Manufacturing Processes

ME 4th Sem. (PC-ME404),

JGEC
Module 4 (Joining/Fastening Processes)
Topic: Welding
 Classification.
 Gas welding techniques.
 Types of welding flames.
 Arc Welding – Principle, Equipment, Applications
 Shielded metal arc welding. (Principle & Application)
 Submerged arc welding. (Principle & Application)
 TIG / MIG welding. (Principle & Application)
 Resistance welding.(Principle & Application) - Spot welding, Seam welding, Projection welding
 Welding defects.
 Brazing and soldering: Types, Principles, Applications
 Thermit Welding (Process & Applications)
 Solid State and Fusion Welding classification and types

Welding is a process in which two similar or dissimilar pieces of metals or non-metals can be joined nearly
homogeneously with or without the application of heat, with or without the application of pressure and with or
without the addition of filler materials.

In welding, the two pieces of metal called base metal is melted into entering liquid phase along with filler metal (in
most cases while in some cases filler metal is optional) and the mix of the two base metal and the filler metal solidify
(this mix is called weld metal) becoming a welded joint that connects the two pieces of base metal.

The further classification of welding is classified under how the metal is melted. If it’s melted by the heat generated
from electric arc, it’s called arc welding (e.g. SMAW (Shielded metal arc welding), GMAW(Gas metal arc welding),
TIG(Tungsten Inert Gas)), which is the most common welding method nowadays. If some pressure is utilized during
welding, it’s called resistance welding (e.g. ERW (Electric resistance welding), FSW(Friction stir welding), Spot
Welding), usually being done in the workshop because of its machine immobility.

Gas welding, a welding process that requires burning fuel to generate heat (e.g. Oxy-Acetylene Welding). A welding
process that involves chemical reaction to produce heat (e.g. thermite welding). So many processes that have the
same goal, which is to produce enough heat required to melt the metal. Because welding is defined as a process of
melting part of metal pieces before solidifying and become a weld joint.
Gas Welding Techniques
The commonly used gas welding techniques are
(i) Leftward or forehand welding
(ii) Rightward or backhand welding
(iii) Vertical welding
(iv) Overhead welding

In all the welding techniques proper cleaning and edge preparation is a must for strong welds.

Leftward Welding
It is also known as fore-hand welding. In this process the torch is held in the right hand at an angle of 40° to 50° and
the welding rod in the left hand at an angle of 30° to 40° from the workpiece as shown in Fig. below. The flame is
given circular, rotational or side to side motion to obtain uniform fusion throughout. This method is more efficient for
welding materials up to 6.00 mm thickness.

Rightward Welding
It differs from leftward welding in the direction of movement of the torch. In this system the torch moves from left
to right. The torch is held in the right hand at an angle of 60° to 70° and the filler rod in the left hand at an angle of
30° to 40° as shown in Fig. below. The cone of the flame in rightward welding is deeper than the flame in leftward
welding. This process in more suitable for welding plates above 6.0 mm thickness.

Advantages of rightward welding over leftward welding

1. The consumption of filler rod and fuel is less.
2. It is a quicker method.
3. The weld thus produced is stronger and tougher.
4. The expansion and contraction of material is lesser.
5. The molten pool is better visible, thus it gives a better control on the weld.

Vertical Welding
This process is used when plates are lying in the vertical position. In this process welding starts at the bottom of the
plates and proceeds upwards. The welding torch is held in the right hand and filler rod in the left hand. The filler rod
moves ahead of the blowpipe. This process is useful and economical for welding plates up to 6.00 mm thickness
specially the tanks, etc., that cannot be dismanted easily.
Overhead Welding
In this process the blow-pipe is held almost at right angles to the plates. The molten metal is entirely controlled by
the flame. In this process, correct degree of penetration is difficult as the welding operation is performed overhead.

Types of welding flames.

Oxy-Acetylene Welding
1) In this correct proportion of oxygen and acetylene is mixed in the welding torch.
2) This mixture is ignited, resulting the flame at the tip of torch.
3) Flame is sufficiently hot (about 3200 °C) to melt the parent metal.
4) Filler metal (filler rod) is added to these molten metal to built up the seam and assist in filling the gap between the
metals to be joined.
5) Thus the weld is completed.

In oxy-acetylene welding flame is very important tool. By changing the proportion of the oxygen and acetylene in
mixture three types of flames can be produced.
a) Neutral flame (Acetylene and oxygen in equal proportion)
b) Oxidising flame (Excess of oxygen)
c) Reducing flame (Excess of acetylene)
a) Neutral flame
1) It is named so, because it has no effect on the chemical composition of molten metal and therefore it will not
oxidize or carburize the metal.
2) It's temperature is in the order of 3250 °C.
3) Used for a) Mild steel b) Stainless steel c) Copper.

b) Oxidizing flame
1) It has more oxygen in the oxy-acetylene mixture.
2) It burns with loud roar.
3) It is more hotter than neutral flame. It's temperature is about 3400 this is because of excess oxygen.
4) It is used for a) Copper base-metals b) Zinc-base metals.
5) Excess oxygen generally at high temperature combine with many metals to form hard, brittle and low strength
oxides. So they are not used for stainless steel.

c) Reducing flame
1) It is rich in acetylene (less oxygen than acetylene in oxy-acetylene mixture).
2) The reducing flame has temperature of about 3000 °C.
3) Excess of carbon is left during operation which is forced into metals. So metal which tends to absorb carbon are
not welded by this flame.
 Arc Welding – Principle, Equipment, Applications
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It is a welding process in which, to form a molten pool of metal, heat is produced by an electric arc, generally without
the application of pressure and with or without the application of a filler metal. It uses either AC or DC for striking
the arc between the electrode and the workpiece. One terminal is connected to the electrode, the other to the
workpiece and the circuit is completed through an air gap between the electrode and the workpiece. An air gap is
generally 3 to 6 mm. The temperature of the arc varies from 3600°C to 4000°C. The commonly used arc welding
processes are
(i) Carbon arc welding
(ii) Metal arc welding
(iii) Inert gas arc welding
(iv) Submerged arc welding
(v) Atomic hydrogen welding
(vi) Shielded metal arc welding
(vii) Dip transfer arc welding

All the arc welding processes are based on the principle of striking the arc generally between the electrode and the
workpiece. The additional metal if required is supplied by the filler rod. Figure below shows an electric arc welding
circuit. The welding circuit consists of a welding machine, lead cables, electrode holder, electrode and the workpiece
itself. Other accessories required are welding helmet, chip-ping hammer, wire brush and file.

So. No. AC welding DC welding

1. A transformer contains no rotating parts. A number of rotating parts are needed to convert
AC to DC.
2. Tapping gives a number of stepped voltages. Supply is at a fixed voltage.
3. Maintenacne cost of a transformer is less. Maintenance cost of the set is high.
4. No problem of arc blow. Severe arc blow occurs which cannot he easily
controlled.
5. Only ferrous metals can be welded as polarity By changing the polarity, both ferrous and
does not exist. metals can be welded.
6. The arc is never stable. The arc is quite stable.
7. Output depends upon the voltage supplied. Output is not affected by normal variations in
power line supply.
Shielded metal arc welding. (Principle & Application)
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Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) also known as stick welding, is a manual process using a flux coated
consumable electrode with a metal rod at the core.
Alternating current or direct current forms an arc between the electrode and the base metal creates the required heat.
The flux coating disintegrates and gives off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and provides a protective layer of
slag.
Both protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination. As the metal rod inside the electrode melts it forms a
molten pool which becomes the weld.
There are several variables the welder can control that will impact the width and height of the weld bead, the
penetration of the weld and the quantity of spatter.
Stick welding is inexpensive when compared with other methods such as TIG. It is portable and works with any
thickness and in any position.
The major downside is the slag created during the welding process along with slower speeds (unless you are highly
skilled).
The basic functions of the flux ingredients are:
 Deoxidizers - Since nitrogen and oxygen can cause porosity or brittleness, deoxidizers such as manganese
and silicon are added. Both help to purify the weld metal.
 Slag Formers - Slag formers such as oxides of calcium, potassium, silicon or sodium are added to protect the
molten weld puddle from the atmosphere. The slag aids in improving the weld bead shape and “fast
freezing” slags help hold the weld puddle for out-of-position welding. The slag also retards the cooling rate,
especially important when welding the low alloy steels.
 Arc Stabilizers - Elements, such as potassium and sodium, help produce a smooth arc and reduce spatter.
  Alloying Elements - Alloying elements, such as molybdenum, chromium, carbon, manganese, nickel, and
vanadium, are used to increase strength, ductility, hardness and toughness.
 Gasifiers - Minerals, such as fluorspar and limestone, are usually used to form a shielding gas in the self-
shielded type wires.

Submerged arc welding

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It is an electric arc welding process in which welding is carried out by striking an arc between the base metal
electrode and the workpiece under the shielding of protective powder called flux .The electrode is a continuously fed
wire and flux is fed continuously ahead of the welding position. Since excessive flux is added in this process. The arc
remains continuously submerged underneath the flux and is thus known as submerged arc welding.
The pieces to be joined are properly cleaned, placed in position and power is switched on. The whole apparatus starts
working. i.e. flux is fed automatically, ahead of the arc as the torch advances. The process is continued till the whole
surface gets welded. The welds produced by submerged arc welding are sound, uniform, ductile and free from
spatter. The arc is always covered under a blanket of flux, thus heat concentration is more and power consumption is
less. This process is used for fabrication of aviation components, ship building, nuclear power industry, pressure
Vessels, boilers structural shapes, earth moving equipment and bridges.

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) or Gas Tungsten Arc welding (GTAW) (Principle & Application)
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In this arc welding process, welding heat is produced from an electric arc established between the tungsten electrode
and the job. A shielding gas (argon, helium, nitrogen etc.) is used to avoid atmospheric contamination of the molten
weld pool. Filler metal, if required is fed separately.
Shielding Gases Argon is normally preferred over helium because it requires a lower arc voltage, easier arc starting
and provides a smooth arc action. It is also economical and heaviest.
Helium can withstand the higher arc voltage so it is used where higher heat input is required.
Sometimes active gas carbon dioxide is also used as it is more economical. It requires slightly higher current. It is
normally used with only D.C. with +ve electrode.
Whereas both argon and helium can be used with A.C. as well as D.C. welding power source.

