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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter captures the view of different author, authorities and cooperate bodies about the subject matter of the
research.
This chapter intends to review the various aspects of conflict management as seen by other authors.
In this chapter we shall further make our discussion under the following headings:
2.2 Concept of conflict
2.3 Causes of conflict in an organization
2.4 Types of conflict in an organization
2.5 The effect of conflict in an organization
2.6 Steps of Conflict Management
2.7 Importance of Conflict Management in an Organization
2.8 Methods of conflict management and resolution
2.2 CONCEPT OF CONFLICT/MANAGEMENT
Conflict can be seen as an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles in an organization.
(Kleiner, 2012) says it is as the discord that occurs when the goals, interests or values of different groups are incompatible with
those of individuals or groups block they frustrate each other’s in an attempt to achieve their objectives. Philip (2014) argues that
Conflict is an ever-present process in human relations. That is why various organizations have changed approaches to enable them
to manage their organizations effectively to avoid conflicts at all costs. Conflict is a fact of life in any organizations as long as
people compete for jobs, resources, power, recognition and security (Steiner 2011)
Conflict management involves implementing strategies to limit the negative aspects and to increase the positive aspects of
conflict at a level equal to or higher than where it is taking place. Furthermore, the aim of conflict management is to enhance
learning and group outcomes. (Monge & Russel, 2010). Marks (2011) defined conflict management as the practice of identifying
and handling conflict in a sensible, fair, and efficient manner. It requires such skills as effective communicating, problem solving,
and negotiating with a focus on interests. Crohan (2015) defined conflict management as a key skill for all successful long-term
relationships. It may well be that the key skill in all long-term committed relationships is conflict management--certainly the data on
marriages suggests this is true. The presence of conflict does not determine the quality of a marriage; rather, how the couple
handles conflict situations determines the quality of the relationship. Even beliefs about conflict are more important to marital,
happiness than whether or not the two partners actually agree with one another.
Conflict Management theory states that a healthy management system should be integrated within the system of the
organization and the integration should be at higher level of hierarchy rather than being interconnection, conflict management is a
human sub-system which is achieved through typical development process. The process starts with assessment and inquiry,
addresses the design, implementation and evaluation (Ford, 2013). This indicates that in organization, management must have a
system in place to resolve conflicts. Employee performance, it is about how the workers can be able to achieve organizational
objectives basing on agreed measures, skills, competency requirements, when there is a direct and quantifiable links between
customer service variables such as satisfaction, loyalty and employee variables like enthusiasm, commitment, capability, and
internal service quality to deliver results and to create a high performance workforce, Frederick (2009).
In organizations there are different groups of people working, this points to the paucity of information relevant to this study
and reveals many studies showing that conflict arises because of misinformation, poor planning, and the relationship between
conflict and employee performance is impossible to rival or even approach the capabilities and skills of employees if a conflict is not
handled effectively. Diane Booker (2007). The research clearly shows that effects of conflicts in the workplace are often wide
reaching and consuming, employees routinely do their jobs but due to varied impacts of conflicts related to workplace further they
can be beneficial or destructive and damaging. Organizations are often effected with employee leave requests as a result;
excessive absenteeism abounds and negatively affects the overall productivity (John, 2010). It also promotes team members' ability
and perceptions about decision-making effectiveness (Simons & Peterson 2009). Effective leaders must differentiate between
conflict that will boost productivity and build stronger teams and conflict that will decrease output and hinder teamwork. Clearly,
managers must resolve conflict and channel it into positive competition and collaboration. Conflict is frequent incident in
organization it influences behaviour of employees, at the same time, these characteristics can be considered as the strategies to
resolve conflict. Early diagnosis of conflict is important and Interpersonal mediation is usually successful in producing settlements.
(Kresse & Pruitt). Yet "mutual understanding and interaction" also can be used to prevent it. Therefore managers should encourage
any virtues and activity that enhances such understanding and interaction. This approach will benefit the quality of production
through a healthy work environment.
