13.1.2 Indirect Method
The electrical properties, like, resistance, capacitance and conductance vary with the
moisture content. Using the electrical measuring circuit, the moisture content is indirectly
measured. Accordingly they are calibrated to measure the moisture content. The electronic
circuit of a basic moisture meter is given below.
[Link] PSAW Digital Moisture Meter Method
PSAW digital moisture meter are designed for quick and accurate determination of moisture
content of a wide range of organic and many inorganic materials. The instrument is specially
designed for apparently dry granular substances, such as, food grains, seeds, pulses, spices and
dehydrated fruits.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Fig.13.3. Infra-red
red moisture meter Fig.1
Fig.13.4.. Basic circuit of a moisture meter

The operation of PSAW digital

moisture meter is based on the fact that the
electrical conductivity of a moist material
is directly proportional to the amount of
moisture contained in it. Electrical
conductivity also varies with the
temperature. A built-in
in temperature sensor
along with microprocessor circuitry of the
instrument compensate for these variation
variations.
For uniformity, accuracy and reliability of
results the materials under examination is
compressed to a particular thickness in
order to annul the porosity effect on the
electrical conductivity.
The rugged mechanical construction
of the instrument to withstand
thstand high
high-applied
pressure coupled with latest electronic
technique for reliability and accuracy of
results makes it indispensable for grain and
seed houses. For a given temperature the
percent moisture content in the material is Fig.13.5. Digital moisture meter.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

directly read from correlation dial without making use of any chart or mathematical calculations.
PSAW digital moisture meters are, therefore, best suited for quick and accurate determination of
percent moisture content in food grains, pulses, oil seeds, vegetable seeds and other granular
materials such as, coffee beans, cotton seeds, oats, water melon seeds, etc.
Procedure
i. The sample to be tested is taken from a representative sample of the entire lot and thoroughly
mixed before testing.
ii. A measuring cup of the proper volumes (A, B and C) is filled with the test material up to its
brim. The material need not be pressed in the measuring cup rather it should be properly shaken
and leveled to avoid superfluous empty spaces in between the grains. The test material is then
transferred into the test cup.
iii. Place the test cup containing the sample in its housing in such a manner that the guide stems of
the cup snuggly fits into the hole in the body base.
iv. Select the proper compression thickness required for the given test sample from the thickness
setting chart.
v. Rotate the smaller handle in anti-clockwise direction until the plunger is snuggly compressed
against the sample.
vi. Now fit the Ratchet handle into the open end of bevel pinion and compress the sample until the
reading on the main scale and the circular scale divisions together give the correct thickness
reading. Fig.13.5. Digital moisture meter.
vii. Press the push type switch on the moisture meter to take the reading after count down from 10
to 1 and temperature correction automatically. The three digits display will give direct moisture
percentage after count down.
viii. To remove the sample, release the pressure between the plunger and the test cup by using
ratchet handle in clockwise direction, till movement is free. Remove the rachet handle
ix. Use small handle till the pointer goes to the upper most position. Lift the test cup upwards.
Remove the test material from the test cup and clean the cup and plunger with a soft piece of
cloth. Replace the cup in its position.
[Link] Universal Moisture Meter
OSAW Universal moisture meter is for quick determination of percent moisture content of
a wide range of organic and many inorganic materials. This instrument is mostly suitable for dry
granular substances, such as food grains, seeds, pulses, spices, and dehydrated fruits. For a given
temperature, the percent moisture content in the material is directly read from the correlator dial
without making use of any chart or mathematical calculations.
Scientific Principle:
The operation of OSAW Universal moisture meter is based on the fact that the electrical
conductivity of a moist material is directly proportional to the amount of moisture contained in it.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Electrical conductivity also varies with the temperature. A built- in thermometer and a set of
correlator dials on the front panel of the instrument compensates for these variations.
For uniformity, accuracy and reliability of results the material under examination is
compressed to a particular thickness in order to annul porosity effect on the electrical
conductivity.
Procedure to determine the moisture content by oven method
Take three moisture estimation cups with lids. Mark with serial numbers or alphabet
codes. Weigh the empty cups with lids with an electronic balance of least count 0.01g and
record in the Table 1. Take about 5-10 g of grain samples, powdered or ground in the moisture
cups. Weigh the cups with lid and along the sample. Place the cups in open condition and the lids
placed at the bottom of the cups inside the hot air oven maintained at 130±2 oC for 1 hour (As per
No. 44-15 A, 1976 ASCC approved methods). Then the samples are taken out from the oven and
closed with the respective lids and placed in desiccators filled with calcium chloride to cool the
samples. After cooling, the sample are weighed in the balance of 0.01 g least count and recorded
in the Table 1. From the reduction in the weight of the grains measured, the moisture content is
estimated. If the moisture content of the sample is assessed as above 15%, double stage method
is followed by placing 25–30 g of whole grain sample in an hot air-oven at 130±2 o C for 14 –16
h so that its moisture content is reduced to about 13 per cent. Then the same procedure is
followed as in single-stage method.
Table 13.1. Estimation of moisture content of given sample

Weight of (g) Weight of (g)

Weight of Moisture Moisture
Sample wet dry
empty Box + Box + Content, % Content, %
No. grain grain
box, g wet grain dry grain db wb
(Ww) (Wd)

Average Moisture Content =

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Fig.13.6. Few makes of resistance type moisture meters

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Fig.13.7. Few makes of capacitance type moisture meters

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13.2 Equilibrium Moisture Content

When a solid is exposed to a continual supply of air at constant temperature and humidity,
having a fixed partial vapour pressure p, the solid will either lose moisture by evaporation or gain
moisture from the air until the vapour pressure of the moisture of the solid equals p. The solid and
gas are then in equilibrium, and the moisture content of the solid in equilibrium with the
surrounding conditions is known as equilibrium moisture content (EMC). The EMC is useful to
determine whether a product will gain or lose moisture under a given set of temperature and relative
humidity conditions. Thus EMC is directly related to drying and storage. The EMC is dependent on
the temperature and relative humidity of the environment and on the variety and maturity of the
grain. A plot of the equilibrium relative humidity and moisture content of a particular material at a
particular temperature is known as equilibrium moisture curve or isotherm. Grain isotherms are
generally S-shaped and this is attributed to multi-molecular adsorption.
13.2.1. Determination of equilibrium moisture content
The EMC is determined by two methods: (a) Static method and (b) the dynamic method.
In the static method, the grain is allowed to come to equilibrium with the surrounding still air
without any agitation, whereas in the dynamic method, the air is generally mechanically moved. As
the static method is time consuming, at high relative humidity conditions mould growth in the grain
may take place before equilibrium is reached. The dynamic method is faster and is thus preferred.
The EMC is to be determined under constant relative humidity and temperature conditions of air.
Generally a thermostat is used to control the temperature and aqueous acid or salt solutions of
different concentrations are used to attain the relative humidity of air. The following are the salts are
used to prepare saturated salt solutions to achieve different relative humidities in the determination
of equilibrium moisture content by static method.
Lithium chloride 11% Magnesium chloride 33%
Potassium carbonate 43% Magnesium nitrate 53%
Sodium nitrate 65% Sodium chloride 75%
Sodium sulphate 95%

13.2.2. Bound, unbound and free moisture

Bound moisture refers to the moisture contained by a substance which exerts equilibrium
vapour pressure, less than that of the pure liquid at the same temperature. The bound moisture may
be contained inside the cell walls of the grain, moisture in loose chemical combination with the
grain material and moisture held in capillaries within the grain.
Unbound moisture refers to the moisture contained by substance which exerts equilibrium vapour
pressure equal to that of the pure liquid at the same temperature.
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Free moisture refers to the moisture contained by the solid in excess of the equilibrium moisture
content. Only free moisture can be evaporated and the free moisture content of a solid depends upon
the vapour concentration in the air.
For biological materials, the relationship between the equilibrium relative humidity and
equilibrium moisture is given by an Isotherm model proposed by Henderson.
(1-RH) = e- cT Men
where
RH - equilibrium relative humidity (decimal),
T - absolute temperature, K
Henderson equation
Me - equilibrium moisture content, % db.