Operation This process uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode, which is mounted in a special electrode
holder. This holder is also designed to furnish a flow of inert gas around the electrode and around the arc. Welding
operation is done by striking an arc between the workpiece and tungsten electrode in an atmosphere of inert gas. The
arc is struck either by touching the electrode with a scrap metal tungsten piece or using a high frequency unit. After
striking the arc, it is allowed to impinge on the job and a molten weld pool is created. The welding torch and the filler
metal are generally kept inclined at angles of 70-80 degree and 10-20 degree respectively with the flat workpiece.
Filler metal, if required should be added by dipping the filler rod in the weld pool. When doing so, the tungsten
electrode should be taken a little away from weld pool. However the heated end of filler rod as well as the electrode
should be within the inert gas shield. Both D.C. and A.C. power source can be used.

Advantages:
 No flux is used so no danger of flux entrapment.
 Clear visibility of the arc, so better control.
 It can weld in all positions.
 High quality welding of thin materials (as thin as 0.125 mm).
 Heat affected zone is very less.
 Unlike metals can be welded to each other like mild steel to stainless steel, brass to copper etc.
Disadvantages:
 Tungsten, if transfers can contaminate the weld pool.
 Filler rod end if by chance comes out of the inert gas shield can cause weld metal contamination.
 Equipment costs are higher than flux shielded metal arc welding.
 Electrode is non-consumable, so separate filler rod is needed, so there is decrease in welding speed.
Applications:
 Welding of carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel, aluminium, magnesium, brass, copper, bronze, titanium etc.
 Welding of sheet metal and thinner sections.
 Used in aircrafts, rocket motor chambers, transistor cases, and instrument industries.
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) or Gas Metal Arc welding (GMAW) (Principle & Application)
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In this welding process, welding heat is produced from an electric arc established between the continuously fed metal
electrode and the job. Argon, helium, carbon dioxide or a gas mixture shields the arc and molten metal from
atmospheric contamination.

Operation
The typical set up for GMAW process is shown in Fig. below. The consumable electrode is in the form of a
wire reel, which is fed at a constant rate, through the feed rollers. The welding torch is connected to the gas supply
cylinder, which provides the necessary inert gas. The electrode and the workpieces are connected to the welding
power supply. The power supplies are generally of the constant voltage type only. The current from the welding
machine is changed by changing the rate of feeding of the electrode wire.

Advantages
 GMAW does not require the high degree of operator skill.
 Continuous welding at higher speeds and in all positions with deeper penetration is possible.
 Thick and thin, both types of workpieces can be welded effectively.
 The process can be easily mechanized.
 Since no flux is used so more visibility, neatness, cleanliness, spatter free weld.
Disadvantages
 Welding equipment is more complex and more costly.
 The metallurgical and mechanical properties of the joint may. be affected due to high cooling rate.
 It is difficult to weld in small corners.
 Process variables are more,
Applications
 It is suitable for welding variety of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
 Metal fabrication industries, shipbuildings, automobiles, pressure vessel industries etc.

Common points of MIG and TIG are :

• Both use same gases for shielding depending on the metals to be welded.
 • Both can be used for welding metals like stainless steel, non-ferrous alloys and aluminium.
• Gas flow and its controls are same in both.
• Cleaning the weld is important in both cases.
• No flux is required for both.

Differences between TIG and MIG

TIG (GTAW) MIG(GMAW)
TIG welding uses a permanent, non-consumable MIG uses consu mable cont inuous coil
tungsten electrode. electrode of same chemical composition as the
material being welded.

TIG welding electrode serves the purpose of producing MIG welding electrode ser ves both the purposes
the arc only. Filler rod is added separately. of poducing the arc as well as of filler metal.

TIG is not as fast as MIG because in this, separate MIG is fast as compared to TIG because electrode
filler rod is added. and filler metal is same, which is in the form of wire

TIG welding requires a skilled operator. No so much skill is required for an operator

If filler metal is added. operator's both hands are In MIG welding, the wire electrode and gases come
engaged. So work must be held in position with clamps from the same run and thus can be made easily
or fixtures. automatic.

TIG welding usually uses DCSP (direct current straight MIG uses both types of polarities. Generally DCRP is
polarity), but in case of welding thin sheets DCRP used
(direct current reverse polarity) is used.

TIG welding torch is water-cooled. Generally no water-cooling is necessary

Tungsten if by chance comes in contact with the molten No such problem is ther e with MIG ( no tungsten
metal causes contamination of the weld pool. electrode).

TIG welding is not used often for welding plates It is best suited for thick (more than 6 mm) jobs.
thicker than 6 mm.

Deeper penetrations can be obtained as compared Penetration is not so much deeper as with MIG.
to TIG.

RESISTANCE WELDING
Resistance welding is a group of welding processes in which welding heat is obtained from resistance of the work to
the flow of electric current and by the application of pressure. No filler metal or flux is added.
Types of Resistance Welding
1. Spot welding
2. Seam welding
3. Projection Welding
4. Resistance butt welding
5. Flash butt welding
6. Percussion welding.
PRINCIPLE OF RESISTANCE WELDING
In resistance welding, a low voltage (typically 1 volt) and very high current (typically 15000 A) is passed through the
joint for a very short time (typically .25 sec.). This high amperage heats the joint because heat generated in resistance
welding can be expressed as H =I2RT
Where, H = Total heat generated in the work, Joule.
 I= Electric current, Amp.
T = Time for which the electric current is passing through the joint, sec.
R = Resistance of the joint.
Resistance of the joint is composed of :
 Resistance of the electrodes (R1).
 The contact resistance between the electrode and the workpiece (R2).
 The contact resistance between the two workpieces (R4).
 The resistance of the work piece plates (R3).
In order to obtain a sound weld and to avoid overheating of welding electrode; R1, R2 and R3 should be kept as low as
possible as compared to R4.

ELECTRODES FOR RESISTANCE WELDING

Since the electrodes in resistance welding have to carry large amount of current, pressure and also help to remove the
heat from the weld zone thus preventing overheating and surface fusion of work so the electrodes should have higher
electrical conductivity as well as higher hardness. Hence, copper in alloyed form is used for making electrodes.
Copper cadmium is used for welding of Al and Mg.
Copper chromium is used for welding of mild steel and low alloy steel.

ADVANTAGES OF RESISTANCE WELDING

 Very little skill is required to operate the resistance welding machine.
 High production rate so well suited for mass production.
 Heating of the workpiece is confined to a very small part, which results in less distortion.
 No filler rod and flux is needed.
 It is possible to weld dissimilar metals as well as metal plates of different thickness.
 Semi-automatic equipments are available.
 There are no consumables used in this process except for the electrical power and a relatively small electrode
wear. As a result, it is a very economical process.

DISADVANTAGES OF RESISTANCE WELDING

 The initial cost of equipment is high.
 Certain resistance welding operations are limited only to lap joints.
 Skilled persons are needed for maintenance.
 Bigger job thicknesses cannot be welded.
APPLICATIONS OF RESISTANCE WELDING
 Joining sheets, bars and tubes.
 Making metal furniture.
 Making fuel tanks of cars, tractors etc.
 Making containers.
 Welding aircraft and automobile parts.

SPOT WELDING
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Spot Welding It is widely used in mass production of automobiles, appliances, metal furniture and other products
made of sheet metal. There are approximately 10,000 individual spot welds in a single car body. In this welding
fusion of the faying surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at one location by opposing electrodes. Thickness of workpiece
should be up to 3 mm. The joint made so is not air tight or waterproof. Size and shape of spot weld depends upon the
size and shape of electrode tips. Shape can be circular, hexagonal, square or any other. Strength of a spot weld is
equal to the strength of metal of workpiece.
SEAM WELDING
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In this case rotating wheels are used as welding electrodes. It is like making a continuous series of spot welds along
the lap joint. This process produces air tight and leak proof joint. The lap joint to be made is allowed to pass through
between rotating electrodes. These electrodes press the workpiece and fuse it to make a continuous lap joint. This
welding is used in production of gasoline tanks, automobile, welding procedure is shown in Figure below.

PROJECTION WELDING
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Projections or dimples in overlapping joint elements concentrate the current during welding, focusing the weld
energy and helping to locate the weld more precisely.
Contact points determined by the design of the parts to be joined may consist of projections, embossments, or
localized intersections of the parts.
Welding defects
Defects in welding are inevitable in spite of using the good welding techniques, standard electrodes and preparation
of joints. Some of the commonly observed welding defects (Figure below) are detailed below.

1. Incomplete fusion
This happens when the base metal fails to completely fuse along with the weld metal. This can be caused by the rapid
welding or by the presence of foreign material at the weld surface. See Figure (a).

2. Incomplete penetration
This type of failure occurs due to the failure of the weld metal to penetrate the complete depth of the joint. This is
often observed in single V and bevel joints. This can also happen while using electrodes of larger size than is
required. See Figure (b).

3. Porosity
Porosity occurs due to the voids or gas pockets entrapped in the welds while cooling. This results in stress
concentration and reduced ductility of the joint. This is mainly due to careless use of backup plates, presence of
moisture in the electrodes, presence of hydrogen in the electrodes and excessive current. See Figure (c).

4. Slag inclusion
Slag inclusions are metallic oxides and other solid compounds which are sometimes found as elongated or globular
inclusions. The slag, being lighter than the molten material of weld, usually rise to the surface and can be removed
after cooling of the weld. However if the weld is cooled rapidly possibilities are there to trap these in the weld. See
Figure (d).

5. Undercutting
Undercutting is the local decrease in the thickness of parent metal at the weld toe. An undercut results in reduced
section and acts like a notch. This can happen due to excessive current and/or long arc.

