Chapter 2
Circuit Theory
Chapter 2: Outline
2.1 Ohm’s Law
2.2 Series Circuit
2.3 Parallel Circuit
2.4 Series-Parallel Circuit
2.5 Kirchhoff's Law
2.6 Thevenin’s Theorem
2.1 Ohm’s Law
Review of V, I, and R
Voltage is the amount of energy per charge
available to move electrons from one point to
another in a circuit and is measured in volts
Current is the rate of charge flow and is measured
in ampere
Resistance is the opposition to current and is
measured in ohms
2.1 Ohm’s Law
The most important fundamental law in electronics is
Ohm’s law, which relates voltage, current, and resistance.
Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854) formulated the
equation that bears his name:
V
I
R
What is the current in a circuit with a 12 V
source if the resistance is 10 W?
1.2 A
2.1 Ohm’s Law
If you need to solve for voltage, Ohm’s
law is:
V IR
What is the voltage across a 680 W
resistor if the current is 26.5 mA?
18 V
2.1 Ohm’s Law
If you need to solve for resistance, Ohm’s law is:
V
R
I
OFF V
115 V Hz
mV
What is the (hot) A Range
Autorange
Touch/Hold
1s
1s
resistance of the
10 A
V
bulb?
40 mA COM
Fused
132 W
2.1 Ohm’s Law
A student takes data for a resistor and fits
the straight line shown to the data. What
is the conductance and the resistance of
the resistor?
16
The slope represents 14
the conductance.
14.8 mA - 0 mA
G 1.48 mS 12
I (mA)
10.0 V - 0 V
The reciprocal of the 8
conductance is the
4
resistance:
1 1
R 676 Ω 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
G 1.48 mS
V (V)
2.1 Ohm’s Law
Graph of Current versus Voltage
Notice that the plot of
10
current versus voltage
for a fixed resistor is a 8.0
line with a positive
Current (mA)
6.0
slope. What is the
resistance indicated by 4.0
the graph?
2.7 kW 2.0
What is its 0
0 10 20 30
conductance? Voltage (V)
0.37 mS
2.1 Ohm’s Law
Graph of Current versus Resistance
If resistance is
10
varied for a
constant voltage, 8.0
the current versus
Current (mA)
6.0
resistance curve
plots a hyperbola. 4.0
2.0
0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0
Resistance (kW )
What is the curve
for a 3 V source?
2.2 Series Circuit
All circuits have three common attributes.
These are:
R1
1. A source of voltage.
2. A load. VS + R2
3. A complete path. R3
2.2 Series Circuit
A series circuit is one that has only one current path.
R1 R1
R2
VS R2 VS R1 R2 R3 VS
R3 R3
2.2 Series Circuit
Because there is only one path, the current everywhere
is the same.
For example, the reading on the first ammeter is 2.0 mA,
What do the other meters read?
+ 2.0 mA_ R1 + 2.0 mA_
VS R2
_ _
2.0 mA+ 2.0 mA+
2.2 Series Circuit
The total resistance of resistors in series is the sum
of the individual resistors.
For example, the resistors in a series circuit are 680
W, 1.5 kW, and 2.2 kW. What is the total resistance?
R1
680W
VS R2
12V 1.5kW 4.38 kW
R3
2.2kW
2.2 Series Circuit
Tabulating current, resistance,
voltage and power is a useful R1
way to summarize parameters
680W
in a series circuit. VS R2
12V 1.5kW
R3
Continuing with the previous
example, complete the 2.2kW
parameters listed in the Table.
I1= 2.74 mA R1= 0.68 kW V1= 1.86 V P1= 5.1 mW
I2= 2.74 mA R2= 1.50 kW V2= 4.11 V P2= 11.3 mW
I3= 2.74 mA R3= 2.20 kW V3= 6.03 V P3= 16.5 mW
IT= 2.74 mA RT= 4.38 kW VS= 12 V PT= 32.9 mW
2.2 Series Circuit
Voltage sources in series
Voltage sources in series add
+
algebraically. For example, the total 9V
voltage of the sources shown is 27 V
+
9V
+
+
9V
What is the total voltage if one battery
is accidentally reversed? 9 V
2.2 Series Circuit
Voltage divider rule
The voltage drop across any given resistor in a series
circuit is equal to the ratio of that resistor to the
total resistance, multiplied by source voltage.
VS
R1
Assume R1 is twice the 12 V
size of R2. What is the
voltage across R1? R2
8V
2.2 Series Circuit
R1
Voltage divider
15 kW
VS + R2
20 V 10 kW
What is the voltage across R2?
The total resistance is 25 kW.
Applying the voltage divider formula: Notice that 40% of the
source voltage is across
R 10 kW
V2 2 VS 20 V 8.0 V R2, which represents 40%
RT 25 kW of the total resistance.
2.2 Series Circuit
Voltage divider
Voltage dividers can be set up for a variable output
using a potentiometer. In the circuit shown, the output
voltage is variable.
R1
20 kW
VS +
15 V
What is the largest output R2
10 kW VOUT
voltage available?