Table 13.2. Values of crop constants “c and n” for the important food grains
Sl. No. Crop C n
-5
1 Paddy 1.62 x 10 2.02
2 Wheat 1.01x10-6 to 5.59x10-5 3.03
3 Soybean 3.20 x 10-5 to 5.76 x 10-5 1.52
4 Corn 1.98x10-5 to 1.1x 10-5 1.90
-5
5 Clay soil 7.53x10 1.72
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Lecture No.14
Various drying method, contact type dryers- convective type dryer- radiation dryer.
14.1 Drying
Drying of agricultural products is an important unit operation under post harvest phase. It
refers to removal of moisture from grains and other products to a predetermined level. Drying is
a thermo-physical and physico-chemical operation by which the excess moisture from a product
is removed. Drying makes the food grains and other products suitable for safe storage and
protects them against attack of insects, moulds and other micro-organisms during storage.
Harvesting of crops at higher moisture content and subsequent drying to safe moisture levels
leads towards saving of 6 to 7% grains.
For example, if paddy is harvested at 20-22% moisture content and later on dried to 14%, it
has a potential of increasing rice yield by 10% in comparison to harvesting paddy at 14%
moisture content. Therefore, in modern agriculture, the importance of timely drying is immense.
Food stuffs may be dried in air, super heated steam, vacuum, inert gas and by the direct
application of heat. Air is generally used as a drying medium because it is plentiful, convenient
and overheating of the food can be controlled. Air is used to conduct heat to the food being dried
and to carry liberated moisture vapour from the food. Drying can be accomplished gradually and
tendencies to scorch and discolour are within control. Dehydration is also the process of removal
of moisture content but refers to removal of moisture to very low levels - to bone dry condition.
Air conveys heat to the food causing water to vaporize and is the vehicle to transport the
liberated moisture vapour from the dehydrated food.
14.1.1. Moisture and its removal
During drying, the moisture from solids get vaporized and diffused in dilute environment.
Removal of moisture takes place by high pressure or high temperature conditions. Drying
removes the volatile materials present inside solid matters. Some amount of moisture is present
in the pore spaces of grains. Excess amount of moisture remains in bound form with absorbing
materials of the grains. In most cases, drying is accomplished by vaporizing the water that is
contained in the food, and to do this the latent heat of vaporization must be supplied. The two
important processes - controlling factors in drying are,
i. Transfer of heat to provide the necessary latent heat of vaporization.
ii. Movement of water or water vapour through the food material.
Removal of moisture from wet materials by vaporization depends on the rate of heat and mass
transfer, which is related with the following two basic phenomenon,
i. Vaporization of moisture from surface of material
ii. Movement of moisture from internal parts of material to its surface.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

iii. Movement of moisture takes place because of diffusion, cell contraction and vapour
pressure gradient.
14.1.2. Advantages of dying
Various advantages of drying are
 Drying permits early harvest of crops which leads to reduction of losses by shattering,
permits time for preparation of land for the following crop.
 Drying helps in proper planning of harvesting season. If adequate drying facilities are
available then crop can be harvested as per the availability of labourers.
 Drying to a optimum moisture content results in safe storage of products over a longer
period.
 Storage of products after drying makes products available during off seasons, selling of
grains in off season would fetch additional income to growers as prices remain higher
during these periods.
 Permits continuous supply of product throughout the year.
 Permits the farmers to have better quality product
 When grains are stored, due to increase in the temperature and moisture content, heat of
respiration also increases. The heat of respiration can be removed by aeration and drying.
Thus the temperature and moisture content of the products can be brought down and
viability of seeds could be maintained.
 Some agricultural by-products and waste products can also be converted into useful
products by proper drying.
By nature, food grains are hygroscopic in nature. They gain or lose moisture as per the
atmospheric conditions. Moisture remains inside any hygroscopic product in two forms namely
bound and unbound moisture. In bound moisture, the water-vapour pressure of grain is lower
than the vapour pressure of free water surface. The highest bound moisture content is reached
when the hygroscopic product is kept under 100% relative humidity condition. The unbound
moisture content is more than the bound moisture content. The moisture migration into or from a
product is dependent on the difference of vapour pressure between atmosphere and product. If
the vapour pressure of grain is greater than atmospheric vapour pressure, transfer of moisture
from grain to-atmosphere takes place. But when the atmospheric vapour pressure is greater than
grain vapour pressure, grain absorbs moisture from atmosphere.
14.2. Drying methods
The agricultural product drying methods can be broadly grouped into two,
i. Sun/ solar drying
ii. Mechanical drying (artificial drying with mechanical means).
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

14.2.1. Sun drying

This is a traditional method of drying. Sun drying of agricultural crops and grains are associated
with the following features.
i. Uncontrolled and non-uniform drying results in cracks in kernels. Such grains yield
large quantity of broken during milling.
ii. The process is dependent on the availability of the sun energy, hence the crop harvested
during monsoon season can not be dried.
iii. It requires a large number of unskilled labourers.
iv. About 1-2% grain is lost due to birds, insects and rodent attack.
v. It requires very large area for drying.
vi. As it requires no fuel or mechanical energy, drying cost is low as compared to
mechanical drying.
[Link]. Methods of sun drying
Drying of standing crops:
a. Grains are dried on the plant till proper moisture content is attained. Then, the crop is
harvested and threshed. But considerable quantity is lost due to shattering. This drying
process is slow and takes about 2-3 weeks after the grains have attained biological maturity.
b. Drying of grains on stalk: The crop is harvested at higher moisture content and is left in the
field or on bunds of the field till it has dried to proper moisture content. Another improved
method is to dry the harvested crop on racks. Crop is bundled near the ears and hung on a
rope exposing to the sun.
Drying of threshed grains: The harvested crop at higher moisture content is threshed and the grains
are spread on the floor in 1 to 3 cm thick layer. The floor is clean and may be mud floor, cement
floor, stone surface, etc. It is continuously stirred manually till it has attained the desirable moisture
content. In this process, the grains are subjected to uncontrolled drying causing cracks in the
kernels.
14.2.2. Mechanical drying
It is the process of utilizing mechanical means for drying of grains by ventilating natural or heated
air through the grain mass to accomplish removal of moisture from it. Mechanical drying of grains
is normally accomplished by passing air through grain mass.
Mechanical drying system has the following features.
i. Duration of drying (rate of drying) the grains can be controlled by controlling the
temperature of hot air ventilating through grain mass. Therefore, it is possible to reduce
the temperature and moisture stresses developed during the drying process responsible
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

for the cracks in the kernels to a minimum level. This results in superior milling quality
of grains.
ii. Grains can be dried during all seasons and also during night.
iii. The process is automatic and requires a small number of unskilled labourers, however, a
trained person is required to operate the dryer.
iv. The process requires fuel or electrical or mechanical power to drive the air and their
accessories. Cost of drying per unit mass is comparatively higher than sun drying.
v. Losses due to insects, birds and rodents are avoided.
vi. The process requires little space for operation and is suitable for big mills.
vii. Mechanical drying in conjunction with early harvest improves the milling quality of
grains.
[Link]. Heated air drying
Heated air dryings normally accomplished by convection. This system has the following units.
 Arrangement for heating of natural air.
 A blower to pass the heated air through the grains.
 A bin to hold the grains.
 Facility for loading and un-loading of grains.
 A system to control the drying process
 A safety system or network for dryer operation
Purpose of dehydration
i. Dehydration is to preserve foods longer time and in addition to preservation we dehydrate
foods to decrease weight and bulk. These reductions in weight and bulk can result in
economics in transport and in cost of containers
ii. It retains the size and shape of the original food. Freeze drying of large food pieces in such
a process.
iii. Dehydration produces convenience items. e.g., instant coffee, fruit juice concentrates, fruit
juice powders, instant mashed potatoes etc. The consumer simply add water and stirs or
mixes
iv. Many fruits and vegetables are available only for seasonings. With the help of drying and
dehydration process, preserve them all seasonings
v. With the help of drying process the chemical and biological forces acting upon the foods
are minimised.
vi. Spoilage of foods is easily controlled in drying process.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Difference between drying and dehydration