Brazing and soldering: Types, Principles, Applications

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BRAZING
Brazing is a process of joining two pieces of metals in which a non-ferrous alloy is introduced in a liquid state
between the workpieces to be joined and allowed to solidify. The melting point of the filler metal is above 450°C but
lower than the melting temperature of the parent metal. The filler metal is distributed between the closely fitted
surfaces of the joint by capillary action. Fluxes are also added into the brazed joint to remove any of the oxide present
or prevent the formation of oxide. The capillary attraction between the base metal and the filler material is higher
than that between the base metal and the flux. So the filler material easily replaces the flux. The method of
application of the flux is by spraying, brushing or with the help of a pressurized application. The fluxes generally
used are combinations of borax, boric acid, chlorides, fluorides and other wetting agents.
Brazing Procedure
1. Cleaning and preparing the surface to be brazed. Cleaning may be done by solvents, acid pickling and by
mechanical means. It is also essential that the joint is designed properly and clearance between the workparts should
be controlled critically.
2. Fluxing both the base metal and filler metal surface by spraying, brushing or by mechanical means.
3. Aligning the base metal parts to be joined.
4. Heating the joint. Heat sources that are used for brazing are : a molten bath of brazing filler metal, oxy-acetylene
torch, electrical resistance heating or induction heating.
5. Applying filler metal to the joint.
6. Allow cooling of the brazed joint.
7. Remove flux residue from the completed joint.

Filler Metals
 Aluminium silicon
 Copper phosphorus
 Copper zinc
 Silver brazing
 Magnesium
 Nickel etc.
Advantages of Brazing:
 Distortion is less in brazed joints because of lower temperatures used.
 The joint can be quickly finished without much skill.
 Brazing can join cast metals to wrought metals.
 Sheet metal assemblies can be joined.
 Brazing has the ability to preserve metal coating.
Disadvantages of Brazing:
 It requires tightly mating parts.
 It requires proper cleaning.
 Size of the jobs are limited.
 Joints are not successful at elevated temperatures.
 Colour of the filler metal may not match with that of the base metal.
Applications of Brazing:
 Brazing is used for fastening of pipe fittings, tanks, carbide on tools tips, radiators heat exchangers, electrical
parts etc.
 It can join cast metals to wrought metals, dissimilar metals components, and also porous metal.

SOLDERING
Soldering is a process of joining two pieces of metals in which a fusible alloy or metal is introduced in a liquid state
between the workpieces to be joined and allowed to solidify. The melting point of the filler metal is below 450°C.
The filler metal is called the solder. Composition of some of the solders is as follows :
Soft Solder. Lead 37% and tin 63%.
Medium Solder. Lead and tin each 50%.
Electrician Solder. Lead 58% and tin 42%.
Plumber's Solder. Lead 70% and tin 30%.
Flux will be added to remove the oxides from the joint. Fluxes are normally available in the form of powder, paste,
liquid or in the form of core in the solder metal. Fluxes are :
Inorganic Fluxes. (Corrosive fluxes) Inorganic fluxes consist of zinc and ammonium chloride.
Organic Fluxes. (Mild fluxes) The constituents of these fluxes are lactic acid, stearic acid, benzoic acid, glutamic
acid etc.
Rosin (Non-corrosive fluxes). This consists of gum exuded from pine trees.
Soldering Procedure
1. Select the right solder, flux, joint design and clearance.
2. Cleaning and preparing the surfaces to be joined. Both mechanical and chemical methods are employed.
3. Aligning the components.
4. Fluxing the components with proper replacement or addition of a solder.
5. Heating the joint.
6. Allow cooling of the joint.
7. The solder joint is then cleaned.
Soldering Methods
Various methods are used to produce the joint
 Soldering iron method
 Torch method
 Spray method
 Induction method
 Dip and wave method
 Resistance method
 Ultrasonic method
 Condensation method.
Design considerations in Welding
Thermit Welding:
THERMO CHEMICAL WELDING PROCESSES Thermochemical welding processes involve Exothermic Reactions.
Definition- Thermit welding comprises a group of welding processes where in coalescence is produced by heating
with superheated liquid metal and slag resulting from chemical reaction between a metal oxide and, aluminium,
with or without the application of pressure. The liquid metal acts as filler metal too.
a. Thermite welding (TW) (also called thermit welding) is a process which joins metals by heating them with super-
heated liquid metal from a chemical reaction between a metal oxide and aluminum or other reducing agent, with or
without the application of pressure. Filler metal is obtained from the liquid metal.
b. The heat for welding is obtained from an exothermic reaction or chemical change between iron oxide and
aluminium. This reaction is shown by the following formula:
8Al + 3Fe3O4 = 9Fe + 4A1203 + Heat

The temperature resulting from this reaction is approximately 4500°F (2482°C).

c. The super-heated steel is contained in a crucible located immediately above the weld joint. The exothermic
reaction is relatively slow and requires 20 to 30 seconds, regardless of the amount of chemicals involved. The parts
to be welded are aligned with a gap between them. The super-heated steel runs into a mold which is built around
the parts to be welded. Since it is almost twice as hot as the melting temperature of the base metal, melting occurs
at the edges of the joint and alloys with the molten steel from the crucible. Normal heat losses cause the mass of
molten metal to solidify, coalescence occurs, and the weld is completed. If the parts to be welded are large,
preheating within the mold cavity may be necessary to bring the pats to welding temperature and to dry out the
mold. If the parts are small, preheating is often eliminated. The thermit welding process is applied only in the
automatic mode. Once the reaction is started, it continues until completion.

d. Thermit welding utilizes gravity, which causes the molten metal to fill the cavity between the parts being welded.
It is very similar to the foundry practice of pouring a casting. The difference is the extremely high temperature of
the molten metal. The making of a thermit weld is shown in figure. When the filler metal has cooled, all unwanted
excess metal may be removed by oxygen cutting, machining, or grinding. The surface of the completed weld is
usually sufficiently smooth and contoured so that it does not require additional metal finishing.

Fig. Steps for making thermit weld

Thermite material is a mechanical mixture of metallic aluminum and processed iron oxide. Molten steel is produced
by the thermite reaction in a magnesite-lined crucible. At the bottom of the crucible, a magnesite stone is burned,
into which a magnesite stone thimble is fitted. This thimble provides a passage through which the molten steel is
discharged into the mold. The hole through the thimble is plugged with a tapping pin, which is covered with a fire-
resistant washer and refractory sand. The crucible is charged by placing the correct quantity of thoroughly mixed
thermit material in it. In preparing the joint for thermite welding, the parts to be welded must be cleaned, alined,
and held firmly in place. If necessary, metal is removed from the joint to permit a free flow of the thermite metal
into the joint. A wax pattern is then made around the joint in the size and shape of the intended weld. A mold made
of refractory sand is built around the wax pattern and joint to hold the molten metal after it is poured. The sand
mold is then heated to melt out the wax and dry the mold. The mold should be properly vented to permit the
escape of gases and to allow the proper distribution of the thermite metal at the joint. A thermite welding crucible
and mold is shown in figure.

Advantages

1. The heat necessary for welding is obtained from a chemical reaction and thus no costly power supply is required. Therefore
broken parts (rails etc.) can be welded on the site itself.
2. For welding large fractured crankshafts.
3. For welding broken frames of machines.
4. For building up worn wobblers.
5. For welding sections of castings where size prevents there being cast in one piece.
6. For replacing broken teeth on large gears.
7. Forgings and flame cut sections may be welded together to make huge parts.
8. For welding new necks to rolling mill rolls and pinions.
9. For welding cables for electrical conductors.
10. For end welding of reinforcing bars to be used in concrete (building) construction.

Disadvantages

i. Low deposition rate with operating factor.

ii. Its cannot weld low melting point.
[Link] reduce risks to operators.
[Link] high level of fume.
v. It has slag inclusion.
[Link] is high skill factor.
Applications

1. Thermit welding is used chiefly in the repair or assembly of large

2. For repairing fractured rails (railway tracks).
3. For butt welding pipes end to end.
Solid and liquid state joining processes
Solid and liquid state joining processes involve joining materials at their contacting surfaces, either in a
solid state (below the melting point) or liquid state (melting and solidifying).
Solid-state joining includes processes like friction stir welding and ultrasonic welding, while liquid-
state joining includes fusion welding methods like arc and gas welding.

Solid-State Joining:
Definition:
Solid-state joining, also known as solid-state welding, involves joining materials without melting them,
typically at temperatures below their melting points.
Process:
Involves applying pressure and/or heat to promote atomic bonding between the surfaces of the materials
being joined.
Examples:
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW): Uses a rotating tool to generate heat through friction, softening the
material and allowing it to be joined under pressure.
 Ultrasonic Welding: Employs high-frequency vibrations to create localized heat and pressure,
leading to bonding.
 Diffusion Welding: Materials are held together under pressure and high temperature, allowing
atoms to diffuse across the interface, creating a bond.
Cold Welding: Joining metals by applying pressure to create a bond without heat.
Advantages:
1. No melting or filler metal is required.
2. Reduced distortion and residual stresses.
3. Suitable for joining dissimilar metals.

Liquid-State Joining (Fusion Welding):

Definition:
Liquid-state joining, also known as fusion welding, involves melting the base materials or a filler metal
to form a joint.
Process:
Heat is applied to melt the materials, and then the molten material is allowed to cool and solidify,
forming the joint.
Examples:
 Arc Welding: Uses an electric arc to generate heat, melting the base materials and/or filler.
 Gas Welding: Uses a gas flame to heat the materials, melting them and/or filler metal.
 Laser Welding: Uses a focused laser beam to melt the materials.
Advantages:
1. Can join a wide variety of materials.
2. Can create strong and durable joints.
Disadvantages:
1. Can cause distortion and residual stresses.
2. Requires careful control of heat input.
Brazing and Soldering (Solid/Liquid State Joining):
Definition:
Brazing and soldering are joining processes that use a filler metal to join the base materials, but the base
materials themselves are not melted.
Process:
The filler metal is melted and flows into the joint between the base materials, forming a bond.
Brazing:
Uses higher temperatures and stronger filler metals, typically for joining metals.
Soldering:
Uses lower temperatures and weaker filler metals, typically for joining metals and non-metals.
  Laser Beam Welding Process
Principles:

(v) Laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

(vi) Laser Beam Welding (LBW) is a fusion joining process that produces coalescence of materials with the
heat obtained from a concentrated beam of coherent, monochromatic light impinging on the joint to be
welded.

