Pharmaceutical Technology &

Modern Pharmaceutics

CHAPTERWISE NOTES
Capsule
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PHARMACEUTICAL TECHNOLOGY & MODERN PHARMACEUTICS

Capsule

● Capsules are solid dosage form in which the drug substance is enclosed within a hard or soft soluble
shell generally formed from.
● Capsules are mainly of two types:ki

● Limitations:
● Not for highly soluble materials (KCl, KBr, NH₄Cl, Iodine) → May cause stomach irritation.
● Not for efflorescent materials → Shell softens.
● Not for deliquescent materials → Shell becomes brittle.

CAPSULE SHELL COMPOSITION

1. Gelatin:
● Main Component: Gelatin (a heterogeneous product from hydrolytic extraction of animal collagen).
● Types of Gelatin:
○ Type A: Derived from acid-treated precursor, isoelectric point pH ~9.
○ Type B: Derived from alkali-treated precursor, isoelectric point pH ~4.7.
● Blends Used for Hard Capsules:
○ Bone Gelatin: Produces tough, firm film but is hazy and brittle.
○ Pork Skin Gelatin: Provides plasticity and clarity, reducing haze.
● Acid-Bone Gelatin:
○ Prepared from bone using Type A processing techniques.
○ Isoelectric point pH 5.5–6.0.
○ Offers intermediate physical characteristics between Type A and Type B.

BLOOM STRENGTH AND VISCOSITY OF GELATIN

1. Bloom Strength (Gel Strength): Bloom strength measures the cohesive strength
of crosslinking between gelatin molecules, proportional to molecular weight.
● Measured by the weight (in grams) needed to push a 0.5-inch plastic plunger 4
mm deep into a 6⅔% gelatin gel held at 10°C for 17 hours.
● Range: Typically 150–250 g, depending on manufacturer requirements.
● Higher Bloom strength = More physically stable capsule shell.
● Higher Bloom gelatin is more expensive, affecting the cost of soft capsules.
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2. Viscosity of Gelatin: Measures the molecular chain length, determining manufacturing characteristics
of the gelatin film.
● Measurement:
○ Tested in 6% gelatin solution at 60°C.
○ Viscosity range: 25–45 millipoise, but specific formulations maintain narrow ranges (e.g., 38 ± 2
millipoise).
● Importance in Manufacturing:
○ Ensures standard sealing temperature and drying conditions.
○ Produces firm, non-tacky, non-brittle gelatin films.
● Low-viscosity (25–32 millipoise), high-Bloom (180–250 g) gelatin
○ Used for hygroscopic vehicles or solids (which absorb moisture).
○ Modified formulations reduce water content by up to 50%, minimizing water transfer from shell to
fill material.
○ Improves ingredient stability and physical integrity of capsules.
● Iron is naturally present in gelatin, depending on water quality used in production.
● Limitation:
○ Soft gelatin capsules should not exceed 15 ppm iron.
○ High iron content can affect FD&C dyes and cause color reactions with organic compounds.
2. Plasticizers:
● Plasticizers control the hardness and flexibility of the gelatin shell.
● The ratio of dry plasticizer to dry gelatin determines the shell’s physical properties.
● Common Plasticizers:
○ Glycerin USP
○ Sorbitol USP
○ Pharmaceutical Grade Sorbitol Special
○ Combinations of the above
2. Typical Shell Hardness Ratios and Their Uses
Glycerin/Gelatin
Hardness Usage
Ratio
Hard 0.4/1 Oral, oil-based, or shell-softening products; suitable for hot, humid areas.
Medium 0.6/1 Oral, tube, vaginal, oil-based, or water-miscible products; temperate areas.
Soft 0.8/1 Tube, vaginal, water-miscible, or shell-hardening products; cold, dry areas.
● Water to Dry Gelatin Ratio:
○ Varies from 0.7 to 1.3 (water) to 1.0 (dry gelatin) based on viscosity.
○ Standard ratio: 1:1 (water: gelatin) in most formulations.
○ During drying, only water is lost, increasing gelatin and plasticizer concentration, but their ratio
remains unchanged.
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3. Additional Components in Gelatin Mass

● Category I: Functional Additives
Ingredient Concentration Purpose
Methylparaben (4 parts), Propylparaben (1 part) 0.2% Preservative
FD&C and D&C dyes, certified lakes, pigments,
q.s. Colorant
vegetable colors
Titanium dioxide 0.2–1.2% Opacifier
Ethyl vanillin 0.1% Flavoring (odor and taste)
Essential oils Up to 2% Flavoring (odor and taste)