Drying
i. It is a natural process and the solar energy is available in plenty.
ii. Cheap, easy to preserve foods, no need to spend capital money
iii. Moisture, temperature and velocity of air are not controllable
iv. Quantity of the products obtained are not good
v. More drying area is required
vi. Colour development of the sun dried fruits is good
vii. Sanitary conditions are not controlled and in open fields contamination from dusts,
insects, birds and rodents are major problems.
viii. Labour requirement is more
ix. Sun drying is done during favourable hot climatic conditions
x. The shelf-life of the product obtained is lower
Dehydration
i. It is artificial process and the removal of water by mechanical driers. The air is used as a
drying medium
ii. High unit processing cost and especially for freeze dried foods.
iii. Temperature, moisture and velocity of air are controllable depending upon the food to be
dried.
iv. The quality of the products is better
v. Less area is required
vi. Sanitary conditions are controllable within a dehydration plant
vii. It is a continuous and fast process and the product obtained within a shorter period
viii. Labour requirements are minimum
ix. Dehydration of foods is to be practiced on all the seasons
x. Prolonged shelf-life
14.3. Types of dryers
Different types of mechanical dryers can be categorized as follows:
i. Dryers in which products are kept in a bin and the heated or drying air is ventilated
through them.
ii. Dryers in which products are kept moving. The movement of products is by gravity or
by some mechanical means and the drying air is ventilated through them.
iii. Dryers with free falling bed due to gravity and the drying air is ventilated through the
falling film of products.
iv. Dryers in which the products are dried in a state of fluidization by strong blowing heated
air.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

14.3.1. Types of Mechanical Drying

Based on the operation – batch type and continuous type dryers - drying of agricultural
products is broadly carried in thin and deep layers.
Based on the depth of drying – thin layer and deep bed drying.
Based on mixing with air – mixing type and non- mixing type
[Link]. Thin layer drying: Grains are completely exposed to the heated air. The thickness of
grains is normally upto 15 to 20 cm. The drying rate in thin layer drying is equal to the ratio of
water vapour pressure driving force and resistance to drying. Drying rate is given by the
equations.

dM
  K (M  M e )
d

1 M  Me
 ln
where, K Mo  Me

M – Moisture content, % db
Θ - time, hour
K – Drying Constant
Me – EMC, (db, %)
[Link]. Deep bed drying: In deep bed dryers drying takes place in a drying zone and the layer
of grains is more than 15 – 20 cm. In deep bed drying it is assumed that the deep bed is formed
by several thin layers. In each thin layer the incoming and outgoing air humidity and temperature
change with time and drying stages. At a particular air flow rate, if the layer of product is more
than the layer which comes in contact with heated air first, may over dry. Recommended grain
layer thickness is limited to 45 cm for drying air temperature of 43°C.
It is a batch-in-bin type dryers. The capacity varies to several hundred tonnes. The most
common shapes are round or rectangular. To operate deep bed dryers efficiently the air flow rate
of 2.94-3.92 m3/min per tonne - cooler and dry places, 3.43-3.92 m 3 /min per tonne for both hot
and humid climates are followed. Rates above 3.92 m 3/min per tonne may result in uneven
drying and is expensive in operation.
If the moisture content of grains is upto 18%, the layer depth of grain should be limited to
3 m. For grains whose moisture content is above 18%, the maximum depth recommended is 2.5
m. Paddy with 2.5 m deep layer may take 20 days to dry during favorable weather and 40 days in
bad weather.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Fig.14.1. Schematics of deep bed drying

In tropics where sprouting occurs in 4-8 days, deep bed dryers are not very much
successful. The net perforated area of the floor should be 15% of the total floor area. Air velocity
of 300 m/min through the opening is preferable.

Fig.14.2. Flat bed type dryer

[Link]. Flat Bed dryers
The flat bed batch type dryer is similar to deep bed dryers except that the surface area of
the dryer is more and the depth of the drying layer is less. The capacity of the dryers are of
usually 1-2 tonne. The flat Bed dryers are designed for farm level operation. Grains are spread
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

0.6 to 1.2 m deep over the perforated floor and dried. The main advantages of this flat bed type
dryer are,
a. Whole batch is dried quickly and less chances of spoilage due to moulding.
b. There is less likelihood of over-drying of the grain.
c. Lower air pressure is required to force the drying air.

Fig.14.3. Rectangular flat bed batch dryer

[Link]. Drying Curves
The plots between moisture content of the material being dried and the drying time and
between the drying rate and drying time or moisture content are known as drying curves. Drying
rate is a function of product moisture content.

Fig.14.4. Drying curves

Drying rate periods
The convection drying process can be divided into three periods.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

1. Constant drying rate period

2. Falling rate period 1
3. Falling rate period 2
Constant drying rate period
The period 1-2 is called as constant drying rate. In this period the moist surface of
product behaves like a free water surface. This period continues till the rate of evaporation of
water from the surface is equal to the rate of moisture migration from interior of product to its
surface. The constant drying period continues till critical moisture content is reached. The critical
moisture content is dependent on product and its thickness.
When grains at high moisture content is dried, it dries at a constant rate initially, and after
some time the rate of drying starts falling. In t7he constant-rate period, the rate of evaporation under
a given set of air conditions is independent of the solid and essentially the same as evaporation from
a free water surface. The rate of drying during this period is dependent upon: (a) difference between
the temperature of air and the temperature of the wet surface at constant air velocity and relative
humidity (b) difference in humidity between air stream and wet surface at constant velocity and
temperature, and (c) air velocity at constant temperature and humidity.
Under adiabatic and controlled drying air conditions, the temperature of the wet surface
attains the wet bulb temperature. In the constant-rate period drying takes place by surface
evaporation and moisture moves by vapour pressure difference. The moisture content at which the
drying rate ceases to be constant is known as the critical moisture content of the solid. The average
critical moisture content for a given type of material depends upon the surface moisture
concentration, bed thickness and rate of drying and upon the physical characteristics of the solid
such as shape and size.
Critical Moisture content
The moisture content of product from where constant drying rate ceases and falling rate
drying starts is called as the critical moisture content.
Falling rate drying rate period
The falling-rate period enters after the constant-rate period and corresponds to the drying
cycle where all surface is no longer wetted and the wetted surface continually decreases, until at the
end of this period the surface is dry. The cause of falling off in the rate of drying is due to the
inability of the moisture to be conveyed from the centre of the grain body to the surface at a rate
comparable with moisture evaporation from its surface to the surroundings.
The falling-rate period is characterised by increasing temperatures both at the surface and
within the solid. Furthermore, change in air velocity have a much smaller effect than during
constant-rate period. The falling-rate period of drying is controlled largely by the product and is
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

dependent upon the movement of moisture within the material from the centre to the surface by
liquid diffusion and the removal of moisture from the surface.
Falling rate period 1
The period 2 to 3 i.e. 'F1’ is known as the first falling rate period. In this period, because
of decrease in wet surface area the drying rate decreases. As drying proceeds, the fraction of wet
surface decreases to zero, where period F1 ends.
Falling rate period 2
The period 3-4 i.e. 'F2' is called the second falling rate period. In this period, subsurface
evaporation takes place and it continues until the equilibrium moisture content is reached.
[Link]. Equilibrium Moisture content
The moisture content attained by a grain with respect to a set of atmospheric temperature
and relative humidity is called as Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC). Most of the agricultural
products are dried in falling rate periods. In falling rate period the movement and diffusion of
moisture in interior of grains controls the entire drying process. During constant period rate,
moisture migration rate from inside of product to its surface is equal to the rate of evaporation of
water from surface. For agricultural products, constant rate period is for very short period and
depends on the following factors.
i. Uncovered area
ii. Difference in humidity levels between wet surface and air
iii. Drying air velocity
During the drying process, movement of moisture inside a porous product takes place due to
i. Capillary flow
ii. Liquid diffusion
iii. Surface diffusion
iv. Vapour diffusion
v. Thermal diffusion
vi. Hydrodynamic flow.
Air convection drier
All air convection driers have some sort of insulated enclosure, a means of circulating air
through the enclosure, and a means of heating this air. They also will have various means of heating
support, special devices for dried product collection. Some will have air driers to lower drying air
humidity and will be equipped with various kinds of instrumentation and controls.
Movement of air generally will be controlled by fans, blowers and baffles. Air volume and
velocity will affect drying rate, but its static pressure also is important since products being dried
become very light and can be blown off trays or belts.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

The air may be heated by direct or indirect methods. In direct heating the air is in direct
contact with flame or combustion gases. In indirect heating the air is in contact with a hot surface,
such as being blown across pipes heated by stream, flame or electricity. The important point is that
indirect heating leaves the air uncontaminated. On the other hand, in direct heating the fuel is
seldom completely oxidized to CO2 and H2O. Incomplete combustion leaves gases and traces of
soot and this is picked up by the air and can be transferred to the food product. Direct heating of air
also contributes small amounts of moisture to the air since moisture is a product of combustion, but
this is usually insignificant except with hydroscopic foods. These disadvantages are balanced by the
generally lower cost of direct heating of air compared to indirect heating and both methods are
widely used in food dehydration.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Lecture No. 15
Commercial grain dryer- deep bed dryer-flat bed dryer- tray dryer-fluidized bed dryer,
recirculatory dryer- solar dryer.