Fig.1 Different light sources

(vii) In the LBW process, the laser beam is directed by flat optical elements, such as mirrors and then focused
to a small spot (for high power density) at the workpiece using either reflective focusing elements or
lenses.
(viii) It is a non-contact process, requiring no pressure to be applied.
(ix) Inert gas shielding is generally employed to prevent oxidation of the molten puddle and filler metals may
be occasionally used.
(x) The Lasers which are predominantly being used for industrial material processing and welding tasks are
the Nd-YAG laser and CO2 laser, with the active elements most commonly employed in these two
varieties of lasers being the neodymium (Nd) ion and the CO2 molecules respectively.

Principles of Laser action:

(xi) The action of the laser is based on the following well known principle –
“if an atom or molecule of the lasing material is raised to energy level E2 by an outside source like light, heat or
chemical reaction it does not permanently remain at that state.
(xii) Sooner or later it decays back to its stable lower energy level E1 releasing a photon of light”.
 Fig. 2 Basic laser operation

Designing a LASER:

A LASER requires three components such as:

6. An active medium like ruby LASER rod
7. A pumping medium (3 energy levels)
8. A resonant cavity like Xenon flash lamp
 Fig. 3 laser beam welding with Ruby rod

Fig. 4 Laser beam generation

Laser Beam Welding setup:

(xiii) Laser beam welding is a welding process that uses a laser beam to melt and vaporize
material. A ruby laser rod is used for machining process.
(xiv) Here the lasing material is in the form of a solid ruby rod (doped with chromium) with the
end faces made parallel to each other within (1/20) of the wavelength.
(xv) One end of the rod is made totally reflective while the other end is partially reflective (about 80
percent).
(xvi) A number of Xenon flash lamps are placed around the laser rod for pumping it into the
excited state.
(xvii) A highly reflective cylindrical enclosure surrounds both the rod and the flash lamps to restrict
the light from the pumps into the rod.
 Fig. 5 Laser beam welding setup

Fig. 6 Laser beam welding schematic

Increasing the LASER power:

(xviii) The frequency of the emitted light depends upon the difference in energy levels E2 – E1 and
the Planck‟s constant (h).
E= hv= hc/λ (Eq. 1)

where, E=energy, h= Plank constant, v= frequency, c=speed of light, λ=wavelength

(xix) If the photon of light released and comes into contact with another atom or molecule that
has been similarly raised to the higher energy level.
(xx) Second atom or molecule is triggered to return to its stable energy level E1 after releasing
another photon of light.

(xxi) The two photons so generated are identical in wave length, phase, direction and energy. This
sequence of triggering is multiplied many layers to produce the laser beam.

(xxii) When the ruby crystal consisting of aluminium oxide into which 0.05 percent chromium
has been introduced, is pumped into the excited state by the series of Xenon flash bulbs surrounding
it.

(xxiii) The chromium atoms are raised to the higher energy level, which is releasing a stream of
photons, when they fall back to their stable lower energy level.

(xxiv) When this light is reflected from the end mirrors it triggers more atoms to their ground state
leading to chain reaction of stimulated radiation.

(xxv) Some of this light escaping from the partially reflecting mirror on the right constitutes the
laser.

(xxvi) Because of lasers highly monochromatic nature this light can be easily focused and
concentrated with a lens to a very small diameter spot with a much higher intensity.

(xxvii) The large number of lasers that have been developed for welding generally fall into two main
categories solid state lasers and gas lasers.

(xxviii) Solid state lasers like ruby laser use solid crystal as lasing medium and are excited by Xenon
or Krypton filled flash lamps.

(xxix) The output from these lasers is normally in pulses. The power rating of such units may be up
to 2 KW.

(xxx) Gas lasers on the other hand use a glass tube through which a mixture of carbon dioxide,
Helium or Nitrogen gas is flowing.
(xxxi) Direct electrical energy is used with gas lasers for excitation.

(xxxii) The gas flowing through the laser may be re-circulated in some cases to reduce cost.

(xxxiii) Continuous wave gas lasers using carbon dioxide gas with power up to 20 KW are used for
laser beam welding.
(xxxiv) Welding is done with high power lasers with longer pulses so that metal can be heated to its
melting point without vaporization. It may be done by conduction or by penetration.

(xxxv) Conductive welding is carried out with the help of conductive heating of the joint and is
limited to low depth welds.

(xxxvi) It uses low power intensity beams. Penetration will not be much and weld is obtained by
welding of joint near the surface.

(xxxvii) As the power is increased the higher heat density obtained will cause the metal at the centre of
the laser jet to be vaporized with a key hole being formed.

(xxxviii) After the laser beam has passed, the molten metal channel collapses forming a weld nugget.

(xxxix) This method can produce single pass welds up to 19 mm deep with much less cost
compared to conventional welding methods like resistance welding.

(xl) Laser beam welding can be used for welding of corrosion resistant steels and titanium
alloys requiring high quality welds.

(xli) Currently it is finding wide use in communication engineering application where very fine wires
are required to be welded and on micro circuit boards etc.

(xlii) The process is also useful for welding of different combinations of metal as well for welding of
transparent materials.

6) Laser Types:

d) Solid-State laser:

(xliii) It utilizes an impurity in a host material as the active medium.

(xliv) Thus, the neodymium ion (Nd+++) is used as a „dopant‟, or purposely added impurity in either a
glass or YAG (Yttrium Aluminum Garnet) crystal and the 1.06 µm output wavelength is dictated by the
neodymium ion.
(xlv) The lasing material or the host is in the form of a cylinder of about 150 mm long and 9 mm in
diameter.
(xlvi) Both ends of the cylinder are made flat and parallel to very close tolerances, then polished to a
good optical finish and silvered to make a reflective surface.
(xlvii) The crystal is excited by means of an intense Krypton or xenon lamp.
(xlviii) A simplified schematic arrangement of the rod, lamp and mirrors is shown in Fig. 7

Fig. 7 Schematic of laser beam welding

Fig. 8 ND: YAG type solid-state laser

e) Gas Lasers:

(xlix) The electric discharge style CO2 gas lasers are the most efficient type currently available for
high power laser beam material processing.
(l) Lasers employ gas mixtures primarily containing nitrogen and helium along with a small percentage
of carbon dioxide
(li) These lasers use a low-current, high-voltage power source to excite the gas mixture using a lasing
medium. Operate in a pulsed or continuous mode.
(lii) An electric glow discharge is used to pump this laser medium (i.e. to excite the CO2
molecule).
(liii) Gas heating produced in this fashion is controlled by continuously circulating the gas mixture
through the optical cavity area which operates at 1 micrometer wavelength.
(liv) They can be pulsed or operate continuously.
(lv) Pulsed operation produced joints similar to spot welds but with complete penetration.
(lvi) The pulse energy is 1 to 100 Joules and pulse time is 1 to 10 milliseconds.
(lvii) Thus CO2 lasers are usually categorizes according to the type of gas flow system they
employ, slow axial, fast axial or transverse.

Fig. 9 CO2 gas laser

7) Slow Axial Flow Gas Laser:

(lviii) They are the simplest of the CO2 gas lasers. Gas flow is in the same direction as the laser
resonator‟s optical axis and electric excitation field, or gas discharge path.

(lix) These are capable of generating laser beams with continuous power rating of approximately 80 watts for

every meter of discharge length.

(lx) A folded tube configuration is used for achieving output power levels of 50 to 1000 watts,
maximum.

Fig.10 Slow axial flow laser

8) Fast Axial Flow (FAF) Gas Laser:

(lxi) They have similar arrangement of components as that of slow axial flow gas laser, except that in the case

of the FAF Laser, a roots blower or turbo pump is used to circulate the laser gas at high speed through the

discharge region and corresponding heat exchangers.

(lxii) The FAF lasers with continuous wave (CW) output power levels of between 500 to 6000 watts

are available.

Fig. 11 Fast axial flow CO2 laser

9) Transverse Flow:

(lxiii) These lasers operate by continuously circulating gas across the resonator cavity axis by means of

a high speed fan type blower, while maintaining an electric discharge perpendicular to both the gas flow

direction and the laser beam‟s optical axis.

(lxiv) Transverse flow lasers with output power levels between 1 and 25 kW are available.
 Fig. 12 Transverse flow CO2 laser

f) Diode lasers

(lxv) Lasers are used for materials that are difficult to weld using other methods, for hard to access
areas and for extremely small components.
(lxvi) Inert gas shielding is needed for more reactive materials.

Fig. 13 Laser diode welding

 Fig.14 Laser Beam Welding

g) LBW Process Advantages:

Major advantages of Laser Beam Welding include the following:

 Heat input is close to the minimum required to fuse the weld metal, thus heat affected zones are reduced
and workpiece distortions are minimized.
 Time for welding thick sections is reduced and the need for filler wires and elaborate joint
preparations is eliminated by employing the single pass laser welding procedures.
 No electrodes are required; welding is performed with freedom fromelectrode contamination,
indentation or damage from high resistance welding currents.
 LBW being a non-contact process, distortions are minimized and tool wears are eliminated.

 Welding in areas that are not easily accessible with other means of welding can be done by LBW,
since the beams can be focused, aligned and directed by optical elements.
 Laser beam can be focused on a small area, permitting the joining of small, closely spaced
components with tiny welds.
 Wide variety of materials including various combinations can be welded.
 Thin welds on small diameter wires are less susceptible to burn back than is the case with arc welding.
 Metals with dissimilar physical properties, such as electric resistance can also be welded.
 No vacuum or X-Ray shielding is required.
 Laser welds are not influenced by magnetic fields, as in arc and electron beam welds. They also tend to
follow weld joint through to the root of the work-piece, even when the beam and joint are not perfectly
aligned.
 Aspect ratios (i.e., depth-to-width ratios) of the order of 10:1 are attainable in LBW.
 Limitations of the LBW Process:

• Joints must be accurately positioned laterally under the beam and at a controlled position with respect to
the beam focal point.
• In case of mechanical clamping of the weld joints, it must be ensured that the final position of the joint
is accurately aligned with the beam impingement point.
• The maximum joint thickness that can be welded by laser beam is somewhat limited. Thus weld
penetrations of larger than 19 mms are difficult to weld.
• High reflectivity and high thermal conductivity of materials like Al and Cu alloys can affect the
weldability with lasers.

