UNIT II Polarization (Lecture-1)

[Topics mentioned in Syllabus:

Polarization: Basic theory of double refraction, Malus Law, Ordinary and Extra-ordinary
ray, Production and Detection of plane, circularly and elliptically polarized light, specific
rotation and polarimeters.

Laser: Spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiation, Einstein Coefficient’s, Principle of

laser action, Construction and working of ruby and He-Ne laser, Photovoltaic effect.

Fibre Optics: Introductiom to Fibre Optics, Types of Fibre, Acceptance angle and cone,
Numerical Aperture]

Q.1 What is double refraction phenomenon?

Doubly-refracting crystal: There are such crystals in nature which split the incident
light ray in ordinary (O-ray) and extra-ordinary (E-ray) rays due to anisotropic property of
such crystals. Such crystals are called doubly-refracting crystals.
Terminology used:
1. Blunt corner: It is such corner in which all three edges make same angle with
each other (˃900).

2. Optic axis: It is the direction from blunt corner which makes same angle from
three edges.

Property of optics axis: If the light is incident along the optic axis or directions
parallel to it then O-ray and E-ray travel in same directions. In other words, the
phenomenon of travelling of O-ray and E-ray in different directions does not occur.

3. Principal Section: It is such a plane which contains the optic axis but it is
perpendicular to the two opposite refracting faces. There are always three
principal sections in a doubly refracting crystal.

Significance or property of a Principal Section: light passing through principal

section gives maximum intensity.
(DRC)
Q.12 Show that plane polarized, circular and elliptical polarized lights are special cases of superposition of two
linearly polarized lights (i.e. O- ray and E-ray). (OR Show the analytical treatment of plane, circular and
elliptical polarized lights.)

Q.13 What is optical-activity (or Rotatory polarization)? Define specific rotation S=θ/l.c (where S=spec. rot.,
θ=angle of rotation, l=length of polarimeter tube in decimeter and c= concentration in gm/c.c.).
Q.14 A sugar solution (optically active - Dextrorotatory) in a tube of 25 cm produces optical angle of 13 0. The
solution is then diluted to one-fourth of its previous concentration. Find optical rotation produced by 35cm
long tube containing the diluted solution.

Q.13 What are phase retardation plates? Discuss the types and their applications.
[Retardation plates are used for the introduction of phase difference between ordinary (o-ray) and extraordinary (E-
ray) rays during their normal transmission through doubly refracting crystal.(provided that in doubly refracting
crystal, the optic axis must be cut parallel to the refracting surface. In this case when the light is incident normally to
the optics axis (or refracting surface), the O-ray and E-ray travel both in the same direction but with a certain path
deference between them which does depend upon the thickness of the plate.
Thus the path difference (∆) = (µ0 ~ µe) t
[it is the optical path (∆)travelled in doubly refracting crystal’s medium which offers two refreactive indices one for O-
ray (µ0 )and another for E-ray (µe), t= thickness of retardation plate]
There are two types of retardation plates:

1. Quarter wave plate: The retardation plate which introduces a path deference of λ/4 (or phase difference
=π/2) between O-ray and E-ray (therefore, ∆= λ/4)
∆= λ/4 = (µ0 ~ µe) t
Or t = λ/4 (µ0 ~ µe)

Applications: 1. It is used to produce elliptically polarized light

If the vibrations of incident plane polarized light do not make an angle of the 450, 00 or
900 with the optic axis, the emergent light is elliptically polarized.
1. It is used to produce circularly polarized light
When plane polarized light is incident on quarter wave plate making an angle 450 with the optic
axis, the emergent light is circularly polarized.

2. Half wave plate: The retardation plate which introduces a path deference of λ/2 between O-ray and E-ray
(therefore, ∆= λ/2
∆= λ/2 = (µ0 ~ µe) t
Or t = λ/2(µ0 ~ µe)

Applications: It produces Plane polarized light

Whatever the plane of vibration of incident plane polarized light makes an
angle θ with the optic axis the emergent light is also plane polarized light with
vibrations inclined at an angle 2θ with the optic axis.
It is used in Half-Shade polarimeter.
Q.4 Discuss the production and detection of plane, circularly and elliptically polarized light.
Superposition of linearly polarized vibrations:

Since the calcite crystal is a negative crystal means velocity of O-ray is less than the velocity of E-ray. In
other words E-ray leads the O- ray thus here phase (ωt + δ) of E-ray is shown to lead by δ than O -ray. E-
ray is in the direction of optic axis.