15.1. Continuous flow dryers

 Continuous flow dryers are columnar type.
 Wet grains flow from the top to the bottom of the dryers.
 The rate of flow of grains through columns can be regulated by conveyors.
 Drying is accomplished by forcing heated air across the falling layers of grains.
 These dryers are of two types: i. mixing and ii. non-mixing.
15.1.1. Mixing type dryer
If the grains flow path in the dryer is diverted, it is called a mixing type dryer. In mixing
dryers, baffles are provided to cause the grains to mix during their downward flow. Low air flow
rates of 50-95 m3/min-tonne and high drying temperature of 65°C is used. Zig-Zag columns
enclosed by screens on both sides are used primarily to achieve mixing action during drying
process.
15.1.2. Non Mixing type dryer
If the grains flow in a straight path, the dryer is called a non- mixing type. In non-mixing
dryers, baffles are not provided in the columns and drying takes place between two parallel
screens, 15-25 cm apart. In these dryers high air flow rates of 125-250 m 3/min-tonne can be
used. High air flow rate permits a faster movement of grains in columns. Drying air temperature
of 54°C is used in non-mixing dryers.
15.2. Recirculatory dryers
In continuous flow dryers, a multi pass procedure is used to avoid excessive drying stress.
During each pass, the grains are exposed to the heated air for a short time (15-30 min) and about
1-3% of the moisture content is removed. In such dryers, drying air temperature of 60-80°C is
used. Drying is faster and effective because of the continuous movement of grains during the
short drying times. Between drying passes, the grain is stored in a tempering bin for 4 to 24
hours to allow the moisture content at the centre and the surface of the grain to equalize. To save
energy, sometimes exit air from the dryer and partially dried material is recirculated for further
drying and such system is known as recirculatory dryer.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Fig.15.1. Mixing and non-mixing type continuous dryers

15.2.1. PHTC Recirculatory Dryer: The recirculatory dryer developed by Post Harvest
Technology Centre, IIT, Kharagpur is a famous model. It is a continuous flow non mixing type
of grain dryer. The dryer consists of two concentric perforated cylinders that are set 15-20 cm
apart. As the grain moves downward through the annular space between the cylinders, a
centrifugal blower blows hot air into the inner cylinder. The hot air then passes through the grain
and escapes out of the perforated outer cylinder. The grain is recirculated till it is dried to the
desired moisture level. The capacity of the dryer ranges from 0.5 to 2 tonnes.
15.3. LSU dryer
It is a continuous flow mixing type grain dryer. The design was developed at the
Louisiana State University in the mid 1950, called the LSU dryer. This design was developed
specifically for rice, to ensure gentle treatment, good grain mixing and good air to-grain contact.
Paddy drying is one of the most important steps in post harvest handling. Because it determines
the storage time, milling outturn and appearance of rice. The less temperature change during
drying and slower drying will result in better milling outturn and rice appearance. Generally
paddy and rice will store longer at lower temperatures.
LSU dryer consists of
a. Rectangular bin
b. Air blower with duct
c. Grain discharging mechanism with a hopper bottom
d. Air heating system
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Fig.15.2. Recirculatory dryer Fig.15.3. PHTC Recirculatory dryer

Rectangular bin: It is divided into two sections namely top holding bin and bottom drying
chamber.
Air distribution system: Layers of inverted V-shaped channels (inverted V ports) are installed in
the drying chamber. One end of each air channel has an opening and the other end is sealed.
Alternate layers are air inlet and air outlet channels. The inlet channels opening face the air inlet
plenum chamber and the outlet channels openings face the exhaust. Heated air is introduced at
many points through the descending grain bulk through these channels. The layers are staggered
to provide mixing of grains and takes zig zag path between these ports.
Grain discharging mechanism: Three or more ribbed rollers are provided at the bottom of the
drying chamber. Rollers can be rotated at different low speeds for different discharge rates. The
grain is discharged through a hopper bottom fixed at the bottom of the drying chamber.
Air heating system:
The air is heated by gaseous or liquid fuels or using the farm wastes.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Fig.15.4. LSU Dryer

Working: The working principle of LSU dryer is to blow air into one wall side. Air will flow
into fin opening, flow through paddy along the bottom of fin and to the adjacent fin and out
through the opening of the other wall. Distance between adjacent fin is few inches to one foot.
Paddy is feed to the dryer by an elevator and out by gravity down flow. Paddy in LSU dryer will
mix well with hot air while flow down the bin, so paddy tend to dry evenly. The LSU dryer is of
high capacity and being used in big commercial rice mills. The capacity varies from 2 to 12
tonnes. Recommended air flow rate is 60–70 m3/min/tonne of parboiled paddy and optimum air
temperatures are 60°C and 85°C for raw and parboiled paddy respectively.
Advantages of LSU dryer are
 Uniformly dried product can be obtained
 It can be used for different types of grains.
Disadvantages
 Complicated bin design and construction.
 High capital investment.
 Cost of drying is high if oil is used as fuel.
15.4. Kiln drier
Kiln driers of early design were generally two story constructions. A furnace or burner on
the lower floor generated heat, and warm air would rise through a slotted floor to the upper story.
Foods such as apple slices would be spread out on the slatted floor and turned over periodically.
This kind of drier generally will not reduce moisture to below about ten percent. It is still in use for
apple slices.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

15.5. Cabinet, tray and pan driers

Food may be loaded on trays or pans in comparatively thin layer upto a few centimeters.
Fresh air enters the cabinet is drawn by the pan through the heater coils and is then blown across the
food trays to exhaust. In this case the air is being heated by the indirect method. Screens filter out
any dust that may be in the air. The air passes across and between the drays in this design. The air is
exhausted to the atmosphere after one pass rather than being circulated within the system. The
moisture laden air, after evaporating water form the food, would have to be dried before being
recirculated, or else it would soon become saturated and further drying of the food would stop.
Cabinet, tray and pan driers are usually for small scale operations. They are comparatively
inexpensive and easy to set in terms of drying conditions. They may run upto 25 trays high, and will
operate with air temperatures of about 93ºC dry bulb, and air velocities of about 2.5 to 5 m/s across
the trays. They commonly are used to dry fruit and vegetable pieces and depending upon the food
and the desired final moisture, drying time may be of the order of 10 or even 20 hour.
The drying chamber is an insulated cabinet fitted with trays. Many shallow trays are kept
one above the other with a gap in between, in the drying chamber. Tray dryer is generally used
for drying of vegetables and similar semi perishables. The trays may or may not have perforated
bottom. Perforated trays are used when the plenum chamber is at the bottom of drying chamber.
If the heated air is coming from the sides of drying chamber, the trays may not have perforated
bottom. The gap in between the group of trays permits air ventilation. Products are kept in thin
layers in the trays in which the drying takes place. Hot air is blown to promote uniform air
distribution through each tray. Additional heaters placed above the trays to increase the rate of
drying. Used for small scale production. Tray dryer involves low capital and maintenance costs.
This method has relatively poor control and produce more variable product quality as food dries
more rapidly on trays nearest to the heat source.
Advantages of tray dryers
 Flexibility to accommodate various food products.
 Used for small scale production.
 Low capital and maintenance costs .
Disadvantages
 It is a batch system.
 Non uniform drying of products.
 Relatively poor control and produce more variable product quality as food dries more
rapidly on trays nearest to the heat source.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Fig. 14.9. Tray dryer