• An appropriate plasma control device must be employed to ensure the weld reproducibility while
performing moderate to high power laser welding.
• Lasers tend to have fairly low energy conversion efficiency, generally less than 10 percent.
• Some weld-porosity and brittleness can be expected, as a consequence of the rapid
solidification characteristics of the LBW.
  Ultrasonic Welding
• It produces coalescence through simultaneous application of localized high frequency vibratory energy and
moderate clamping forces.
• Parts to be joined are held together under pressure and are then subjected to ultrasonic vibrations usually at
a frequency of 20 - 40 kHz.
• An ultrasonic welding machine consists of four main components – power supply, converter, amplitude
modifying device commonly called a booster and acoustic tool known as horn or sonotrode in the
following figure.

Fig. 1 Ultrasonic welding setup

Fig. 2 Ultrasonic machining

 Fig. 3 Ultrasonic welding

Fig. 4 Ultrasonic welding process

• The power supply changes electricity from the mains frequency of 50-60 Hz to a high
frequency of 20, 30 or 40 kHz.
• This electrical energy is supplied to the converter.
• Within the converter, discs of piezoelectric material are sandwiched between two metal sections.
• The converter changes the electrical energy into mechanical vibratory energy at ultrasonic
frequencies.
• The vibratory energy is then transmitted through the booster, which increases the amplitude of the sound
waves.
• The sound waves are then transmitted to the horn.
• The horn is an acoustic tool that transfers the vibratory energy directly to the parts being assembled,
and it also applies a welding pressure.
• The vibrations are transmitted through the workpiece to the joint area.
• Here the vibratory energy is converted to heat through friction. The heat softens or melts the material,
and joins the parts together.

Equipment

Ultrasonic welding equipment consists of a machine press, generator, converter or transducer, booster,
sonotrode or horn, and component support tooling.

Fig. 5 Ultrasonic welding component Fig. 6 Ultrasonic assembly systems

Generator
• The generator converts electrical power from the single-phase mains to the correct frequency and voltage
for the transducer to convert into mechanical vibrations.
• The microprocessor unit controls the welding cycle and feeds back key welding information to the user,
via the user interface.
• The user interface also allows the operator to enter the required welding parameters.

Machine press
• The machine stand is designed to hold the welding system or stack and apply the force necessary for
welding.
• It consists of a base-plate, to hold the tooling jig, and a pneumatic cylinder to apply the force.
• The machine has a pressure gauge and regulator for adjustment of the welding force.
• It should be noted that a particular gauge pressure set on one piece of ultrasonic welding equipment may
not provide similar welding force as another machine set at the same gauge pressure.
• Welding force should be calibrated using a load cell so that direct comparison of welding forces can be
made from machine to machine.
• There is also a flow control valve to allow adjustment of the speed at which the welding head
approaches the component being welded.
• Some equipment manufacturers have introduced an electromagnetic force application system in place of
the traditional pneumatic cylinder.
• This gives better control of the approach rate, and can be beneficial when welding small or delicate
components.

Welding stack
• This is the part of the machine that provides the ultrasonic mechanical vibrations.
• It is generally a three-part unit consisting of transducer, booster and welding horn, mounted on the welding
press at the centre-point of the booster section.
• The stack is a tuned resonator, rather like a musical instrument tuning fork.
• In order to function, the resonant frequency of the tuned welding stack must closely match the frequency
of the electrical signal from the generator (within 30Hz).

Transducer
• The transducer, also known as the converter, converts the electrical energy from the generator to the
mechanical vibrations used for the welding process.
• It consists of a number of piezo-electric ceramic discs sandwiched between two metal blocks, usually
titanium.
• Between each of the discs there is a thin metal plate, which forms the electrode.
• As the sinusoidal electrical signal is fed to the transducer via the electrodes, the discs expand and contract,
producing an axial, peak-to-peak movement of 15 to 20µm.
• Transducers are delicate devices and should be handled with care. Once the elements are broken, the
transducer will not function.

Booster
• The booster section of the welding stack serves two purposes, primarily to amplify the mechanical
vibrations produced at the tip of the transducer and transfer them to the welding horn.
• Its secondary purpose is to provide a location for mounting the stack on the welding press.
• The booster expands and contracts as the transducer apply the ultrasonic energy.

Fig. 7 Ultrasonic welding boosters

• The booster, like other elements in the welding stack, is a tuned device therefore it must resonate at a
specific frequency in order to transfer the ultrasonic energy from the transducer to the welding horn.
• In order to function successfully, the booster must be either one half of a wavelength of ultrasound in the
material from which it is manufactured, or multiples of this length. Normally, it is one half wavelength.

Welding horn
• The welding horn is the element of the welding stack that supplies energy to the component being
welded.
• A typical welding horn is shown in Fig. 8. Design of the welding horn is critical to successful welding.
• It is strongly recommended that welding horn manufacture should only be carried out by companies
specializing in ultrasonic welding.

Fig. 8 Ultrasonic welding horn

 Fig. 9 Pressure acted on ultrasonic welding horn and direction of vibration

• The welding horn, like the booster element, is a tuned device, which, in the majority of applications, also
provides mechanical gain.
• It is typically manufactured in either aluminium or titanium.
• Aluminium welding horns tend to be used for low volume applications since wear can be a particular
problem with this material.
• Some welding horns have specially hardened tips to reduce wear during welding.
• As with the booster element, the length of the welding horn must be either one half of a wavelength of
ultrasound in the material from which it is manufactured, or multiples of this length.
• This ensures that there is sufficient amplitude at the end of the welding horn to effect welding.
• The amplitude is typically between 30 and 120µm.
• The shape of the welding horn is important since stress, caused by the axial expansion and
contraction of the horn, could lead to cracking in high amplitude applications.
• In some applications the welding horn is manufactured with slots in the axial direction.
• This is to ensure that the maximum vibration amplitude is in the longitudinal direction.
• The tip of the welding horn delivers the ultrasonic energy to the component being welded. The tip should
be specifically designed to match the contours of the component.
• This will ensure that maximum energy transfer between the horn and the component is achieved.
 Support tooling
• Finally, the base of the machine press supports the tooling that supports the components during the
welding operation.
• The support tooling is designed to prevent movement of the lower component while the
ultrasound is applied.
• It is often machined to match the contours of the component surface intimately.
• One of the key factors to successful ultrasonic welding is good component design, in particular the shape
of the surfaces to be joined i.e. the joint design.
• There are a variety of joint designs possible, each with specific features and advantages.

The choice of design depends on the following factors:

7. Type of thermoplastic
8. Part geometry
9. Weld requirements
10. Aesthetics

One of the basic requirements of any joint design for ultrasonic welding is a small, uniform initial contact area.
This can be achieved using a projection joint or a shear joint.

Projection joint

• The basic projection or energy director joint is shown in Fig. 10.

• The joint consists of a small triangular section molded into the component and typically running the length
of the joint perimeter.
• The purpose of the energy director is to focus the ultrasonic energy at the apex, resulting in a rapid
buildup of heat.
• This causes the triangular section to melt and flow across the joint interface, forming a weld.
 Fig. 10 Projection joint

• The type of thermoplastic to be welded determines the form of the triangular energy director.
Amorphous materials require a right-angled triangle with the 90° angle at the apex.
• For semi-crystalline materials, a 60° equilateral projection is used. Typical heights for energy
directors are between 0.2 to 1.0 mm, depending on the material.
• The projection joint is favoured for use with amorphous materials such as PC, ABS and PS
where a hermetic seal is not required.

Figure 11 shows a variation of the projection joint, in the form of a tongue and groove design. The
advantage of this design is that the weld flash is hidden and the parts to be joined are self- locating.
However, joint strength is relatively weak since the weld is only about half the width of the joint.

Fig. 11 Tongue and groove variation of a projection joint

Shear joint
• For some applications, a projection joint may not provide sufficient strength. In such cases, a
shear joint can be used.
• A basic shear joint design is shown in Fig. 12.
• The joint allows one component to shear inside the other, providing self-location.
• Welding is accomplished by first melting the small initial contact area and then continuing to
melt with a controlled interference along the vertical walls as the parts telescope together.
• The smearing action of the two melt surfaces at the weld interface is beneficial for two reasons.

Fig. 12 Basic shear joint design

• Firstly, it eliminates leaks and voids, so a strong, hermetic weld is produced.

• Secondly, it eliminates exposure to air, preventing premature solidification.
• This is particularly important for semi-crystalline materials, which rapidly change from a molten
state to a solid state.
• As such, semi-crystalline materials should only be ultrasonically welded with a shear joint.
• The vertical dimension of the weld, typically between 1.0 and 1.5mm, controls the strength of
the joint and can be adjusted to suit the requirements of the application.

Other design considerations

• The distance between the joint line and the contact surface where the welding horn meets the
component can be critical.
• Far field welding, as shown in Fig. 13, is where the distance is greater than 6mm.
• This arrangement is best suited to rigid amorphous materials such as PS, ABS and PMMA,
which have good ultrasound transmission properties.
• Many semi-crystalline materials, such as PP are poor transmitters of ultrasonic energy, requiring
the joint to be as close as possible to the welding horn area. This is termed near field welding,
as shown in Fig. 14.
 Fig. 13 Far field welding Fig. 14 Near field welding

Important points to remember

• For all materials, the use of near field welding is preferable, since it tends to require shorter
weld times and lower pressures.
• Sharp corners on the molding should be avoided, as these can localize stress, possibly leading
to fracture under the action of the ultrasonic vibratory energy.
• Minimum radii of 0.2 to 0.5 mm are suggested.

Welding parameters
There are a number of parameters that must be selected correctly in order to achieve good
ultrasonic welds.
6. Amplitude of vibration,
7. Welding mode,
8. Down speed,
9. Trigger pressure,
10. Weld time, and

11. Hold time.

Here, the amplitude and welding modes are only explained.