5.0 V
2.2 Series Circuit
A
Voltage measurements
R1
5.0 kW
Voltage is relative and is measured with VS +
12 V B
respect to another point in the circuit.
R2
10 kW
Voltages that are given with respect to ground are C
shown with a single subscript. For example, VA
means the voltage at point A with respect to
ground (called reference ground). VB means the
voltage at point B with respect to ground. VAB
means the voltage between points A and B.
What are VA, VB, and VAB for the circuit
shown?
VA = 12 V VB = 8 V VAB = 4 V
2.2 Series Circuit
Voltage measurements A
R1
Ground reference is not always at 5.0 kW
VS +
the lowest point in a circuit. Assume 12 V B
the ground is moved to B as shown. R2
10 kW
C
What are VA, VB, and VC for the circuit?
VA = 4 V VB = 0 V VC = -8 V
Has VAB changed from the previous circuit?
No, it is still 4 V
2.2 Series Circuit
Voltage measurements A
R1
5.0 kW
VS +
12 V B
Assume that R2 is open. For this R2
case, what are VA, VB, and VC for 10 kW
the circuit? C
If R2 is open, there is no current. Notice that VB = 0 V
because it is ground and VA = 0 V because it has the
same potential as VB. VC = -12 V because the source
voltage is across the open.
2.3 Parallel Circuit
Resistors that are connected to the same
two points are said to be in parallel.
A
R1 R2 R3 R4
B
2.3 Parallel Circuit
A parallel circuit is identified by the
fact that it has more than one current
path (branch) connected to a
common voltage source.
+ R1 R2 R3 R4
VS
2.3 Parallel Circuit
Parallel circuit rule for voltage
Because all components are connected across the same voltage
source, the voltage across each is the same.
For example, the source voltage is 5.0 V. What will a volt- meter
read if it is placed across each of the resistors?
+5.0 V +5.0 V +5.0 V +5.0 V
- + - + - + - +
VS R1 R2 R3
+5.0 V 680 W 1.5 kW 2.2 kW
2.3 Parallel Circuit
The total resistance of resistors in parallel is
the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual resistors.
For example, the resistors in a parallel circuit
are 680 W, 1.5 kW, and 2.2 kW. What is the total
resistance?
+ R1 R2 R3
VS
680 W 1.5 kW 2.2 kW
386 W
2.3 Parallel Circuit
Special case for resistance
of two parallel resistors R1 R2
The resistance of two parallel resistors can be
found by either:
1 or
RT RT
R1 R2
1 1
R1 R2
R1 R2
What is the total resistance if R1 = 27 kW and R2 = 56
kW?
18.2 kW
2.3 Parallel Circuit
+ R1 R2 R3
VS
680 W 1.5 kW 2.2 kW
Tabulating current, resistance, voltage and power is a useful
way to summarize parameters in a parallel circuit.
Continuing with the previous example, complete the
parameters listed in the Table.
I1= 7.4 mA R1= 0.68 kW V1= 5.0 V P1= 36.8 mW
I2= 3.3 mA R2= 1.50 kW V2= 5.0 V P2= 16.7 mW
I3= 2.3 mA R3= 2.20 kW V3= 5.0 V P3= 11.4 mW
IT= 13.0 mA RT= 386 W VS= 5.0 V PT= 64.8 mW
2.3 Parallel Circuit
Current divider
When current enters a node (junction) it divides into
currents with values that are inversely proportional to
the resistance values.
The most widely used formula for the current divider is
the two-resistor equation. For resistors R1 and R2,
R2 R1
I1 IT and I2 IT
R1 R2 R1 R2
Notice the subscripts. The resistor in the numerator is
not the same as the one for which current is found.
2.3 Parallel Circuit
Current divider
Assume that R1is a 2.2 kW resistor that is
in parallel with R2, which is 4.7 kW. If the
total current into the resistors is 8.0 mA,
what is the current in each resistor?
R2 4.7 kW
I1 IT 8.0 mA = 5.45 mA
R1 R2 6.9 kW
R1 2.2 kW
I2 I
T 8.0 mA = 2.55 mA
R1 R2 6.9 kW
Notice that the larger resistor has the smaller current.
2.4 Series-Parallel Circuit
Identifying series-parallel relationships
Most practical circuits have
combinations of series and
parallel components.
Components that are connected
in series will share a common
path.
Components that are 1 2
connected in parallel will be
connected across the same
two nodes.
2.4 Series-Parallel Circuit
Combination circuits
Most practical circuits have various combinations of
series and parallel components. You can frequently
simplify analysis by combining series and parallel
components.
An important analysis method is to form an
equivalent circuit. An equivalent circuit is one that
has characteristics that are electrically the same as
another circuit but is generally simpler.
2.4 Series-Parallel Circuit
R1
Combination circuits
V + S
270 W
10 V
R2 R3
330 W 470 W
Tabulating current, resistance, voltage and power is
a useful way to summarize parameters. Solve for
the unknown quantities in the circuit shown.