15.6. Tunnel and continuous belt drier
It is similar to tray dryer. When the group of trays is stationary, system is called a tray
dryer but when the group of trays are moving in a tunnel, the system becomes a tunnel dryer.
Layers of food are dried on trays which are stacked on trucks. Trucks m move
ove semi continuously
through an insulated tunnel. Typically, a 20 m tunnel contains 1212-15
15 trucks with a capacity of
5000 kg. The flow of heated air in a tunnel dryer may be,
 Parallel or co--current type
 Counter current
 Cross flow
For larger operations we elongate the cabinet, place the trays on carts. If drying time to the
desired moisture is 10 h then each wheeled cart of trays will take 10 h to pass through the tunnel.
When a dry cart emerges it makes room to load another wet cart into the opposite end of the tunnel.
Such an operation becomes semi continuous.
A main construction feature by which tunnels driers differ has to do with the direction of air
flow relative to tray movements. The wet food carts move from left to right. The drying air moves
across
ss the trays from right to left. This is the counter flow or counter current principle. Its
significance is that the air, when it is hottest and driest, contacts the nearly dry product, whereas the
initial drying of entering carts gets cooler, moister air that has cooled and picked up moisture going
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

through the tunnel. This means that initial product temp and moisture gradients will not be as great
and the product is less likely to undergo case hardening or other surface shrinkage leaving wet
centres. Further,
er, lower final moistures can be reached since the driest product encounters the dried
air. In contrast, there also are concurrent flow tunnels with incoming trays and incoming hottest
driest air traveling in the same direction. In this case rapid initial drying and slow final drying can
cause case hardening and internal splits and porosity as centres finally dry, which sometimes is
desirable in special products.
Just as carts of trays can be moved through a heated tunnel so a continuous belt may be
driven through a tunnel or oven enclosure. Then we have a continuous belt or conveyor drier and a
great number of designs are possible.

Fig. 14.10. Tunnel dryer

15.7. Fluidized bed drier
Fluidized bed drying is a modern drying method. It is used mainly for granular
g materials
nevertheless, it is also applicable in the drying of solutions, pastes and liquids sprayed onto the
fluidized inert bed. The drying method is based on ventilating hot air through the bed of product
kept on the support grid or the gas distdistributor.
ributor. When the air velocity becomes higher than the
critical fluidization velocity, the bed progressively expands until it reaches a state that of boiling
liquid; This phenomenon is called fluidization. Providing sufficient air pressure to fluidize a thin
th
bed of grain/product, giving excellent air/ grain contact results in fast drying.
In a fluidized bed dryer, the food material is maintained suspended against gravity in an
upward-flowing
flowing air stream. Heat is transferred from the air to the food material,
material mostly by
convection. Dryers are compact and good control over drying conditions.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

The heated air is blown up through the food particles with just enough force to suspend the
particles in a gentle boiling motion. Semi dry particles such as potato granules enter at the left and
gradually migrate to the right where they are discharged dry. Heated air is introduced through a
porous plate that supports the bed of granules. The moist air is exhausted at the top. The process is
continuous and the length of time particles remain in the drier can be regulated by the depth of the
bed and other means. This type of drying can be used to dehydrate grains, peas and other particles.
When hot air or gas is supplied at a velocity higher than the terminal velocity of the wet solid,
the drying takes place in a suspended or fluidized state. The main advantages of fluidized bed
drying are
1. Fluidity of bed facilitates continuous and easy equipment performance even on very
large scale plants.
2. Lack of moving parts.
3. Very good condition for heat and mass transfer.
4. Provides good mixing i.e. uniformity of drying of the material in the bed.
5. By combining high air temperatures and suitable grain tempering, the fluidized bed offers
better economy, gentle grain handling and reduced drying times.
15.8. Spouted bed drying:
When drying is carried out in a semi-suspended state, it is known as spouted bed
condition. Generally, convection drying is done under ordinary state, i.e. the drying agent (hot
air or gas) is supplied at a velocity much lower than the terminal velocity of the wet material. In
natural air drying, the unheated air is supplied, whereas in drying with supplemental heat, the air
is heated just sufficient to reduce its humidity so that drying can take place. The natural air
drying and drying with supplemental heat may require 1-4 weeks to reduce the grain moisture to
safer levels and are generally used for drying grains for short term storage in the farm. Natural
air drying uses low humidity air. It is a slow process and is economical for in-storage drying of
grains over a longer duration. Air drying with supplemented heating is used during high
humidity. A small amount of heat is added to air to decrease its humidity and thereby to increase
its water holding capacity. In heated air drying, the air is heated to a considerable extent. Heated
air drying is useful for drying large quantity of grain within a short period and is marketed
immediately. It is used for both short and long term storage.
15.9. Spray drier
The most important kind of air convection drier is the spray drier. Spray driers turn out a
greater tonnage of dehydrated food products than all other kinds of driers combined, and there are
various types of spray driers designed for specific food products.
Spray driers are limited to foods that can be atomized, such as liquids and low velocity
pastes or purees. Atomization into minute droplets results in drying in a matter of seconds with
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

common inlet air temperatures of about 200C. Since evaporative cooling seldom permits particles
to reach above about 82C and properly designed systems quickly remove the dried particles from
heated zones, this method of dehydration can produce exceptionally high quality with many highly
heat sensitive materials, including milk, eggs and coffee.
In a typical spray drying we introduce the liquid food as a fine spray or mist into a tower or
chamber with heated air. As the small droplets make intimate contact with heated air they flash off
their moisture, become small particles, and drop to the bottom of the tower from where they are
removed. The heated air which has now become moist is withdrawn from the tower by a blower or
fan. The process is continuous in that liquid food continues to be pumped into the chamber and
atomizer, along with dry heated air to replace the moist air that is withdrawn, and the dried product
is removed from the chamber as it descends.
15.10. Drum or roller driers
In drum or roller drying, liquid foods, purees, pastes and mashes are applied in a thin layer
onto the surface of a revolving heated drum. The drum generally is heated from within by steam.
One may have a single drum or a pair of drums. The food may be applied between the rip
where two drums come together, and then the clearance between the drums determines the thickness
of the applied food layer or the food can be applied to other areas of the drum. Food is applied
continuously and thin layer loses moisture. If a point on the drum or drums a scraper blade is
positioned to peel the thin dried layer of food from the drums. The speed of the drums is so
regulated that the layer of food will be dry when it reaches the scrapper blade, which also is referred
to as a doctor blade. The layer of food is dried in one revolution of the drum and is scrapped from
the drum before that position of the drum returns to the point where more wet food is applied using
steam under pressure in the drum, the temperature of the drum surface may be well above 100.C and
often is held at about 150C. With a food film commonly less than 1.6 mm drying can be completed
in one minute or less depending upon the food material.
Typical products dried on drums include milk, potato mash, heat tolerant purees such as
tomato paste and animal feeds. But drum drying has some inherent limitations which restrict the
kinds of foods to which it is applicable. To effectuate rapid drying drum surface temp, must be high,
generally above 121C. This gives products a more cooked flavor and color than when they are
dried at lower temp. Drying temp can be lowered by constructing the drums within a vacuum
chamber but this increases equipment and operating costs over atmospheric drum drying.
A second limitation is the difficulty of providing zoned temperature control needed to vary
the drying temperature profile. This is particularly important with thermoplastic food materials
while dried milk and dried potatoes are easily separated from the hot drum in friable sheet form, this
is not the case with many dried fruits, juices and other products which tend to be sticky and semi
molten when hot. Such products tend to crimp, roll up and otherwise accumulates and stick to the
doctor blade in a toffee-like mass.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