Amplitude
 Successful welding depends on the proper amplitude of vibration occurring at the tip of the
welding horn.
 For any booster/horn combination, the amplitude is fixed.
 Amplitude selection is based on the thermoplastic being welded such that the proper degree of
melting is achieved.
 In general, semi-crystalline materials require more energy and, therefore, more horn tip
amplitude compared to amorphous materials.
 Process control on modern ultrasonic welding machines can allow the amplitude to be profiled.
 High amplitude may be used to initiate melting, followed by a lower amplitude to control the
viscosity of the molten material.

Welding modes
8. Welding by time: open loop system (no feedback)
 The components to be welded are assembled in the tooling fixture before the welding horn
descends and makes contact.
 The ultrasound is then applied to the assembly for a fixed duration of time, typically between 0.2
to 1.0 second.
 This process gives no indication of successful welding.
 It works on the assumption that a fixed weld time will result in a fixed amount of energy being
applied to the joint, giving a controlled amount of melt.
 In reality, the power drawn to maintain amplitude is never the same from one cycle to the next.
This is due to factors such as the fit between the components.
 Therefore, since energy is a function of power and time, and time is fixed, the energy applied
will vary from one component to the next.
 For mass production, where consistency is important, this is undesirable.

9. Welding by energy: closed loop process (giving feedback control).

 The assumption with this process is that if the energy consumed is the same for every weld, the
quantity of molten material in the joint is the same each time.
 However, in reality there are energy losses, within the welding stack and especially at the
interface between the welding horn and the component.
 As a result, some components may receive more energy than others, with the possibility of
inconsistent weld strengths.
10. Welding by distance
 Welding by distance allows components to be joined by a specific weld depth.
 This mode operates independently of time, energy or power drawn and compensates for any
tolerance variation in the molded components.
 Thus giving the best guarantee that the same amount of material in the joint is melted each time.
 Limits can be set on the amount of energy used or the time taken to make the weld, for the
purposes of quality control.

11. Ultrasonic welding parameters

 Amplitude is the dominate parameter and has a significantly greater impact on the weld than the
other parameters.
 Amplitude is the peak-to-peak movement of the horn.
 This motion, coupled with force being generated by pressure and downspeed, creates a condition
where the amplitude produces waves of energy that move through the part contacted by the horn.
 These mechanical waves of energy create stress at the joint interface in the form of
intermolecular and surface friction.
 This creates heat that propagates from the point of contact between the parts to the entire joint
area.
 Once the ultrasonic energy is stopped, the joint cools and solidifies to form a weld. All of this
takes place, in most cases, in less than 500 milliseconds.
8. The weld process can be broken down into some very basic sections:
 First is the approach to the part. This is the distance between the home position and the part.
 Next is the point of contact to the part. This is known as trigger.
 The weld duration is next, followed by hold.

Some important features:

12. There are many ways to control the ultrasonic weld which is done through a controller that
comes with the welder.
13. In its most basic form, the weld is controlled by time. Time generally is set in milliseconds.
14. The next level of control is energy. This is done through a watt meter that calculates the watts
per second, known as joules.
15. The amplitude is the most important parameter for successful welding. The amplitude is created
by the gain ratios of the stack, which encompasses the converter, booster and horn.
16. The converter has a fixed ratio determined by the manufacturer.
17. The booster and horn gains are determined individually by the mass ratio of their input to
output masses.
18. The horn design is determined by the horn it is to contact. It should be designed to contact over
the area to be welded. Based on size, frequency and material limitations, gain may or may not
be incorporated. When these three components are attached, they create what is known as stack
amplitude.
19. It is imperative to have the proper stack amplitude to match the material being welded.
20. Each material has a range of amplitude for ideal weld results
[For example, Polycarbonate has an amplitude range of 60-100 microns. It will weld successfully with
amplitudes outside of this range, but should be well within the range for optimum results.].
21. The supplier of the horn should provide horn gain information so the user can calculate which
booster is best for the material. Once the stack components have been selected, properly torqued
and installed in the actuator, the next setting is weld pressure. 
The transformation ratio (gain in amplitude) can be computed using:
Kt = ξ2/ξ1 (Eq. 1)
Where, Kt – is the theoretical amplitude gain, ξ2 = output amplitude, ξ1=input amplitude
 Fig. 15 Stepped ultrasonic horn

22. Naturally, lower pressures should be used for smaller thinner walled parts, with high pressures
used for larger parts with thicker walls. The next setting is down speed or velocity.
23. This determines the rates of descent of the horn to the part, but ultimately it determines the rate
of force build up during the weld.
24. Most weld setups utilize a setting between 1.5 -2.5 inch/sec.
25. The next parameter to set is weld mode and duration.
26. With all of the weld modes available, it provides information when to start the process.
27. Utilizing past experiences to select a weld mode that worked previously may or may not be
successful.
28. Ideally, one should always start in the time mode.
29. As seen in the energy mode, the weld time will vary slightly due to minor variations in part-to-
part tolerances.
30. Energy mode is used in some applications where there are multi-cavity combinations being
welded.

Applications:
 Although nearly all metals can be ultrasonically welded, the widest current uses typically involve
various alloys of copper, aluminum, magnesium, gold, silver
 It is commonly used for joining thermoplastic parts and dissimilar materials like aluminium to
steel or to tungsten, and nickel to brass.
 The applications of ultrasonic welding are extensive and are found in many industries including
electrical and computer, automotive and aerospace, medical, and packaging.
 These include liquid bearing vessels, switches, fuel filters, microcircuit connections, hospital
gowns, sterile garments, masks, toys, sealing containers, tubes and packaging of dangerous
materials such as explosives and other reactive chemicals.

Advantage
 Dissimilar materials can be joined
 Very low deformation takes place on the workpiece surface
 It can be implemented in automated production line
 Moderate operator skill level is enough for operation
 High quality weld can be achieved
 The process is fast, economical, easily automated, and well suited for mass production.

Limitation
 The main limitation of the process is that the maximum component length that can be welded by
a single horn is approximately 250 mm.
 Workpiece may bond to the anvil
 Only small thin parts can be welded

9. Ultrasonic welding Differences for metals and plastics

 The ultrasonic metal welding process (whether aluminum or other metals) is fundamentally
different from welding plastics in how the ultrasonic energy (or vibrations) is delivered to the
weld, and in how the actual weld is created.
 First, ultrasonic metal welding delivers vibrations to the zone via transverse vibrations that are
parallel to the weld surfaces. Ultrasonic plastic welding delivers vibrations to the zone via
longitudinal vibrations that are normal (i.e., at right angles) to the weld surfaces.
 Second, ultrasonic metal welding creates the weld via a frictional action of the surfaces that
creates a solid-state bond without any melting of the material. Ultrasonic plastic welding is
based on melting and fusion of the material (in a sense, like many metal welding processes,
such as arc, resistance or laser), but at much lower temperatures than experienced in metal
fusion processes.
 There are two slightly different ways of delivering the ultrasonic vibrations to the weld zone:
"lateral drive" and "wedge-reed." While each has selected special advantages, they both end up
getting the vibrations to the weld zone in a transverse vibration action.

Fig.16 (a) wedge-reed, (b) lateral drive ultrasonic welding

 With this fundamental distinction between ultrasonic metal and plastic welding in mind
ultrasonic welding of all metals can be performed.

10. Difference of tooling for ultrasonic welding of metals and plastics

 The shape of the horns that transmit the ultrasonic vibrations into metal and plastic welds are
quite different.
 The fundamental driving transducers for both ultrasonic metal and plastic welding are quite
similar, as are some of the coupling horns (often called boosters) between the transducer and
welding tool.
 Most ultrasonic metal welding companies manufactured both plastic and metal welding, since
much of the underlying technology is similar, including power supplies.
 Nevertheless, as ultrasonic metal welding used to meet new challenges, especially in welding
thicker materials, there will be increasing differentiation between metal and plastic welding
apparatus.
 Electron Beam Welding Process

Electron Beam Welding (EBW) is a fusion welding in which coalescence is produced by

heating the workpiece due to impingement of the concentrated electron beam of high kinetic

energy on the workpiece. As the electron beam impinges the workpiece, kinetic energy of the

electron beams converts into thermal energy resulting in melting and even evaporation of the

work material.

Principles:

 In this process, electrons are emitted from the heated filament called electrode.

 These electrons are accelerated by applying high potential difference (30 kV to 175 kV)

between cathode and anode.

 The higher the potential difference, the higher would be the acceleration of the electrons. The

electrons get the speed in the range of 50,000 to 200,000 km/s.

 The electron beam is focused by means of electromagnetic lenses.

 When this high kinetic energy electron beam strikes on the workpiece, high heat is generated

on the work piece resulting in melting of the work material.

 Molten metal fills into the gap between parts to be joined and subsequently it gets solidified and

forms the weld joint.

 In general, electron beam welding process is carried out in vacuum.

EBW Equipment:

An EBW set up consists of the following major equipment:

11. Electron gun,

12. Power supply,
[Link] Chamber, and
14. Work piece handling device.
 Electron-Gun:

 An electron gun generates, accelerates and aligns the electron beam in required direction and
spots onto the workpiece.
 The gun is of two types: Self-accelerated and work accelerated.
 The work accelerated gun accelerates electrons by providing potential difference between the
workpiece and cathode.
 In the self-accelerated gun, electrons are accelerated by applying potential difference between
the cathode and the anode.
 The anode and cathode are enclosed within the gun itself.
 The control of electron density is better in this type of electron gun.
 A schematic of an electron beam gun used in EBW is shown in Fig. 1. Major parts of an electron
gun are introduced in the following sections.

Fig. 1 Schematic of an electron beam gun used in EBW.

Anode

It is a positively charged element near cathode, across which the high voltage is applied to accelerate the
electrons. The potential difference for high voltage equipment ranges from 70- 150 kV and for low
voltage equipment from 15-30 kV.
 Emitter/Filament

It generates the electrons on direct or indirect heating.

Grid cup

Grid cup is a part of triode type electron gun. A negative voltage with respect to cathode is applied to
the grid. The grid controls the beam.