E – Ray → 𝑥 = A cos 𝜃 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) … … [1]

O– Ray → 𝑦 = A sin 𝜃 sin 𝜔𝑡 … … [2]

Let A cos 𝜃 = 𝑎 and A sin 𝜃 = 𝑏 then

𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) 𝑜𝑟 = sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝛿 + sin 𝛿 cos 𝜔𝑡 … … [3]
𝑎

𝑦 𝑦 2
𝑦 = 𝑏 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑜𝑟 = sin 𝜔𝑡 … … [4] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝜔𝑡 = √1 − (𝑏 )
𝑏

𝑦 𝑦 2
Substituting sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑏 and cos 𝜔𝑡 = √1 − (𝑏 ) into equation [3]

𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 2
= cos 𝛿 + sin 𝛿√1 − ( )
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏

𝑥 𝑦 2 𝑦 2
( − cos 𝛿 ) = sin 𝛿 √1 − ( )
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏

𝑥2 𝑦2 2
𝑥𝑦 2
𝑦 2
+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 − 2 cos 𝛿 = sin 𝛿 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑎𝑏 𝑏
𝑥2 𝑦2 2
𝑥𝑦 2 2
𝑦2
+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 − 2 cos 𝛿 = sin 𝛿 − sin 𝛿
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑎𝑏 𝑏2

𝑥2 𝑦2 2 2
𝑦2 𝑥𝑦
2
+ ( 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 + sin 𝛿 2 )−2 cos 𝛿 = sin2 𝛿
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑎𝑏

𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝒚
𝟐
+ 𝟐−𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜹
𝒂 𝒃 𝒂𝒃

This is the equation of oblique ellipse or general equation which governs the nature of emergent ray
from this DRC.

Case I: If the thickness of the plate is such that it introduces a phase difference (δ) = 0 or 2nπ between E
and O ray (or Δx = 0) then cosδ = 1 and sinδ = 0

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥𝑦
2
+ 2−2 = 0
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎𝑏
𝑥 𝑦 2
( − ) = 0
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
− = 0 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
𝒃
±𝒚 = ± ( ) 𝒙
𝒂

This is the equation of a straight line. It shows that emergent light will be straight line.

Case II: If the thickness of the plate is such that δ = π or (2n+1) π (or Δx = λ/2 or called Half wave plate)
then cosδ = -1 and sinδ = 0

𝑏
±𝑦 = ± ( ) 𝑥
𝑎

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥𝑦
2
+ 2+2 = 0
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎𝑏
𝑥 𝑦 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏 ) = 0

𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
+ = 0 𝑜𝑟 → = −
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
𝒃
±𝒚 = ∓ ( ) 𝒙
𝒂
This shows that emergent ray is again a plane polarized light, and it is rotated by angle 2θ from
direction of incident ray.
Case III: If the thickness of the plate is such that it introduces a phase difference (δ) = π/2 or (2n+1) π/2
(or Δx = λ/4 or called Quarter wave plate) then cosδ = 0 and sinδ = 1

𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
+ = 𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐

This is the equation of an ellipse. It shows that emergent light will be an elliptically polarized light.

Special case: In above equation there can be a=b = A cosθ = A sinθ, only when θ = 450; let b = a then
above equation reduces to
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝟐
+ = 𝟏 𝒐𝒓 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐
𝒂 𝒂𝟐

This is the equation of a circle. It shows that if the incident plane polarized light makes an angle θ=450
with optic axis then emergent light is always a circularly polarized light.

Detection:

Plane Polarized light: When passed through a rotating Nicol prism the intensity of emergent light varies from Maximum to
Zero Minimum.

Circularly Polarized light: Generally, on rotating a Nicol (analyser) in front of a unpolarized and a circular polarized light
gives same impression of no variation in intensity because of their same amplitudes in all directions. Therefore, to distinguish
between these two these are passed through a quarter wave plate (as shown in figure).
On Passing through quarter wave, a circularly light is converted into plane polarized light. It shows variation in
intensity with maximum to zero minimum. And an un-polarized light passes as it is; thus, it shows no change in
intensity.

Elliptically Polarized light: On rotating a Nichol (analyzer) in front of an Elliptically polarized light and a partially plane
polarized light shows variation in intensity from maximum to minimum not zero. Therefore, to distinguish between these two
these are passed through a quarter wave plate (as shown in figure).

On Passing through quarter wave, an elliptically polarized light is converted into plane polarized light. It shows
variation in intensity with maximum to zero minimum. And a partially polarized light passes as it is; thus, it shows
variation in intensity from maximum to minimum not zero.
Specific rotation (S) is the angle of rotation (θ) when Unit concentration (1 gm/c.c.) is filled in unit
length of polarimeter tube (in decimeter).

Specific rotation (S) = θ/ (l. c) … [1]

Determination of concentration of sugar in a solution:

Here θ (angle of rotation) is determined experimentally using a Laurent’s polarimeter in

Laboratory. Since the specific rotation (s) of a sugar +66.47° is known so substituting the values of
S, θ and l (length of polarimeter tube in decimeter) in eq. [1], the concentration (c) can be
determined. This is one of the practical applications of plane polarized light.

Q.2 What is Laurent’s Half Shade Polarimeter? What is the use of half-shade device?
Explain the working of half-shade polarimeter.
Ans. It is the polarimeter in which a monochromatic light and a half shade device (i.e. λ/2 retardation
plate) is used.
Need of introducing the Half Shade Device in a half shade polarimeter:
It is not possible for us to distinguish between the intensity variations of a light therefore, in
polarimeter a half- shade device is installed which provides a reference condition (condition
of equally illuminated portion of both sides of a half shade device) to measure an angle on
circular scale.

Half shade device rotates the incident light (CQ) in CQ’ direction. Hence, the light is observed in
CQ’ and CQ both directions (refer figure above). Following three conditions arises among which
third condition (iii) when both sides of Half shade device are equally illuminated is used to
determine the angle of rotation on circular scale.