Approach
1. Theory of language
The Communicative Approach in language teaching starts from a functional theory of
language one that focuses on language as a means of communicationThe goal of lan- guage
teaching is to develop what Hymes (1972) referred to as communicative compe- [Link]
coined this term in order to contrast a communicative view of language and Chomsky's theory
of competence. the focus of linguistic theory was to characterize the abstract abilities speakers
possess that enable them to produce grammatically correct sentences in a languageIt was
based on a cognitive view of language. Hymes's theory of communi- cative competence was a
definition of what a speaker needs to know in order to be com- municatively competent in a
speech communityIn Hymes's viewa person who acquires communicative competence
acquires both knowledge and ability for language use with respect to the following:
a. whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible
b. whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the means of
implementation available
c. whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, success- ful)
in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated
d. whether (and to what degree) something is in fact doneactually performedand what its
doing entails. Another linguistic theory of communication favored in CLT theory
was.
Halliday's functional account of language use. Here the term functional is expanded to
encompass the categories given below, as well as speech acts, another term for functions in
the sense used by Wilkins to describe what we do with language (complain, apologize, etc).
He described (1975: 11-17) seven basic functions that language performs for children
learning their first language:
a. The instrumental functionusing language to get things
b. The regulatory function; using language to control the behavior of others.
c. The interactional functionusing language to create interaction with others
d. The personal function: using language to express personal feelings and meanings
e. The heuristic function: using language to learn and to discover
f. The imaginative function: using language to create a world of the imagination
g. The representational function: using language to communicate information.
his book Teaching Language as Communication (1978)Widdowson presented a view of the
relationship between linguistic systems and their com- municative values in text and
discourse. He focused on the communicative acts underlying the ability to use language for
different purposes. In other words, Widdowson's focus was a practical one, as opposed to a
purely philosophical one, and emphasized the learner's use of speech acts or functions for a
communicative [Link] the level of language theory, CLT has a rich, if somewhat eclectic,
theoretical baseSome of the characteristics of this communicative view of language follow:
a. Language is a system for the expression of meaning
b. The primary function of language is to allow interaction and communication.
c. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
d. The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but
categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.
e. Communicative competence entails knowing how to use language for a range of different
purposes and functions as well as the following dimensions of language knowledge
Knowing how to vary use of language according to the setting and the participants(e.g.,
knowing when to use formal and informal speech or when to use language. appropriately
for written as opposed to spoken communication) Knowing how to produce and
understand different types of texts (e.g., narratives, reports, interviews, conversations)
• Knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in one's language
2. Types of learning and teaching activities
prompted a rethinking of classroom teaching methodologyIt was argued that learners Make
real communication the focus of language learning. As well as rethinking the nature of a
syllabus, the Communicative Approach to teaching learn a language through the process of
communicating in it, and that communication that is meaningful to the learner provides a
better opportunity for learning than a grammar- based approach.
Activities were needed that reflected the following principles:
a. Provide opportunities for learners to experiment and try out what they know.
b. Make real communication the focus of language learning.
c. Be tolerant of learnerserrors as they indicate that the learner is building up his or her
communicative competence.
d. Provide opportunities for learners to develop both accuracy and fluency
e. Link the different skills such as speaking, reading, and listening together, since they
usually occur together in the real world
f. Let students induce or discover grammar rules.
The range of exercise types and activities compatible with a communicative approach is
unlimited, provided that such exercises enable learners to attain the communicative objectives
of the curriculum and engage learners in communication Classroom activities are often
designed to focus on completing tasks that are mediated through language or involve
negotiation of information and information-sharing - a feature that has become the primary
characteristic of Task-Based Language Teaching. Social interaction activities include
conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays, simulations, skitsimpro-
visations, and debates. One of the goals of second language learning is to develop fluency,
accuracyand appropriacy in language use. Fluency is natural language use occurring when a
speaker engages in meaningful interaction and maintains comprehensible and ongoing
communication despite limitations in his or her communicative competence.
The differences between these two kinds of activities may be summarized as follows:
a. Activities focusing on fluency
1) reflect natural use of language;
2) concentrate on achieving communication through negotiation of meaning;
3) require meaningful use of language;
4) require the use of communication strategies;
5) produce language that may not be predictable;
6) seek to link language use to context.
b. Activities focusing on accuracy
1) reflect classroom use of language;
2) concentrate on the formation of
3) correct examples of language;
4) practice language out of context;
5) practice small samples of language;
6) do not require meaningful communication;
7) control choice of language.
For example, based on students' performance on a fluency task, the teacher could assign
accuracy work to deal with grammatical or pronunciation problems the teacher observed
while students were carrying out the task, or develop a follow-up focus on appropriacy of
language use (e.g, the difference between formal and casual speech)While dialogues,
grammar, and pronunciation drills did not usually dis- appear from textbooks and classroom
materials at this time, they now appeared as part of a sequence of activities that moved back
and forth between accuracy activities and fluency activities
Common activity types in CLT include:
a. Jig-saw activitiesThe class is divided into groups and each group has part of the infor-
mation needed to complete an activityThe class must fit the pieces together to
complete the whole.
b. Task-completion activitiesPuzzles, games, map-reading, and other kinds of
classroom tasks in which the focus is on using one's language resources to complete a
task
c. Information-gathering activities. Student-conducted surveys, interviews, and searches
in which students are required to use their linguistic resources to collect information
d. Opinion-sharing activitiesActivities where students compare values, opinions, beliefs,
such as a ranking task in which students list six qualities in order of importance when
choosing a date or spouse
e. Information-transfer activities. Taking information that is presented in one form, and
representing it in a different form For example, students may read instructions on how
to get from A to B, and then draw a map showing the sequence, or they may read
information about a subject and then represent it as a graph
f. Reasoning gap activities. Deriving some new information from given information
through the process of inference, practical reasoning, etc. For example, working out a
teacher's timetable on the basis of given class timetables.
g. Role playsStudents are assigned roles and improvise a scene or exchange based on
given information or clues.