● Category II: Special Additives

Ingredient Concentration Purpose

Sugar (sucrose) Up to 5% Chewable shell, taste improvement

Fumaric acid Up to 1% Aids solubility, prevents aldehydic tanning of gelatin

Hard Gelatin Capsules

● Hard gelatin capsules are also known as two-piece capsules, consisting of a cap and a body.
Capsule Shell Manufacturing Process:
● The capsule production machine operates automatically, performing multiple steps:
1. Dipping: Stainless steel mold pins (about 150 pairs) are dipped into a gelatin solution of controlled
viscosity to form the capsule caps and bodies.
2. Spinning: The pins rotate to ensure uniform distribution of gelatin. Cool air helps in setting or gelling
the gelatin.
3. Drying: The pins pass through controlled air drying kilns to gradually remove water and solidify
the capsules.
4. Stripping: Bronze jaws remove the capsule shells from the pins.
5. Trimming: Stationary knives trim the capsules to the exact required length.
6. Joining: The capsule cap and body are joined, completing the process.
● The total cycle time for manufacturing a batch of capsules is approximately 45 minutes.
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Moisture Content of Capsule Shells

● Optimum moisture content: 12–15%
● Below 10% moisture: Capsules become brittle, leading to dimensional changes and handling issues in
filling machines.
● Above 16% moisture: Capsules absorb excess water, leading to softening and loss of mechanical
strength. In severe cases, they may deform under their weight.
Storage and Handling of Empty Capsules
● Storage Conditions:
○ Ideal relative humidity range: 30–45%
○ Protect from extreme humidity and temperature variations.
○ Air-conditioned storage is recommended.
● Effects of Improper Storage – Capsules
○ High Humidity (↑ moisture) → Capsules absorb water → Swell, stick, deform
○ Low Humidity (↓ moisture) → Capsules lose water → Brittle, may crack
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Assuming a powder density of 0.70 g/ml, the approximate fill weights for each capsule size are as follows:
Typical Fill Weight (mg)
Capsule Size Actual Volume (ml)
(Powder Density: 0.70 g/ml)
000 1.37 960 mg
00 0.95 665 mg
0 0.68 475 mg
1 0.50 350 mg
2 0.37 260 mg
3 0.30 210 mg
4 0.21 145 mg
5 0.13 90 mg

Solid Filling Equipment for Capsules

1. Dependent Type Filling Machines: Powder is transferred directly from a hopper to the capsule body.
○ The flow is aided by either:
■ Revolving auger (higher fill weights achievable).
■ Vibrating plate (helps in even distribution).
○ Produces a loose fill of powder inside the capsule.
○ Machines Used:
■ Auger Filling Method: Eli-Lilly, Parke-Davis, Perry.
■ Vibration Assisted Filling: Osaka.
2. Independent Type Filling Machines: Powder is compressed to form a plug inside a dosator or dosing tube.
○ A movable piston controls the dosing volume.
○ Advantages:
■ Can achieve a wide range of fill weights.
■ More precise and compact filling.
○ Machines Used:
■ Tamp-Filling Method (Dosing Disk): JKF, Bosch, Hoflinger-Karg.
■ Dosator Machine: Zanasi, Macofar, MG-2, Farmatic.
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Capsule Filling Process:

1. Rectification: Empty capsules are oriented in the same direction (body end downward).
2. Separation of Body and Cap: A vacuum pulls down the capsule body into a lower portion of the filling rings.
3. Dosing of Fill Material: Different methods are used to fill the powder inside the capsule.
4. Joining and Ejection: Peg rings force the capsule body against the closing plate to seal the capsule.
Compressed air ejects the filled capsules.
5. Collection: Filled capsules are collected through a chute.
● Powder filling machines (Lilly, Parke-Davis, Hofliger & Karg, Osaka, Perry) require free-flowing
powders.
● Slug filling machines (Zanasi, Macofar, Farmatic, mG2) require cohesive powders that retain their
slug form.
Machine Name Use / Material Speed
Hofliger & Karg Bulk powder 300–2500 caps/min
Osaka Vibration principle 70,000–165,000 caps/hr
Perry Bulk powder 60,000 caps/hr
Eli Lilly / Parke-Davis Pellets / granular material 1200 caps/min
Zanasi Powder, pellets, granules, tablets 30,000–150,000 caps/hr
Farmatic Bulk powder 16,000 caps/hr
Macofar Bulk powder 3500–5000 caps/hr
mG2 Continuous motion, powder filling 150–1000 caps/min