2.3 CAUSES OF CONFLICT IN AN ORGANIZATION
Conflict is the result of opposing thoughts, actions or ideas disrupting the status quo. Conflict is seen in everyday life, and
is a natural, often selfish, and sometimes productive phenomenon (William, 2012). Because it can lead to violence and war in
certain situations, the word 'conflict' often appears with a negative connotation. The reality is that, if dealt with properly and
maturely, conflict can lead to positive results and personal growth.
1) Misunderstanding: Misunderstanding is one of the major causes of conflict in the organization. When employees do not
understand their tasks, roles, and responsibilities conflict arises. Due to this, they may not complete their tasks as the manager
expected from them. It may be due to poor communication from manager to employees.
2) Personal Differences: Personal differences are the fundamental causes of interpersonal conflict in the organization.
The differences occur in the individual due to various reasons such as family background, values, attitudes, traditions, culture,
education, and socialization process. Personality differences create conflict among people. It affects on emotions of individuals.
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There are bound to be differences among the people in a team. Their unique abilities, traits and skills affect interpersonal
relations. So do their backgrounds, culture, and thinking. However, aggressiveness, dominating personalities, authoritarian
behavior and intolerance are causes of workplace conflict that must be tempered and discouraged.
3) Information Deficiency: Communication breakdown is one of the reasons for conflict. The lack of close communication
and transformation of rigid information create misunderstanding among the people. It creates the problem of distrust and conflict.
Therefore, it is essential to communicate the right information at the right time to the related persons.
4) Goal Differences: The goal is the basis for organizational performance. All activities of the individuals concentrate on
achieving predetermined goals. Therefore, if individuals in the same group initiate different goals it may cause conflict among
group members. They can not do work effectively.
5) Lack of Role Clarification: People of a company perform various roles that are interrelated to one another. The
absence of role exposition among people generates conflict. It can create role conflict.
For example, role conflict between production and marketing managers. Thus, it is necessary to make a proper division of
work and delegation of authority on the basis of responsibility.
6) Threat to Status: Status is the social rank that an individual obtains in the organization. It is based on knowledge and
position. When any threat generates to an individual in his status it may create conflict.
The main responsibility of top management is to maintain balance among subordinates working together for common
goals.
7) Lack of Trust: Lack of trust is also one of the causes of conflict in the organization. All individuals working in a group
must have mutual trust to achieve common goals. They need to do activities on the basis of mutual cooperation and support. Lack
of mutual trust among group members creates conflict. It generates barriers to achieving goals.
For this management needs to take necessary steps so that individuals in the group can mobilize resources on the basis of
their skills and experiences.
8) Poor Communication: Communication is the means of exchanging guidance, instructions, and suggestions between the
members of the organization. The poor communication system in the organization creates the problem of exact transformation of
information among the group members, which leads to conflict among them. Thus, there must a two-way communication system in
order to make proper communication. It is safe to say that communication barriers are one of the causes of conflict in an
organization. If there is a misunderstanding in sharing information from one person to another, it may cause a conflict.
Communication is a complex process; it causes barriers that often stir conflict. Any hindrances to two-way communication make it
easy to misjudge another person or group. Such misunderstandings can hurt employee performance. Creating specific and clear
communication channels that inculcate a culture where questions are welcomed will go a long way in relieving this type of conflict.
9) Organizational Changes: Changes in organizational structure, division of work, authority and responsibility, etc. are
essential to cope with environmental changes. Such changes can change the job liability, status, position, and authority of the
people in the group. It can change the formal relationship and job responsibility of group members. This also may be one of the
reasons for conflict among group members of the organization.
10) Increase in workload: Sometimes workplace conflict is caused because people feel they are being pushed too hard and
resentment sets in if they feel their workload is unmanageable.