15.11. Vacuum drier

Vacuum dehydration methods are capable of producing the highest quality dried products
but costs of vacuum drying generally also are higher than other methods which do not employ
vacuum. In vacuum drying the temperature of the food and the rate of water removal are controlled
by regulating the degree of vacuum and the intensity of heat input. Heat transfer to the food is
largely by conduction and radiation.
All vacuum drying systems have four essential elements. These include a vacuum chamber
of heavy construction to withstand outside air pressures that may exceed internal pressure by as
much as 9800 kg/m2; means to supply heat; a device for producing and maintaining the vacuum and
components to collect under vapour as it is evaporated from the food.
The vacuum chamber generally will contain shelved or other support to hold the food and
these shelves may be heated electrically or by circulating a heated fluid through them. The heated
shelves are called platens. The platens convey heat to the food in contact with them by conduction,
but where several platens are one above another they also radiate heat to the food on the platen
below. In addition, special radiant heat sources such as infrared elements can be focused onto the
food to supplement the heat conducted from platen contact.
The device for producing and maintaining vacuum will be outside the vacuum chamber and
may be a mechanical vacuum pump or a steam ejection. A steam ejection is a kind of aspiration in
which high velocity steam getting past an opening draws air principle that makes and water vapour
from the vacuum chamber by the same principle that makes an inject spray gun draw fluid from the
can.
The means of collecting water vapour may be a cold wall condenser. It may be inside the
vacuum chamber or outside the chamber but must come ahead of the vacuum pump so as to prevent
water vapour from entering and fouling the pump. When a steam ejector is used to produce the
vacuum. The same steam ejection can condense water vapour as it is drawn along with the air from
the vacuum chamber, and so a cold wall vapour condenser may not be needed except where a very
high degree of efficiency is required.
Degree of vacuum
Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 100 kPa (1 kg/cm2) or sufficient pressure to support a
join column of mercury. This is equivalent to 760 mm of mercury. Pure water boils at 100C. High
vacuum dehydration operates at still lower pressures such as fractions of millimeter of mercury.
Freeze drying generally will operate in the range of 2 mm down to about 0.1 mm of mercury.
15.12. Freeze drying
Freeze drying can be used to dehydrate sensitive high value foods such as coffee and juices,
but it is especially suited to dry solid food of high value such as strawberries, whole shrimp, chicken
dice, mushroom slices and sometimes food pieces as large as steaks and chops. These types of
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

foods, in addition to having delicate flavours and colors, have textural appearance attributes which
cannot be well preserved by any current drying method except freeze drying. Any conventional
drying method that employs heat would cause considerable shrinkage, discoloration, and loss of
natural colour and flavour and would be more like a strawberry preserve or jam. This can be largely
prevented by drying from the solidly frozen state, so that in addition to low temperature the frozen
food has no chance to shrinkage or distort while giving up its moisture.
The principal behind freeze drying is that under certain conditions of low vapour pressure
water can evaporate from ice without the ice melting. When a material can exist as a solid, a liquid
and a gas but goes directly from a solid to a gas without passing through the liquid phase, the
material is said to sublime. Dry ice sublimes at atmospheric pressures and room temperature. Frozen
water will sublime if the temperature is 0C or below and the frozen water is placed in a vacuum
chamber at a pressure of 4.6 mm or less. Under such conditions the water will remain frozen and
water molecules will leave the ice block at a faster rate than water molecules from the surrounding
atmosphere re enter the frozen block.
Within the vacuum chamber heat is applied to the frozen food to speed sublimation and if
the vacuum is maintained sufficiently high, usually within a range of about 0.1 to 2 mm mercury
and the heat is controlled just sort of melting the ice, moisture vapor will sublime at a near
maximum rate. Sublimation takes place from the surface of ice, and so as it continues the ice front
recedes towards the center of the food piece; that is, the food dries from the surface inward. Finally
the last of the ice sublimes and the food is below 5% moisture. Since the frozen food remains rigid
during sublimation, escaping water molecules leave voids behind them resulting in porous sponge-
like dried structure. Thus, freeze dried foods reconstitute rapidly but also must be protected from
ready absorption of atmospheric moisture and O2 by proper packaging.
In this diagram a heating plate is positioned above and below the food to increase heat
transfer rate, but an open space is left with suspended metal so as not to seal off escape sublimed
water molecules. Nevertheless, as drying progress and the ice front recedes, drying rate drops off for
several reasons. Thus, the porous dried layer ahead of the receding ice layer acts as an effective
insulation against further heat transfer of the porous layer slow down the rate of escape of water
molecules subliming from the surface.
15.13. Foam mat drying
The foam is deposited on a perforated tray or belt support as a uniform layer approximately
5 mm thick. Just before the perforated support enters the heated oven it is given a mild air blast from
below. This forms small craters in the stiff foam which further expands foam surface and increases
drying rate. At oven temperature of about 82C foam layers of many foods can be dried to about 2
to 3% moisture approximately 12 min.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

15.14. Dehydration of fruits

A great volume of fruit is sold as dry fruit with a moisture content of 15 to 25%. This can be
achieved by placing fruit in trays for either sun drying, kiln drying or tunnel drying. Some fruit juice
powders have been produced by adding corn syrup to the juice and vacuum or spray drying.
Dehydration affords a means of producing dried fruits of new forms and better quality than
is possible by sun drying. The common process of dehydration of fruits is given below.
Apples are usually sorted, washed, peeled and trimmed, sulfite treated and dried in kilns.
Apricots, peaches and nectarines are commonly dried in the sun. Apricots should be sulfured for 3
to 4 h, and peaches and nectarines for 4 to 6 h. These fruits are usually steam blanched before
drying.
Pears to be dehydrated are blanched prior to sulfuring. Drying usually required 24-30 h.
Prunes are thoroughly washed then dried in a tunnel drier for 18 to 24 h, prunes can be tree dried.
Grape dehydration depends in part on the particular variety of grape. Seedless grapes may
be lye-dipped and sulfured before drying in the sun. Other raisins are handled similarly except that
after sulfuring. They may be dehydrated in a tunnel drier. Fig undergo considerable drying on the
tree. Those harvested for drying may be spread on trays and sun dried, or they may be washed and
dehydrated. Other fruits that are commercially dehydrated are cherries and loganberries. Freeze
dried fruits are of exceptionally fine quality.
15.15. Dehydration of vegetables
In dehydration of vegetables, enzyme systems must be inactivated. This is accomplished
usually by heating in boiling water or steam. Many vegetables are more stable if given a treatment
with sulfur dioxide or a sulfite. The moisture content of vegetables should be less than 4% if
satisfactory storage life and quality retention are to occur. Residual moisture contents can be
reduced to these levels in practice by in-package desiccants.
Vegetables are usually dried in tunnel, cabinet or belt driers. For some powdered vegetable
products, drum driers and spray driers have been used. The amount of dried vegetables on the
market is relatively small and limited in variety. Potatoes are the largest single item. Most of the
other products are items such as onion, celery, parsley and their powders which can be used a
flavouring ingredients. Some dehydrated vegetables are sold in soup mixes and some are used in
manufacturing canned products.
Before blanching vegetables must be prepared. Cabbage is shredded, carrots and potatoes
may be sliced or diced, green beans are sliced and dry beans may be cooked. Potatoes, carrots and
beets are usually lye peeled. Blanching times vary. In general 1 to 3 minutes is adequate for leafy
vegetables, 2 to 8 minutes for peas, beans and corn and 3 to 6 minutes for potatoes, carrots and
similar vegetables. Safe drying temperatures for most vegetables are between 60C and 62C, but
73C is permissible for cooked, dried beans, 68C for carrots and 71C for corn, and 57C for
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

onions and squash. The final moisture content desired for most vegetables is 4%, while 2 to 3% is
possible for most powders.
The combination of sulfite and low moisture greatly retards the changes occurring in dried
vegetables when held at temp of 37C. For dried white potatoes, the time for just visible degree of
browning is increased 20 fold by using 30 ppm CO2 and reducing the moisture content from 9 to
4%.
A calcium chloride treatment of potatoes for dehydration offers a means for helping to
control heat damage during drying and to control non-enzymatic browning during storage at warm
temp.
For sweet-corn dehydration, this sequence of steps is effective:
i. cutting the corn from the cob
ii. blanching kernels for a minute at 100C
iii. treating with sulfite to develop about 2000 ppm SO2.
iv. dehydrating with a forced air drier to 4% moisture.
v. hermetically sealing the product in a suitable container. This procedure which will remain
acceptable after the six months storage at 37C.
15.16. Performance of Dryers
The performance of any dryer depends on the design of overall drying system, operational
methods and maintenance. The desired performance / requirements of the drying systems are;
i. the quality of the grain must be preserved.
ii. the grain should be uniformly dried
iii. the grain should be dried fast enough to arrest mould and germination.
iv. dryer should be efficient in heat utilization.
The performance will be measured from the following factors;
i. the static pressure of the hot air in the plenum chamber
ii. moisture content of the grain initially, at the top, bottom, at various points.
iii. the dry bulb temperature and humidity of the ambit air
iv. the temperature and relative humidity of the air exit from the dryer
v. blower speed
vi. fuel consumed / power consumed
vii. actual drying period
viii. milling quality of the dried material.
Factors affecting the performance of the dryer are;
i. initial moisture content of the produce / grain
ii. final moisture content
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