Capsule Finishing Methods:

● Capsules require dusting/polishing before final inspection, bottling, and labeling.
Methods include:
1. Pan Polishing
○ Uses Accela-Cota pan (tablet coating pan with airflow).
○ A polyurethane/cheesecloth liner removes dust and adds gloss.
2. Cloth Dusting
○ Capsules rubbed manually with a cloth (may contain inert oil).
○ Removes stubborn dust and improves gloss.
3. Brushing
○ Capsules pass under rotating soft brushes.
○ Vacuum system removes dust.
○ May cause scratches or capsule deformation.
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● Commercial Capsule Sort/Polish Equipment:

○ Rotosort (Eli Lilly & Co.) – Filled capsule sorting machine, Removes loose powder, unfilled
capsules, loose caps; capacity: 150,000 capsules/hour.
○ Erweka KEA – Uses soft plastic tassels and vacuum.
○ PM60 (Seidenader Equipment) – Uses lamb’s wool belts and vacuum for polishing.
Imprinting on Capsules
● Adds product identification (company name, logo, drug details).
● Best on empty capsules (avoids damage and contamination).
● Types of Imprinting Equipment:
○ Hartnett – Up to 500,000 capsules/hour, including circumferential printing.
○ Markem – Models for 60,000 to 250,000 capsules/hour (two-sided printing, no circumferential).
○ Ackley– Offers 500,000 capsules/hour imprinting and circumferential printing.
● Printing Process: Rotogravure method using water/solvent-based edible inks.
Capsule Evaluation & Quality Control Tests
1. Weight Variation Test (USP XX)
● Purpose: Ensures each capsule contains the correct drug dose.
● Procedure:
1. Weigh 20 intact capsules individually.
2. Determine the average weight.
3. Check if individual weights fall within 90%–110% of the average.
4. If any capsule falls outside this range:
■ Calculate net content of each capsule.
■ Find the average net content.
■ Determine deviations from the average.
Acceptance Criteria:
● The test is passed if:
1. No more than 2 capsules deviate by >10% but <25%.
2. No capsule deviates by more than 25%.
Re-Test (if required):
● If 3 to 5 capsules deviate by 10%–25%, test 40 additional capsules.
● The total 60-capsule batch passes if:
○ No more than 6 capsules deviate by >10%.
○ No capsule deviates by more than 25%.
Automated Capsule Weight Detection Machines:
1. Rotoweigh (Eli Lilly & Co.)
○ Uses low-power X-ray backscatter detection.
○ Measures reflected energy to determine capsule weight.
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○ Automatically rejects overfilled or underfilled capsules.

○ Capacity: 73,000 capsules per hour.
○ Ensures compliance with USP weight variation limits.
2. Vericap 1200 (Modern Controls, Inc.)
○ Uses capacitance variation method.
○ Measures change in dielectric constant as capsules pass through charged plates.
○ Correlates this change to capsule weight.
○ Capsules outside weight limits are automatically separated.
○ Capacity: 73,000 capsules per hour.
Special Techniques in Capsule Formulation:
● These capsules undergo special treatment to modify solubility for delayed absorption or enteric
properties.
● Formalin Treatment: Exposure to formalin vapors or aqueous formalin cross-links gelatin
molecules, results in decreases in gelatin solubility unpredictably.
● Coating gelatin capsules with special materials to modify solubility.
● Common coatings used:
○ Salol (Phenyl salicylate)
○ Shellac
○ Cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP) (enteric coating)
○ Certain resins (for sustained release)
● Encapsulation of Controlled-Release Pellets, Granular materials, Beads to achieve delayed or
prolonged release properties.

SOFT GELATIN CAPSULES (SOFTGELS)