11) Lack of Common Performance Standards: The different parameters for judging performance and arbitrary reward
systems become a source of conflict in an organization. The absence of common performance standards is an avoidable source of
conflict in the workplace. For example, the production staff is rewarded for their efficiency based on long-term results. On the other
hand, sales people are rewarded for their short-term response to market changes without thinking much about long-term market
efficiency. This situation causes conflict as every unit tries to reach its performance standards while unfairly competing with others.
12) Competition: Competition is the most common cause of team conflicts. Every person wants to be recognized and
appreciated for their work. This leads to cutthroat competition and conflicts in the end. Unhealthy competition can be addressed by
building team spirit. Bringing employees together as a family could decrease this kind of conflict.
13) Time Constraints: Deadlines are necessary to meet targets, but too much pressure is counterproductive. They often
turn into causes of workplace conflict. Unreasonable deadlines lead to stress and unhappiness. Managers must respect an
individual’s capability before setting their targets. The employee also needs to know how long they have to complete a task.
Carefully creating the job design and cross-training employees can lessen these conflicts.
14) Task Interdependence: When the two teams or departments are interdependent for supplies, information, direction or
help, they need perfect coordination. While interdependence can be fruitful, it is also a reason for workplace conflict. This is
especially true for teams that often work closely with each other, such as sales and production, sales and marketing, production
and research and development, etc. The higher the interdependence among individuals or groups, the greater the chance of
conflict. Therefore, coordination and communication are necessary for interlinked teams.
15) Status Issues: Status could mean the respect and prestige a person receives in the organization. At times, members
disagree with the status quo leading them to become frustrated and resentful. Everyone tries to protect and elevate their positions.
This is a reason for conflict in the workplace. This issue can be resolved if people are aware of one another’s position. Finally, all
employees must treat their colleagues with respect, regardless of their post.
2.4 TYPES OF CONFLICT IN AN ORGANIZATION
Organizational Conflict can be classified in 4 ways.
1. Intra-individual/Intra-personal Conflict.
2. Interpersonal conflict.
3. Intra-group Conflict.
4. Inter-group conflict.
1. Intra-individual/Intra-personal Conflict
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Conflict can be intra-personal, where an individual’s objective and vision differ from his/her company’s overall vision. This
refers to a conflict within an individual.
Intra-individual conflict arises from frustration, numerous roles that demand equal attention but are always possible to devote, and
goals with negative and positive aspects.
Three types of Intra-individual/Intra-personal Conflict are;
1. Goal conflict,
2. Conflict from frustration, and
3. Role conflict.
Goal conflict: Another common source of conflict for an individual is a goal that has both positive and negative features or two or
more competing goals. Goal conflict is more complex than conflict from frustration. Goal conflict occurs when the attainment of one
goal excludes the possibility of attaining another.
Three major forms of goal conflict may be distinguished:
a) Approach-approach conflict, where the individual is motivated to approach two or more positive but mutually exclusive
goals.
b) Approach-avoidance conflict, Where the individual is motivated to approach a goal and at the same time is motivated
to avoid it. The single goal contains both positive and negative characteristics for the individual.
c) Avoidance-avoidance conflict, where the individual is motivated to avoid two or more negative but mutually exclusive
goals.
Conflict from frustration: frustration occurs when a motivated drive is blocked before a person reaches the desired goal. An
individual driven by an inner state of deficiency engages himself in some actions to fulfil the deficiency.
But his attempts to reach the goal are checked by barriers which may be overt (external) or covert (internal). External
barriers include floods, power failures, and the breakdown of transportation.
These are non-social. There are external barriers that are social-they are parents forcing a child to sit on the toilet, making him
refrain from the cartoon, making him stay in the room, or denying him the pleasure of watching television. Internal barriers are
personal limitations and disabilities which thwart one’s aspirations. Weaknesses, physical deformities, lack of skill, or low
intelligence may hinder achievement. Internal barriers are more lasting than external ones.
Role conflict: The final reason for the intra-personal conflict is the need for an individual to play several roles simultaneously but
find the time and resources inadequate to do so.