iii. drying air temperature and relative humidity of air

iv. air flow rate
v. area of dryer
vi. bed thickness
The following are the performance measures of the dryers;
Overall thermal efficiency = (Amount of heat utilised / Amount of heat available) x 100%
Also determined by,
Overall thermal efficiency = [(Amount of water vapour removed, kg) x Latent heat of evaporation,
kJ/kg) / (Amount of fuel, kg x Net calorific value of fuel, kJ/kg)] x
100
Heat utilization factor, HUF= (Drop in dry bulb temperature of drying air,ºC / Increase in dry bulb
temperature of ambient air,ºC)
HUF = [(t2-t3)/(t2-t1)]
where,
t1 dry bulb temperature of ambient air,ºC
t2 dry bulb temperature of heated air,ºC)
t3 dry bulb temperature of exit air,ºC

Coefficient of performance, COP = [(t3-t1)/(t2-t1)]

Also HUF = [1 – COP] = 1 - [(t3-t1)/(t2-t1)] = (t2-t3)/(t2-t1)]
Solved problem:
If 500 kg of paddy at 22% moisture content (w.b.) is dried to 14% moisture content (w.b.) for
milling, calculate the amount of water removed.
Method I:
Initial moisture content = 22% w.b.
Initial weight of paddy = 500 kg
Amount of initial amount of water present = (22/100) x 500 = 110 kg
Dry matter present in paddy = 500 – 110 = 390 kg
Final moisture content = [weight of water / (weight of water + dry matter)] x 100%
14 = [(ww)/ (ww+ 390)] x 100
Ww = [(0.14 x 390) / 0.86] = 63.49 kg
Amount of water removed = 110 – 63.49 = 46.51 kg.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Method II:
Initial moisture content = 22% w.b.
Initial weight of paddy = 500 kg
Amount of initial amount of water present = (22/100) x 500 = 110 kg
Dry matter present in paddy = 500 – 110 = 390 kg
Initial moisture content = Mi = (0.22)/(1-0.22) = 28.2% d.b.
Final moisture content, Mf = 0.14/1-0.14 x 100 = 16.27% d.b.
Amount of moisture removed per 100 kg of paddy (on dry matter basis)= (Mi - Mf)
Amount of water to be removed for the dry matter of 390 kg = [(Mi - Mf)/100] x 390
= 46.51 kg.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Lecture No. 16
Material handling equipment - introduction, screw conveyor working principle, and
selection.
Material handling equipment are used for handling the raw materials/ products in the industry
level. They reduce the manual handling of the grains and other products. The commonly used
material handling equipment in grain and seed processing industries are, bucket elevator, screw
conveyor, belt conveyor, etc. These material handing equipment are selected based on the
requirement and without causing any damage to the grain/ seeds/ products. The use of material
handling equipment reduces the labourer requirements, reduces the handling time, increases the
outturn, improves efficiency of operation, minimize spilling losses, etc.
16.1 Screw conveyor
Screw conveyor is one of the important materials handling equipment used in the seed
processing industries. The screw conveyor is used in grain handing facilities, animal feed
industries and other installation for conveying of product generally for short distance. The
materials held between two screws (pitch) will be conveyed while in rotation due to the helical
path taken by the screw.
Let
D - diameter of screw, cm
d - diameter of screw shaft, cm
p - pitch of the screw, cm
N - speed of the screw, rpm
 - bulk density of the seed/grain kg/m3
L - length of the screw, m
 (D-d)2 p
Volume of material held in one pitch, v = m3
4 x 106

 (D-d)2 p N 60 
Weight of material conveyed / handled in one hour, Q theo = kg/h
6
4 x 10

From the theoretical capacity and using the actual capacity measured, the conveying
efficiency can be calculated as follows:
Conveying = (Qactual / Qtheo) x 100%

The screw conveyor consists of tubular of U Shaped trough in which a shaft with spiral screw
revolves. The screw shaft is supported by end and hanger bearings. The rotation of screw pushes
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

the grain along the trough. The pitch of a standard screw which is the distance form the centre of
one thread to the centre of next thread is equal to its diameter.
The screw conveyor is generally used to moves grains horizontally. However, it can also
be used at any angle up to 900 from the horizontal, but the capacity correspondingly reduced as
per the inclination of conveyance. Screw conveyors can be operated an inclined position. In this
case, the material will be conveyed upward. The capacity of inclined screw conveyor decreases
than the horizontal operation. A screw conveyor inclined 15 degrees will be carry about 75% of
the rated horizontal capacity. At an inclination of 25 degree, it will carry about 50% of the rated
horizontal capacity. Loading and discharge of a screw conveyor can take place at several places.
The loading of a horizontal or inclined screw conveyor is generally accomplished trough a
supply chute connected at the flat trough cover. A special feeding device is provided for loading
of material in vertical and tabular screw conveyor. The product supply should be regular to
avoid overfilling and congestion in a screw conveyor. To regularise product flow an adjustable
opening at the feeding point should be provided. The product can be discharged either at the end
of the screw or the intermediate discharge can be achieved trough an opening in the bottom of
the trough.
Screw conveyors are also used to handle finely divided powders, damp, sticky, heavy
viscous materials, not substance that may be chemically active and granular Material of all type.
Main parts of screw conveyor are,
Screw blade or flight,
Screw shaft,
Coupling
Trough,
Cover,
Inlet and outlet gates,
Bearing and
Drive Mechanism.
Screw Blade
The screw basically consists of a shaft and the screw blade or flight. The flight is a continuous
one piece helix, shaped from a flat strip of steel welded into the shaft.
Screw shaft
The screw shaft is usually a joint less tube with thick sides and a high tensile strength to reduce
the weight.
Trough: There is various shape of screw conveyor trough.
1. U-trough
2. Flared trough
3. Tubular trough and
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Most commonly used U shaped trough. In an enlarged or flared trough the sidewalls
sidew become
wider at the top. This type of trough is used for conveying non
non-easy
easy lowing material i.e. lumps
the tubular trough is completely closed with circular
circular-section
section and mostly used for conveying
material at inclination or of vertical lift