● A soft gelatin capsule is a one-piece, airtight capsule filled with liquid or solid drugs.
● These are commonly used for oils, liquid drugs, and suspensions.
Types of Liquids Used in Softgels
1. Water-immiscible (does not mix with water)
○ Example: Vegetable oils (soybean oil, mineral oil)
○ These are easy to encapsulate.
2. Water-miscible (can mix with water but are non-volatile)
○ Example: Polyethylene glycols (PEG 400, PEG 600)
○ These must be carefully formulated to avoid excess moisture entering the capsule.
3. Oily Active Ingredients
○ Example: Fish oil, Clofibrate (lipid-lowering drug)
○ These can act as solvents or suspending mediums for other drugs.
4. Nonionic Surface Active Agents
○ Example: Polysorbate 80
○ Helps dissolve drugs better in liquids and improves drug absorption.
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Liquids that Cannot be Used in Softgels: Water and ethyl alcohol (dissolve gelatin and cause capsules to leak),
Emulsions, Glycerin and propylene glycol (when used in large amounts, soften the capsule shell too much)
Important Considerations for Capsule Formulation
● Liquids should flow easily at room temperature.
● The capsule filling temperature should not exceed 35°C, as gelatin seals at 37-40°C.
● The pH of the contents should be between 2.5 and 7.5 to prevent capsule damage.
Base Adsorption (BA):
● BA is the number of grams of liquid base required to create a capsulatable mixture with 1 gram of solid.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
● Formula: 𝐵𝐴 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑

● Importance in SGC (Soft Gelatin Capsules) Suspensions: BA helps in formulating suspensions for soft
gelatin capsules.
Minim per Gram Factor (M/G):
𝑀 (𝐵𝐴+𝑆)×𝑉
● Formula: =
𝐺 𝑊
● Where:
○ S = Weight of solid
○ BA = Base adsorption
○ V = Volume in minims
○ W = Weight of mixture per cubic centimeter
● Application:
○ Mainly used in vitamin formulations.
○ Determines the volume occupied by 1 gram of solid + required liquid base for encapsulation.
Effects of Base Adsorption on Capsule Size:
● Lower BA → Higher mixture density → Smaller capsule size.

GELATIN PROCESSING:

1. Environmental Conditions in Manufacturing

● Air-conditioned areas maintain proper gelatin film conditioning and capsule drying.
● Temperature: 20–22°C.
● Humidity Control:
○ Operating areas: ≤40%.
○ Drying areas: 20–30%.
2. Gelatin Preparation Process
● Weighing & Mixing:
○ Gelatin is weighed using printomatic scales, Mixed with metered, chilled (7°C) liquid constituents
in a Pony Mixer.
● Melting Process:
○ Transferred to melting tanks and melted under vacuum (29.5” Hg) at 93°C. Takes about 3 hours
for melting 270 kg mass.
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● Fluid mass is visually compared with a color standard.

● Temperature Maintenance: Before and during capsulation, 57–60°C.
3. Materials Preparation
● Weighing & Mixing Area:
○ Uses printomatic scales for precise measurements.
○ Stainless steel jacketed tanks handle 10 to 450-gallon batches.
○ Cowles Mixer blends solids with liquid base.
4. Milling or Homogenization
● Equipment Used:
○ Homoloid mill, Stone mill, Hopper mill, Urschel Comitrol.
● Purpose:
○ Not to reduce particle size but to break agglomerates.
○ Ensures complete wetting of solids for a smooth mixture.
5. Deaeration (Removal of Air Bubbles)
● Achieves uniform capsule fill weights.
● Prevents oxidation (loss of potency) before/during capsulation.
● Process:
○ Uses vacuum exposure (29.5” Hg) to remove air.
○ Suspensions with volatile liquids may be deaerated at 60°C.
● Final Step:
○ After deaeration, the mixture is ready for encapsulation.

SOFT GELATIN CAPSULE MANUFACTURING PROCESSES:

1. Plate Process (Batch Process – Oldest Method)

● Two wet gelatin sheets pressed together between molds with depressions.
● Vacuum applied, forming depressions in the first sheet where the active fill is placed.
● The second gelatin sheet is placed on top, and both sheets are pressed together to seal.
● Capsules are cut, dried, and processed.
2. Rotary Die Process (Continuous Process)
● Process Steps:
1. Gelatin mass preparation:
■ Fed into a metering device (spreader box).
■ Controlled thickness gelatin ribbons (±10%) formed on air-cooled rotating drums (13–14°C).
■ Wet shell thickness: 0.025–0.032 inch (higher thickness for strength).
2. Lubrication & Capsule Formation:
■ Gelatin ribbons pass through mineral oil bath, guide rolls, and into the die system.
■ Active material metered into ribbons using a positive displacement pump.
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■ The material forces gelatin into die pockets, forming capsules.

■ Mechanical pressure & heat (37–40°C) seal the capsule.
3. Post-Processing:
■ Capsules washed with naphtha to remove mineral oil.
■ Preliminary infrared drying (removes 60–70% water).
■ Final drying under forced air (20–30% RH, 21–24°C).
■ Final moisture content: 6–10% (depends on gelatin formula).