I1= 21.6 mA R1= 270 W V1= 5.82 V P1= 126 mW
I2= 12.7 mA R2= 330 W V2= 4.18 V P2= 53.1 mW
I3= 8.9 mA R3= 470 W V3= 4.18 V P3= 37.2 mW
IT= 21.6 mA RT= 464 W VS= 10 V PT= 216 mW
2.4 Series-Parallel Circuit
Loaded voltage divider
R1
+
A
The voltage-divider equation
R2 R3
was developed for a series
circuit. Recall that the output
voltage is given by
R2
V2 VS
RT
A voltage-divider with a resistive load is a
combinational circuit and the voltage divider is said to
be loaded. The loading reduces the total resistance
from node A to ground.
2.4 Series-Parallel Circuit
Loaded voltage divider
VS =
+15 V R1
330 W
A
What is the voltage across R3? R2 R3
470 W 2.2 kW
Form an equivalent series circuit by combining R2 and
R3; then apply the voltage-divider formula to the
equivalent circuit:
R2,3 R2 R3 470 W 2.2 kW = 387 W
R2,3 387 W
V3 V2,3 VS 15 V 8.10 V
R R 330 W 387 W
1 2,3
2.4 Series-Parallel Circuit
Stiff voltage divider
A stiff voltage-divider is one in VS R1
which the loaded voltage nearly
the same as the no-load voltage.
To accomplish this, the load R2 RL
current must be small compared
to the bleeder current (or RL is
large compared to the divider
resistors).
If R1 = R2 = 1.0 kW, what value of RL will make the
divider a stiff voltage divider? What fraction of the
unloaded voltage is the loaded voltage?
RL > 10 R2; RL should be 10 kW or greater. For a 10
kW load, This is 95% of
R2 || RL 0.91 kW the unloaded
VL
S
V VS 0.476 VS voltage.
R1 R2 || RL 1.0 kW 0.91 kW
2.5 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Kirchhoff’s voltage law
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) is generally stated as:
The sum of all the voltage drops around a single closed
path in a circuit is equal to the total source voltage in
that closed path.
KVL applies to all circuits, but you must apply it to
only one closed path. In a series circuit, this is (of
course) the entire circuit. n
A mathematical shorthand way of writing KVL is Vi 0
i 1
2.5 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Kirchhoff’s voltage law R1
Notice in the series example 680W
VS R2
given earlier that the sum of 12V 1.5kW
the resistor voltages is equal R3
to the source voltage.
2.2kW
I1= 2.74 mA R1= 0.68 kW V1= 1.86 V P1= 5.1 mW
I2= 2.74 mA R2= 1.50 kW V2= 4.11 V P2= 11.3 mW
I3= 2.74 mA R3= 2.20 kW V3= 6.03 V P3= 16.5 mW
IT= 2.74 mA RT= 4.38 kW VS= 12 V PT= 32.9 mW
2.5 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Kirchhoff’s current law
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) is generally stated as:
The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the
sum of the currents leaving the node.
Notice in the previous example that the current from the
source is equal to the sum of the branch currents.
I1= 7.4 mA R1= 0.68 kW V1= 5.0 V P1= 36.8 mW
I2= 3.3 mA R2= 1.50 kW V2= 5.0 V P2= 16.7 mW
I3= 2.3 mA R3= 2.20 kW V3= 5.0 V P3= 11.4 mW
IT= 13.0 mA RT= 386 W VS= 5.0 V PT= 64.8 mW
2.5 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Kirchhoff’s current law can also be applied to the
same circuit. What are the readings for node A?
I I
+ - A + -
26.5 mA 8.0 mA
R2
I 470 W
+ + - R4
VS 18.5 mA
5.0 V
100 W
R1 R3 R5
270 W 330 W 100 W
R6
100 W
2.5 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Kirchhoff’s laws can be
applied as a check on the R1
answer. VS + 270 W
10 V
R2 R3
Notice that the current in R1 is 330 W 470 W
equal to the sum of the branch
currents in R2 and R3.
The sum of the voltages around the outside loop is zero.
I1= 21.6 mA R1= 270 W V1= 5.82 V P1= 126 mW
I2= 12.7 mA R2= 330 W V2= 4.18 V P2= 53.1 mW
I3= 8.9 mA R3= 470 W V3= 4.18 V P3= 37.2 mW
IT= 21.6 mA RT= 464 W VS= 10 V PT= 216 mW
2.6 Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that any two-terminal,
resistive circuit can be replaced with a simple equivalent
circuit when viewed from two output terminals. The
equivalent circuit is:
RTH
VTH
2.6 Thevenin’s Theorem
VTH is defined asthe open circuit voltage between the
two output terminals of a circuit.
RTH is defined asthe total resistance appearing between
the two output terminals when all sources have been
replaced by their internal resistances.
RTH
VTH
2.6 Thevenin’s Theorem
What is the Thevenin voltage for the circuit?
8.76 V
What is the Thevenin resistance for the circuit? 7.30 kW
Output terminals
R1
VS 10 kW
12 V RL Remember, the
R2
load resistor
27 kW 68 kW
has no effect on
the Thevenin
parameters.
End of
Chapter 2