Fig.16.1. Screw conveyor

Coupling
The coupling is made by a shaft insert connecting the two ends by bolting.
Bearing
The intermediate bearing should be compact & suspended from above so that the material path is
unobstructed. Sealing of these intermediate bearing is Important unless they are not lubricated.
Regarding the end bearings, one of these should be capable of taking up the axial thrust in screw
in addition to the radial load. The axial load on the screw is always directed opposite to the
direction of conveyor.
Covers
Two types common to requirement the flanged type with flanged cover installed and the angle
flanged type without cover.
Inlet and discharge opening
Inlet openings may be cut into the conveyor trough cover wherever needed. Inlet opening should
shou
be kept at a sufficient distance from hanger bearings to prevent clogging or choking at the point
and discharge spouts may be flared or made longer to meet special machinery needs. A standard
opening is square and equal to the inside width of the troug
trough.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Drive arrangement
Because most screw conveyors are operated at relatively low speeds and electric motors operate
at relatively high speeds, a speed reducer is essential. Drives can be directed coupled or belt or
chain connected.
16.2 Belt conveyor
A belt conveyor is an endless belt operating between two pulley with its load supported
on idlers. The belt may be flat for transporting bagging material or V- shaped or some other
enclosed shape for moving bulk grain. The belt conveyor consists of a belt, drive mechanism and
end pulleys, idlers and loading and discharge devices.
Belt conveyor have antifriction bearing, therefore these have a high mechanical
efficiency. Material carried by belt conveyor lie still on surface of belt or there is no relative
motion between product and belt. This result in generally and no damage to material. Belt can
be run at higher speeds, so large carrying capacity are possible. Horizontally the material can be
transported to longer distance but there is a limit to carry the material on elevation. A properly
designed and maintained belt conveyor has long service life and low operation costs. Compare to
other types of horizontal conveyor system, the initial cost of belt conveyor high for short
distances. But for longer distances, the initial cost of belt conveying system is competitive or
low. For these reasons belt conveyor are used to carry grain in processing plants.
The design of belt conveyor system is based on available space, horizontal conveying length and
conveying lift, characteristics of the material to be conveyed and capacity requirement. The
selection of belt width will depend upon the capacity requirement, speed of operation, and angle
of inclination of belt conveyor, trough angle and depth. The capacity of belt conveyor can be
given by;
Capacity m3 / hour = (area of cross section, m2) x (belt speed, m/min) x 60
A trough angle (B) of 20 is best suited for paddy and most other grains. Other common
trough angles are 30 and 45. Paddy forms a surcharge angle (A) of 20. Other common
surcharge angle ranges between 5 and 30
The majority of belt conveyors for transporting bulk material use some type of rubberized
conveyor belt made up of carcass. The pull of load is taken by the longitudinal strength of belt
while the transverse strength supports the load. The belt is protected from damage by a rubber
cover. The thickness of top rubber cover varies with thickness and wear resistance requirements.
Belt conveyor idlers
The efficiency of belt conveyor is largely dependent on idlers. For higher efficiency of
belt conveying system, the idlers must be accurately made and provide a rigid framework. This
maintains a permanent, well-balanced smooth running alignment. These are, in general, three
kinds of belt carrying idlers, which are used in handling of bulk material. The type idlers affected
the cross- sectional load on the belt.
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

drive pulley

non troughing idler

snubber idler
( power source)

Fig.16.2. Belt conveyor

The flat belt idlers are used for granular material having an angle of repose of not less
than 35. Flat belt idlers are preferred for low capacity requirements where inexpensive or low
cost conveying is desired. It is mainly used for transporting of small particle light weight
material like grain cotton seed etc. it is also use for carrying heavier, medium size lumps
l like
crushed stones
Cyclone separators
Cyclone separators or hydro cyclones are gas gas- or liquid-cleaning
cleaning devices. The slurry
mixture to be cleaned is sent into the separator so that the mixture moves in a circular pattern
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

around the separator. Centrifugal

gal force created by this spinning stream forces heavier particles to
the outer edges, while lighter particles remain in the carrier material. The heavier particles are
removed from the separator via the lower opening. Lighter particles along with the carrier carr
medium exit through the vortex finder located at the top of the separator. Cyclones are very
popular because there are no moving parts that can wear out or break. With no moving parts
involved and mainly consisting of a drum with a funnel on the bottom and inlet and exit ports, a
cyclone. Separator is fairly simple to build and inexpensive.

Fig.16.3. Cyclone separator

 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

Lecture No. 17

Bucket elevator- head section-Boot section-elevator legs- elevator belts- bucket drive
mechanism- Screw conveyor and pneumatic conveyor working principle and selection
17.1 Bucket elevator
Bucket elevator is the only equipment used in material handling to convey the material in
vertical direction. It consists of a series of buckets or cups arranged in an endless that belt
moving between two flat pullies. The cups will be filled with the grains during upward
movement from the hopper and discharged at the top due to centrifugal force. The capacity of
the elevator depends on the size of bucket/cup and speed of operation.
A bucket elevator consists of bucket attached to a chain or belt that revolves around two pulleys
one at top and the other at bottom. The vertical lift of the elevator may range between few meters
to more than 50 m. capacity of bucket elevators may vary from 2 to 1000 tonnes/hour. Bucket
elevator are broadly classified into two general types,
Spaced bucket elevators; the spaced bucket elevators are further classified as,
 Centrifugal discharge elevators
 Positive –discharge elevators
 Marine leg elevators
 High – speed elevators
Continuous bucket elevators the Continuous bucket elevators are further classified as,
 Super capacity bucket elevators
 Internal –discharge bucket elevators
The spaced bucket centrifugal discharge type is most commonly used for elevating the
grains. A centrifugal discharge bucket elevator is shown in Fig.16.4. The bucket elevator is
efficient device for the vertical conveyance of bulk grain. Bucket elevators with belts are
employed in food industries for vertical conveyance off grains, derivates and flours. Bucket
elevators are usually mounted at affixed location, but they can also be mounted in a mobile
frame. Bucket elevators have capacities
It required limited horizontal space and the operation of conveying is enclosed in
housing, thus it is dust free and fairly quite. The bucket elevator has limited wear problem since
the product is enclosed in buckets.
In bucket elevator, the conveyor belt with bucket runs over pulley at the upper and lower
ends. The top pulley is driven puller while the lower pulley is return and tension pulley. Buckets
are usually made of plastic or steel and are bolted onto the belt. Bucket may be enclosed in a
single housing called leg, or two legs may be used. The return leg may be located at some
distance from the elevator leg. The housing or legs are also made of steel, are welded or bolted
together, and are dust tight. The curved hood is designed for proper centrifugal discharge of the
grains. The boot can be load from the front or back or both. The various discharge types of
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

bucket elevator are shown in Fig. 16.5. The product flow is discharged either by means of
gravity or centrifugal force

Fig.16.5. Centrifugal discharge bucket elevator

a. Low speed discharge
Fig.16.4. Bucket elevator
b. High speed discharge

The bucket elevator’s capacity mainly depend on bucket size, conveying speed , bucket
design and spacing, the way of loading and unloading, the bucket and the characteristic of bulk
material. Bucket elevators with a belt carries can be used at fairly high speeds of 2.5 to 4m/s. the
speed of the belt depends on the head puller speed. If the belt speed is too low, the discharge of
the grains more difficult, with too high speed the buckets are not fed well.
The gravitational discharge occurs with non non-adhesives
adhesives bulk material elevated at low
speed and by means of buckets mounted closely together. In such discharge, the contents of a
buckets flow over the rear side of the previous bucket. With purely centrifugal discharge,
complete contents of a bucket are projected towards the discharge chute. Such type of discharge
is obtainable with high belt speeds and smaller diameter drive pulleys. In elevating of grains the
discharge
scharge from bucket elevator is a combination of centrifugal and gravitational discharge. Part
of the bucket contents is projected by the centrifugal force; the rest flows out by gravity.
When a product mass turns around a pulley, it is influenced by two forces, Gravitational
force which is oriented downward and Centrifugal force.
The magnitude of the centrifugal force which is oriented outward can be given by
WV 2
cf = gr
Where, W = weight of grain, g
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

V = velocity of product mass, m/s

g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
r = radius of the wheel plus one –half of the projection of the bucket
For optimum centrifugal discharge, and calculation of the speed of head pulley, the resultant
force is zero, it means that the centrifugal force is equal to the force of gravity or c f = W
WV 2
Hence W= gr
2nr
Since velocity, V = 60 (n = rpm)
2nr
 gr
60

60 g r 29.9
n 
2 r r r
For proper discharge of the material, the weight of the material in each cup should be equal to
the centrifugal force created by the rotation as,
The bucket elevator’s capacity may be calculated by the following equation.
Elevator capacity, m3 /hour = bucket capacity, m3 x number of bucket per meter of belt x belt
speed, m/min. x 60
capacity , m 3 / hourxmater ialdensity , kg / m 3
Capacity, tonnes/hour = 1000
The main components of a bucket elevator are,
Elevator head section
Elevator boot section
Elevator legs
Belt for bucket elevator bucket
Bucket
Let,
n - number of cups/buckets per metre length of belt
v - volume of each cup, cm3
V - velocity of belt, m/min
 - bulk density of material, kg/m3
s - spacing between two cups, cm
L - height of the elevator, m
 APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

100
n=
s

The quantity of material held in the cups for 1 metre length of belt,
100 v
W1m = X kg/m
s 106

If the belt moves at V m/minute speed, the theoretical capacity of the conveyor,
6 V v
Qtheoretical = kg /h
s 103