3. Reciprocating Die Process:

● Similar process but uses a different die mechanism to encapsulate material.
4. Accogel Process (Unique for Powdered Solids)
● Only process that encapsulates dry powdered solids into soft gelatin capsules.

PROCESS PARAMETERS AFFECTING SOFTGEL MANUFACTURING

1. Temperature & Humidity Control:
○ Manufacturing areas: 20–22°C, max humidity 40%.
○ Drying areas: 21–24°C, humidity 20–30%.
2. Gelatin Preparation:
○ Weighed using printomatic scales.
○ Mixed with chilled (7°C) liquid constituents.
○ Melted under vacuum (29.5” Hg) at 93°C.
○ Color is adjusted before capsulation.
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3. Capsule Shell Thickness & Structural Strength:

○ 0.025–0.032 inch for most capsules.
○ Thicker shells = higher cost, more strength.
4. Filling & Sealing Parameters:
○ Temperature: 37–40°C during sealing.
○ Positive displacement pump ensures accurate filling.
○ Pressure forces gelatin into die pockets, forming the capsule shape.
5. Drying Process:
○ Infrared drying removes 60–70% of water.
○ Final drying at 20–30% RH, 21–24°C, for moisture content of 6–10%.

QUALITY CONTROL OF SOFT GELATIN CAPSULES:

1. In-Process Quality Control Checks

(a) Seal Thickness Check:
● Measured under a microscope to ensure proper sealing.
● Acceptable seal thickness = ½ to ⅔ of ribbon thickness.
(b) Fill Weight Check:
● Steps:
1. Fresh capsule is weighed.
2. Capsule is slit open, and the fill is removed.
3. The empty shell is washed with petroleum ether to remove remaining content.
4. The empty shell is reweighed.
● Adjustments in pump stroke ensure the correct fill weight.
(c) Moisture Content Determination:
● Done using the Toluene Distillation Method.
2. Post-Drying Inspection & Quality Control Tests
1. Seal Thickness Determination: Ensures the integrity of the capsule seal.
2. Total or Shell Moisture Tests: Maintains the required moisture level (6–10%).
3. Capsule Fragility or Rupture Test: Checks capsule strength under stress.
4. Freezing & High-Temperature Stability Tests: Assesses storage conditions' impact on capsules.
3. Capsule Diameter Sorting:
● Ensures capsule diameter is within ±0.020 inch of standard size.
● Overfilled, underfilled, or defective capsules are discarded.
● Capsules pass through a Syntron Vibrator (divergent wire lanes), sorting sizes 0.200–0.500 inch.
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PHYSICAL STABILITY AND PACKAGING OF SOFT GELATIN CAPSULES:

● Ideal storage conditions: 20–30% RH at 21–24°C.

● Effect of Low Humidity (<20% RH) and Temperature (<2°C)
○ Capsules become brittle and more susceptible to mechanical shock.
○ The effect is temporary; capsules regain flexibility when returned to normal conditions.
● Effect of High Humidity (>60% RH) at 21–24°C
○ Capsules absorb moisture, making them soft, sticky, and swollen.
● If humidity is >45% and temperature is >24°C, capsules may melt and fuse together.
● To ensure capsule integrity, manufacturers perform accelerated physical stability tests under extreme
conditions.
● Test Conditions and Observations (Conducted for 2 Weeks):
1. 80% RH at room temperature in an open container
○ Capsules absorb moisture, become sticky, swollen, or fused together.
2. 40°C in an open container
○ Capsules are stable if humidity is controlled.
3. 40°C in a closed container (glass bottle with a tight screw cap)
○ Capsules remain stable unless content reacts with the shell.
● Primary packaging should prevent moisture exchange.
● Ideal retail packaging options:
○ Blister packs (sealed aluminum foils for moisture protection).
○ Glass bottles with tight screw caps.
○ Plastic bottles with desiccants to absorb moisture.