For example, it is not uncommon for an adult middle-class male to be simultaneously playing the roles of husband, father, son to
elderly parents, worker or manager, student (evening MBA program), member of a social club, coach of a little league baseball
team, bridge partner, poker club member, officer of a community group, and weekend golfer.
Recent research shows that such conflict can harm well-being and performance and may be affected by cultural difference.
There are 3 major types of role conflict.
a) One type is the conflict between the person and the role. There may be a conflict between the person’s personality and
the expectations of the role.
b) A second type is an intra-role conflict created by contradictory expectations about how a given role should be played.
c) Finally, inter-role conflict results from the differing requirements of two or more roles that must be played at the same
time. Work roles and nonwork roles are often in such conflict.
2. Inter-personal conflict
The most basic type of conflict is inter-personal. It is between two colleagues – arising from a host of reasons ranging
from differences in personality, work style, and personal background. Conflict at the inter-personal level involves two or more
individuals and is the most common and most recognized type of conflict.
In a way, all conflicts are interpersonal because most involve a conflict between a person in one organization or a group
and another person in another organization or a group. Every individual has a separate alternative course of action that is
acceptable to him and different individuals prefer different alternatives. Sometimes the organizations also create such
circumstances that two individuals find themselves in a situation of conflict.
For example, two managers could be competing for limited capital or manpower resources. The other type of conflict is
disagreement over the goals and objectives of the organization.
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4 primary sources of interpersonal conflict are;
a) Personal Differences,
b) Lack of Information,
c) Role in Compatibility, and
d) Environmental Stress.
Personal Differences: This can be a major source of conflict between individuals. Due to the difference in upbringing, culture,
education, experience, values, traditions, and the family background of the individuals, interpersonal conflict could arise.
Lack of Information: Another cause of inter-personal conflict could be a lack of information. This information deficiency is often
a result of communication breakdown in an organization.
Role in Compatibility: Role incompatibility could also be a source of conflict as in present-day inter-functional organizations’
many managers are assigned tasks which are interdependent, and the individual roles of these managers may be incompatible.
Environmental Stress: Environmental stress in an organization can also cause inter-personal conflict. Such stress is caused by a
lack of resources, downsizing, competitive pressures, and a high level of uncertainty among the employees of the organization.
The inter-personal conflicts usually get resolved by themselves because the parties in conflict are not in a position to
remain in a conflict for a long time. Time itself becomes a healing factor for interpersonal conflicts.
In the case of persisting inter-personal conflicts, these can be resolved with the help of counselling, effective communication, and
win-win negotiation. The management should look for the basic reason behind conflicts and try to resolve them quickly so that an
atmosphere of mutual trust and openness can be created and maintained in the organization.
3. Intra-group Conflict
When an individual is pitted against a group and is either unwilling or unable to conform to group dynamics, he or she
invariably leaves the team due to intra-group conflict.
4. Inter-group conflict
When the conflict is inter-group, two teams are involved in a deadlock, endangering the successful completion of a project
due to differences in group dynamics. Organizational conflict is the discord that arises when the goals, interests or values of
different individuals or groups are incompatible, and those individuals or groups block or thwart one another’s attempts to achieve
their objective.
In addition to interpersonal conflict, social psychologists have been concerned about intergroup conflict for several years.
Intergroup behaviour is even specifically identified as follows;
“Intergroup behaviour occurs whenever individuals belonging to one group interact, collectively or individually, with another group
or its members in terms of their reference group identification.
Several antecedent conditions have been identified for explaining intergroup conflict.
The reasons behind the inter-group conflict are;
a) Competition for Resources.
b) Task Interdependence.
c) Jurisdictional Ambiguity.
d) Status Struggles.
These can be summarized as follows;
Competition for Resources: Most organizations today have very limited resources. Groups within the organization compete
for budget funds, space, supplies, personnel, and support services.
Task Interdependence: If two groups in the organization depend on one another in a mutual or even a one-way direction, there
tends to be more conflict than if groups are independent. The more diverse the interdependent groups’ objectives, priorities, and
personnel (for example, research and production), the more conflict there tends to be.