Focusing unit
It has two parts: Electron focusing lens and deflection coil.
 Electromagnetic lens used to focus the electron beam on work piece and deflection coil deflect
the beam at required weld area. These are last unit of EBW process.
 The electromagnetic lens contains a coil encased in iron.
 As the electrons enter into the magnetic field, the electron beam path is rotated and refracted
into a convergent beam.
 The extent of spread of the beam can be controlled by controlling the amount of DC voltage
applied across the deflection plates.

Electron gun power supply

It consists of mainly the high voltage DC power supply source, emitter power supply source,
electromagnetic lens and deflection coil source.
 In the high voltage DC power supply source the required load varies within 3-100 kW.
 It provides power supply for acceleration of the electrons.
 The potential difference for high voltage equipment ranges from 70-150 kV and for low voltage
equipment 15-30 kV.
 The current level ranges from 50-1000 mA.
 In emitter power supply, AC or DC current is required to heat the filament for emission of
electrons.
 However DC current is preferred as it affects the direction of the beam.
 The amount of current depends upon the diameter and type of the filament.
 The current and voltage varies from 25-70 A and 5-30 V respectively.
 The power to the electromagnetic lens and deflection coil is supplied through a solid state
device.
 Vacuum Chamber:

 In the vacuum chamber pressure is reduced by the vacuum pump.

 It consists of a roughing mechanical pump and a diffusion pump.
 The pressure ranges from 100 kPa for open atmosphere to 0.13-13 Pa for partial vacuum and
0.13-133 mPa for hard vacuum.
 As the extent of vacuum increases, the scattering of the electrons in the beam increases.
 It causes the increase in penetration.

Fig. 2 Beam scatter due to collision of electrons with atmospheric molecules

Work Piece Handling Device:

 Quality and precision of weld profile depends upon accuracy of the movement of workpiece.
 There is also provision for the movement of the work piece to control the welding speed.
 The movements of the work piece are easily adaptable to computer numerical control (CNC).

Advantages of EBW:

vii. High penetration to width can be obtained, which is difficult with other welding processes.
viii. High welding speed is obtained.

ix. Material of high melting temperature can be welded.

x. Superior weld quality due to welding in vacuum.

xi. High precision of the welding is obtained.

xii. Distortion is less due to less heat affected zone.

xiii. Dissimilar materials can be welded.

xiv. Low operating cost.

xv. Cleaning cost is negligible.

xvi. Reactive materials like beryllium, titanium etc. can be welded.

xvii. Materials of high melting point like columbium, tungsten etc. can be welded.

xviii. Inaccessible joints can be made.

xix. Very wide range of sheet thickness can be joined (0.025 mm to 100 mm)

Disadvantages of EBW:

4. Very high equipment cost.

5. High vacuum is required.

6. High safety measures are required.

7. Large jobs are difficult to weld.

8. Skilled man power is required.

Applications of EBW:

1. Electron beam welding process is mostly used in joining of refractive materials like

columbium, tungsten, ceramic etc. which are used in missiles.

2. In space shuttle applications wherein reactive materials like beryllium, zirconium, titanium etc.

are used.

3. In high precession welding for electronic components, nuclear fuel elements, special alloy jet

engine components and pressure vessels for rocket plants.

4. Dissimilar material can be welded like invar with stainless steel.

  Friction Welding Process

Principles:

Friction Welding (FRW) is a solid state welding process which produces welds due to the compressive

force contact of workpieces which are either rotating or moving relative to one another. Heat is

produced due to the friction which displaces material plastically from the faying surfaces. The basic

steps explaining the friction welding process are shown in Fig.1.

Fig.1 (a) Basic Steps in Friction welding

Fig.1(b) Friction welding

 Procedures

 In friction welding the heat required to produce the joint is generated by friction heating at the

interface.

 The components to be joined are first prepared to have smooth, square cut surfaces.

 One piece is held stationary while the other is mounted in a motor driven chuck or collet and

rotated against it at high speed.

 A low contact pressure may be applied initially to permit cleaning of the surfaces by a

burnishing action.

 This pressure is then increased and contacting friction quickly generates enough heat to raise

the abutting surfaces to the welding temperature.

 As soon as this temperature is reached, rotation is stopped and the pressure is maintained or

increased to complete the weld.

 The softened material is squeezed out to form a flash.

 A forged structure is formed in the joint.

 If desired, the flash can be removed by subsequent machining action.

 Friction welding has been used to join steel bars upto 100 mm in diameter and tubes with outer

diameter upto 100 mm.

 Inertia friction welding is a modified form of friction welding, where the moving piece is

attached to a rotating flywheel.

 Fig. 1(c) Inertia friction welding

 The flywheel is brought to a specified rotational speed and is then separated from the driving

motor.

 The rotating assembly is then pressed against the stationary member and the kinetic energy of

the flywheel is converted into frictional heat.

 The weld is formed when the flywheel stops its motion and the pieces remain pressed

together.

 Since the conditions of the inertia welding are easily duplicated, welds of consistent quality

can be produced and the process can be easily automated.

 The heat affected zones are usually narrow, since the time period is very short for heating and

cooling.

 The radial and orbital FRW are as shown in Figs.2 and 3 respectively.
 Fig.2 Radial Friction Welding Fig.3 Orbital Friction Welding

Advantages of Friction Welding:

 No filler material, flux or shielding gases are needed.

 It is an environment-friendly process without generation of smoke, fumes or gases.

 No material is melted so the process is in solid state with narrow heat affected zone (HAZ).

 Oxides can be removed after the welding process.

 In most cases, the weld strength is stronger than the weaker of the two materials being joined.

 The process can be easily automated for mass production.

 The process is very efficient and comparatively very rapid welds are made.

 Plant requirements are minimal and wide variety of metals and combinations can be welded.

Limitations of Friction Welding:

 The process is restricted to joining round bars or tubes of same diameter (or bars tubes to flat

surfaces), i.e. capable of being rotated about the axis.

 Dry bearing and non-forgeable materials cannot be welded, i.e. one of the component must

be ductile for permanent deformations.

 Preparation and alignment of the workpieces may be critical for developing uniform rubbing

and heating, particularly for pieces having diameters larger than 50 mm.

 Capital equipment and tooling costs are high and free-machining alloys are difficult to weld.
 Applications of Friction Welding:

 Friction welded parts in production applications span over wide products for aerospace,
agricultural, automotive, defense, marine and oil industries.

 Right from tong holds to the critical aircraft engine components are friction welded in
production.

 Automotive parts that are friction welded include gears, engine valves, axle tubes, driveline
components, strut rods and shock absorbers.

 Hydraulic piston rods, track rollers, gears, bushings, axles and similar parts are commonly
friction welded by the manufacturers of agricultural equipment.

 Friction welded aluminium / copper joints are in wide usage in the electrical industry.

 Stainless steels are friction welded to carbon steels in various sizes for use in marine systems
and water pumps for home and industrial use.

 Friction welded assemblies are often used to replace expensive casting and forgings.

Fig. 4 Different friction stir welding tools

 FRICTION STIR WELDING (FSW):

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is another variant process of friction welding. A schematic of the

FSW is shown in Fig.4.

Fig.4 A Schematic of the friction stir welding process.

The necessity and advent of Friction Stir Welding:

The basic problems with fusion welding of aluminum and its alloys are that they possess:

 Cast brittle dendritic structure,

 Micro porosity,

 Inferior mechanical and fatigue properties,

 Loss of strength in heat affected zone,

 Solidification and liquation cracking,

 Loss of alloying elements from the weld pool.

The following alternate techniques are being used for joining of aluminium and its alloys:

 Electron beam welding (EBW),

 Laser beam welding (LBW),

 Variable polarity plasma arc welding (VPPAW),

 Friction stir welding (FSW).

 Unique advantages of FSW:

 Solid state process.

 Routinely used to join difficult to fusion weld alloys (e.g., 2xxx & 7xxx aluminum alloys).

 Fine grained, re-crystallized microstructure can be obtained.

 No significant alteration of chemical composition.

 Eliminates fusion welding problems.

 Lower power consumption, user friendly and environment friendly process.

The basic terminologies and process sequence of FSW process is as shown in Fig.5.

End of joining
Joining starts Downward force

Tool Rotates Plunge tool Traverse tool Pull away

Fig.5 Basic terminologies and steps in FSW.

Limitations of FSW:

 Rigid and robust fixtures are required.

 Visible end hole is created.

 Inability to make filler welds.

 FSW Typical Applications:

The industrial application of friction stir welding includes following:

 Aerospace: Wings, fuselage, cryogenic fuel tanks, aviation fuel tanks, aircraft structure,

and external aircraft throw away tanks.

 Marine: Deck panes, bulkheads, floors, hull and superstructures, refrigeration plants,

internal frameworks, marine and transport structures.

 Railway: High speed trains, container bodies, railway tankers, good wagon and

underground rolling stock.

 Automotive: Engine and chassis cradles, wheel rims, tailored blanks, armour plate

vehicles, motorcycle and bicycle frames, buses and airfield vehicles, fuel tankers,

suspension parts, crash boxes.

 Construction: Bridges, reactors for power and chemical industries, pipelines, heat

exchangers, air conditioners, offshore drilling rigs etc.

 Other applications include: Electric motor housing, connectors, busbars, encapsulation of

electronics and joining of aluminum to copper, food tins etc.

  Diffusion welding (bonding)

 Introduction
 Although this process was developed in the 1970s as a modern Welding technology, the
principle of diffusion bonding dates back centuries to when goldsmiths bonded gold over
copper to create a product called filled gold.
 First, a thin layer of gold foil is produced and placed over copper, and a Weight is placed
on top of the foil.
 Finally, the assembly is placed in a furnace and left until a strong bond is obtained; hence,
the process is also called hot-pressed welding (HPW).
 This is only one of many solid-state joining processes wherein joining is accomplished
without the need for a liquid interface (brazing) or the creation of a cast product via
melting and re-solidification (welding).
 That produces solid-state coalescence between two materials.

 Diffusion welding working principles in brief

 First stage deformation and interfacial boundary formation asperities come into contact.
This deformation may be temperature and time dependent, similar to creep.