MICROENCAPSULATION

● Microencapsulation is a technique used to coat active materials with a protective layer, enhancing
stability, release control, and protection from environmental factors.
● Core material (liquid or solid) should be selected based on drug properties and release requirements.
● Coating material should provide stability, impermeability, and controlled release properties.
Microencapsulation Process Applicable Core Material Approximate Particle Size (μm)
Air Suspension Solids 35–5000
Coacervation-Phase Separation Solids and Liquids 2–5000
Multiorifice Centrifugal Solids and Liquids 1–5000
Pan Coating Solids 600–5000
Solvent Evaporation Solids and Liquids 5–5000
Spray Drying and Congealing Solids and Liquids 600
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Category Coating Materials

Gelatin, Starch, PVP, Carboxy-methylcellulose, Hydroxyethyl cellulose,
Water-Soluble Material
Arabinogalactone, Polyvinyl alcohol, Polyacrylic acid
Ethyl Cellulose, Polyethylene, Polymethacrylate, Polyimide (Nylon), Cellulose
Water-Insoluble Material
Nitrate
Waxes and Lipids Paraffin, Carnauba, Spermaceti, Beeswax, Stearic acid
Enteric Coating Material Shellac, Zein, Cellulose acetate phthalate

 Microencapsulation Methods
 Microencapsulation is a process of coating small particles or droplets with a protective layer.
 It is used in pharmaceuticals to control drug release and protect drugs from the environment.
 Several techniques are used to create microcapsules. These include:
1. Air Suspension Method (Wurster Process)
Uses an air stream to keep particles moving
(suspended in air) while coating them.
 Works for solid particles (minimum size 37–
74 microns).
Steps:
1. Core particles are suspended in air.
2. A polymer solution (coating material) is
sprayed onto them.
3. The coating is applied in layers (several
cycles).
4. Air helps to dry the coating while the process continues.
2. Coacervation-Phase Separation Method
This method separates coating material from a solution and deposits it around the core. It has three steps:
Step 1: Formation of Three Phases
 A liquid phase (solvent), a core material, and
a coating material are mixed.
 The polymer (coating material) is dissolved in a
solvent.
 Phase separation happens using methods like:
○ Cooling the solution
○ Adding a salt, non-solvent, or another
polymer
○ Inducing polymer-polymer interaction
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Step 2: Coating Deposition

 The polymer surrounds the core material, forming microcapsules.
Step 3: Coating Rigidization
 The coating is hardened using heat, cross-linking, or solvent removal.
Types of Coacervation-Phase Separation:
A. Temperature Change Method
 Cooling causes polymer droplets to separate and form a coat around the core.
 Example: Methylene blue hydrochloride encapsulated with ethylcellulose using temperature drop.
B. Incompatible Polymer Addition
 Two polymers (X and Y) are used. One polymer forces the other to separate and coat the core.
 Example: Methylene blue hydrochloride coated with ethylcellulose using polybutadiene.
C. Nonsolvent Addition
 A liquid that does not dissolve the polymer is added.
 This makes the polymer separate and coat the core.
 Example: Methylscopolamine hydrobromide coated with cellulose acetate butyrate using
isopropyl ether.
D. Salt Addition Method
 A water-soluble polymer is mixed with an aqueous salt solution.
 The salt makes the polymer separate and coat the core.
 Example: Oil-soluble vitamins encapsulated with gelatin using sodium sulfate.
E. Polymer-Polymer Interaction
 Two oppositely charged polymers attract each other and form a coating.
 Example: Gelatin and gum arabic used for coating.
3. Multiorifice-Centrifugal Process

 Uses centrifugal force to encapsulate core particles.

 The apparatus consists of a rotating cylinder with three circumferential grooves.
 The intermediate groove contains multiple orifices through which the core material passes.
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 Coating material is supplied in molten or solution form to the upper and lower grooves.
 A rotating disc atomizes or disperses the core material, which then encounters the coating material
membrane at the orifices.
 The formed microcapsules are then hardened or congealed using various techniques like drying, cooling,
or solvent extraction.
4. Pan Coating

 It is particularly employed for preparing controlled-release beads.

 Solid core materials (>600 microns) are coated with polymers.

 The coating is applied as a solution or atomized spray.
 Warm air facilitates solvent evaporation.
5. Spray Drying and Spray Congealing

 Both techniques involve dispersing core material in a liquefied coating substance, followed by rapid
solidification.
 Spray Drying: Solidification occurs via solvent evaporation.
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 Spray Congealing: Solidification occurs via cooling or nonsolvent interaction.

 These methods produce microcapsules in the 5 to 600-micron range, often used in pharmaceutical and
food applications for encapsulating flavors and drugs.
6. Solvent Evaporation

 The coating polymer is dissolved in a volatile solvent.

 Core material is dissolved or dispersed in the polymer solution.
 Agitation disperses the mixture in a manufacturing liquid vehicle.
 Solvent evaporation results in microcapsule formation.
 The microcapsules can be suspended, coated onto substrates, or isolated as powders.
7. Polymerization

 A newer technique where polymerization occurs at an interface between the core and a continuous phase.