 Second stage Grain boundary migration recrystallization, pore size reduction and finally
starting of pore elimination.

 Third stage Volume diffusion phenomenon including oxide and contaminant dissolution
and pore elimination.

Two necessary conditions must be met before a satisfactory diffusion weld can be made such as:

(a) Mechanical contact of the faying surfaces

(b) Disruption and dispersion of surface contaminants

The solid state coalescence can be formed under following conditions:

1. Joining occurs at a temperature below the melting point ,

2. Coalescence of contacting surfaces is produced with loads below those that would cause
macroscopic deformation to the part.
3. A bonding aid can be used, such as an interface foil or coating, to facilitate the bonding.
Thus, diffusion bonding facilitates the joining of materials to produce components with no
abrupt discontinuity in the microstructure and with a minimum of deformation.
[It should be noted that the preferred term for this process, according to the American
Welding Society, is diffusion welding. However, because diffusion bonding is used more
commonly in industry.]

Figure 1 shows the diffusion welding process by using electrical resistance for heating.

Fig. 1 Diffusion welding using Electrical resistance for heating

 Factors Influencing Diffusion Welding
(Relation between temperature and diffusion coefficient)
 Temperature
 Diffusion coefficient (D)
D= Doe-Q/KT
Do=diffusion constant
Q= activation energy
T= absolute temperature K=Boltzman‟s
constant

The bonded interface in diffusion welding has essentially the same physical and
mechanical properties as the base metal. Its strength depends on:

 Temperature (effects diffusion coefficient)

 Pressure
 Time of contact
 how clean the faying surfaces are
  X=C(Dt)1/2= diffusion length
Where, C= constant, D= diffusion coefficient, t=time

Fig. 2 Diffusion length during welding

 Applications

 Diffusion bonding generally is most suitable for joining dissimilar metals.

 It also is used for reactive metals (such as titanium, beryllium, zirconium, and refractory
metal alloys) and for composite materials such as metal-matrix composites.
 Diffusion bonding is also an important mechanism of sintering in powder metallurgy.
 Because diffusion involves migration of the atoms across the joint, the process is slower
than other Welding processes.

 Limitations of Diffusion bonding

 Some potential problems an intermetallic phase or a brittle intermetallic compound

may form at the weld interface.
 Porosity may form due to unequal rates of metal transfer by diffusion in the region
adjacent to the weld.
 Selection of proper welding conditions and an appropriate filler metal can usually
prevent such problems. Proper joint designs can help to improve this problem also.
 Any surface to be diffusion welded is never extremely smooth. It has a number of peak
points and valleys. Moreover, this surface may have the following features:
(i) An oxidized layer
 (ii) Oil, grease, dirt etc.

(iii) Absorbed gas, moisture.

 Detailed Diffusion Bonding Process

 The Diffusion Bonding (DB) process, that is, the application of pressure and temperature
to an interface for a prescribed period of time, is generally considered complete when
cavities fully close at the faying surfaces.

Fig. 3 Diffusion bonding setup

 Relative agreement is found for the mechanisms and sequence of events that lead to the
collapse of interface voids, and the discussion below describes these metallurgical
processes.
 It should be understood that parent metal strength is only approached for materials with
surface conditions that do not have barriers to impede atomic bonding such as the
absence of surface oxides or absorbed gases at the bonding interface.
 In practice, oxide-free conditions exist as shown in Fig. 4, only for a limited number of
materials.

Fig. 4 oxide and contaminant layer

  Accordingly, the properties of real surfaces limit and impede the extent of diffusion
bonding.
 The most notable exception is titanium alloys, which, at DB temperatures greater than
850 °C (1560 °F), can readily dissolve minor amounts of adsorbed gases and thin
surface oxide films and diffuse them away from the bonding surfaces.
 So that they will not impede the formation of the required metallic bonds across the
bond interface
 Similarly, the joining of silver at 200 °C (390 °F) requires no deformation to break up
and disperse oxides, because silver oxide dissociates completely at 190 °C (375 °F).
 Above this temperature, silver dissolves its oxide and also scavenges many surface
contaminants.
 Other examples of metals that have a high solubility for interstitial contaminants
include tantalum, tungsten, copper, iron, zirconium, and niobium. Accordingly, this class
of alloy is easiest to diffusion bond.
 A second class of material, that is, metals and alloys that exhibit very low solubility for
interstitials (such as aluminum, iron, nickel, and cobalt-base alloys) are not readily
diffusion bondable.
 Special consideration must be given to remove surface barriers to atomic diffusion prior
to joining and subsequently prevent their reformation during the joining process.

 This is not an easy processing matter.

 Accordingly, the potential for high- strength bond interfaces for alloys with low
interstitial solubility should be considered on an individual alloy basis.

 Mechanism of Diffusion Bonding

 In diffusion bonding, the nature of the joining process is essentially the coalescence of two
atomically clean solid surfaces.
 Complete coalescence comes about through a three-stage metallurgical sequence of events.
 Each stage, as shown in Fig. 3, is associated with a particular metallurgical mechanism that
makes the dominant contribution to the bonding process.

 Consequently, the stages are not discretely defined, but begin and end gradually, because
the metallurgical mechanisms overlap in time.
 During the first stage, the contact area grows to a large fraction of the joint area by
 localized deformation of the contacting surface asperities.

 Factors such as surface roughness, yield strength, work hardening, temperature, and
pressure are of primary importance during this stage of bonding.
 At the completion of this stage, the interface boundary is no longer a planar interface, but
consists of voids separated by areas of intimate contact.
 In these areas of contact, the joint becomes equivalent to a grain boundary between the
grains on each surface.
 The first stage is usually of short duration for the common case of relatively high-pressure
diffusion bonding.

Fig. 5 shows the mechanism of diffusion bonding

 During the second stage of joint formation, two changes occur simultaneously.

 All of the voids in the joints shrink, and most are eliminated. In addition, the interfacial
grain boundary migrates out of the plane of the joint to lower-energy equilibrium.

 Creep and diffusion mechanisms are important during the second stage of bonding and for
most, if not all, practical applications, bonding would be considered essentially complete
following this stage.

 As the boundary moves, any remaining voids are engulfed within grains where they are no
longer in contact with a grain boundary.

 During this third stage of bonding, the voids are very small and very likely have no impact
on interface strength.
 Again, diffusional processes cause the shrinkage and elimination of voids, but the only
possible diffusion path is now through the volume of the grains themselves.
 Although diffusion welding is used for fabricating complex parts in low quantities for
the aerospace, nuclear, and electronics industries, it has been automated to make it
suitable and economical for moderate-volume production.
 Unless the process is highly automated, considerable operator training and skill are
required.
 Explosive Welding
Solid state welding
Solid state welding is a group of welding processes at temperatures essentially below the melting point of the
materials being joined, without the addition of filler metal.
Bonding of the materials is a result of diffusion of their interface atoms.
Explosive welding is a solid-state joining process that uses controlled explosions to accelerate one component
towards another at extremely high speeds, creating a strong, durable bond.

1. Explosive welded products

Explosive welding is a solid state joining process, which uses a controlled explosive detonation to force two
metals together at high pressure. The resultant composite system is joined with a durable, metallurgical bond.

Fig. 1 Bi-metallic boss (3/4” diameter)

Fig. 2 Aluminium/Stainless Steel ring (3” diameter)

 2. Explosive welding

How it works:
In explosive welding, a thin layer of a material (the "flyer plate") is placed on top of a base plate. A controlled explosion is
used to propel the flyer plate towards the base plate at a very high velocity.

3. Setup
Two plates are separated by a stand-off gap. The flyer (top) plate is covered by an explosive layer. Upon detonation the
explosive accelerates the top plate against the parent (bottom) plate. In this way a welding front is established.

Fig. 3 Explosive welding setup

3.1 Jetting
When an explosive is detonated on the surface of the flyer plate, a high pressure pulse is generated. This pulse propels
the flyer plate at a very high rate of speed. If this piece of metal plate collides at an angle with the parent metal plate,
welding may occur.

For welding to occur, a jetting action is required at the collision interface. This jet is the product of the collision of two
metals surfaces. This jet cleans the metals and allows two pure metallic surfaces to join under extremely high pressure.

Fig. 4 Jetting at the collision front.

 3.2 Wavy interface
In explosive welding, materials are usually bonded together in an undulating wave form.

Fig.5 Microstructure of wavy interface in explosive welding (steel/steel). The top plate is the flyer plate, and the welding
is from right to left.

4. Controllable variables in explosive welding

i. Detonation velocity
ii. Standoff distance
iii. Impact energy
iv. Bend angle

5. Features
 Can bond many dissimilar, normally unweldable metals.
 Minimum fixturing/jigs.
 Simplicity of the process.
 Extremely largproperties.
 Small quantity of explosive used.e surfaces can be bonded.
 Wide range of thicknesses can be explosively clad together.
 No effect on parent

Advantages:
 High-strength bonds: The resulting joint is typically very strong and durable.
 Cladding of dissimilar metals: It can be used to join different types of metals that would be difficult or impossible to
join using traditional welding methods.
 Cost-effective: In some cases, explosive welding can be more cost-effective than other joining methods, especially
for large or complex structures.

Limitations
 The metals must have high enough impact resistance, and ductility.
 Noise and blast can require operator protection.
 The use of explosives in industrial areas will be restricted by the noise and ground vibrations caused by
the explosion.
 The geometries welded must be simple – flat, cylindrical.
 Safety concerns: Explosions obviously pose a significant safety hazard.
 Complexity: The process requires specialized equipment and expertise.
 Limited to certain materials: Not all materials are suitable for explosive welding.
 6. Explosive welding in tubular geometries
For the tubular geometry, the explosive is placed in the centre and detonation is initiated at the top. The inner tube is
welded to the outer tube.

Fig. 6 Explosive welding in tubular geometries

 Adhesive Joining or Bonding

Aluminium sheet surface layer

Adhesive joining in light automobile part manifold.
 Sealant for leak proof joint manual and automatic application

Structural adhesives

Structural bonding in automobile body shop