Jurisdictional Ambiguity: This may involve “turf” problems or overlapping responsibilities.
For example, conflict might occur when one group attempts to assume more control, take credit for desirable activities, or give up
its part and any responsibility for undesirable activities.
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Status Struggles: This conflict occurs when one group attempts to improve its status and another group views this as a threat to
its place m the status hierarchy.
One group may also feel it is being inequitably treated in comparison with another group of equal status in terms of rewards, job
assignments, working conditions, privileges, or status symbols.
Human resources departments justifiably often feel they are treated inequitably with marketing, finance, and operations
departments.
Recent research shows that such groups in conflict change internally and in their intergroup perceptions.
For example, one study of 70 top management teams found internally that the degree of trust moderated the relationship between
task conflict (the perception of disagreements about decisions made by the group) and relationship conflict (an emotional
perception of interpersonal incompatibility).
And, most recently, setting up systems through advanced information technology that eliminate conflict inherent in
traditional (hierarchical and functional specializations) organization designs.
2.5 THE EFFECT OF CONFLICT IN AN ORGANIZATION
The following highlights the negative effects of conflict in an organization
1. Mental Health Concerns,
2. A decrease in Productivity,
3. Members Leave Organization,
4. Violence,
5. Distract Primary Purposes, and
6. Psychological Problem
Mental Health Concerns: Conflict within an organization can cause members to become frustrated if they feel as if there’s no
solution in sight or if they feel that their opinions go unrecognized by other group members. As a result, members become
stressed, which adversely affects their professional and personal lives.
Organization members may have problems sleeping, loss of appetite or overeating, headaches and become
unapproachable. In some instances, organization members may avoid meetings to prevent themselves from experiencing stress
and stress-related symptoms.
Decrease in Productivity: When an organization spends much of its time dealing with conflict, members take time away from
focusing on the core goals they are tasked with achieving. Conflict causes members to focus less on the project at hand and more
on gossiping about conflict or venting about frustrations. As a result, organizations can lose money, donors, and access to essential
resources.
Members Leave Organization: Organization members who are increasingly frustrated with the level of conflict within an
organization may decide to end their membership. This is especially detrimental when members are a part of the executive board
or heads of committees. Once members begin to leave, the organization has to recruit new members and appoint acting board
members. Organizations risk dissolution in extreme cases when several members leave or an executive board steps down.
Violence: When conflict escalates without mediation, intense situations may arise between organization members.
Unfortunately, organizational conflicts may cause violence among members, resulting in legal problems for members and possibly
the organization.
Distract Primary Purposes: Conflict can distract individuals and groups from their primary purposes, leaving them with less time
and resources for other activities. When a conflict involves “heavy contentious tactics,” it can cause the individuals or groups
involved in the conflict and individuals or groups not involved in the conflict to divert time and resources away from other needs.
Psychological Problem: Conflict can have both short-term and long-term effects on the physical and psychological health of the
individuals involved in or affected by the conflict.
2.6 STEPS OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Step 1: Identify the source of the conflict: Identification of the root cause of conflict is the main step to deal aptly with the
conflict. To get the information we need, use a series of questions to identify the cause, source and find solution to deal with the
conflict. As a manager or supervisor, we need to give both parties the chance to share their side of the story.
Step 2: Look beyond the incident: The perspective on the situation that causes anger to fester and ultimately leads to a
shouting match or other visible and disruptive evidence of a conflict. The source of the conflict might be a minor problem that
occurred months before, but the level of stress has grown to the point where the two parties have begun attacking each other
personally instead of addressing the real problem.
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Step 3: Request solutions: After getting every parties viewpoint on the conflict, the next step is to get each to identify how the
situation could be changed. Then we have to be an active listener, aware of every verbal word, as well as a good reader of body
language. We want to get the disputants to stop fighting and start cooperating, and that means steering the discussion away from
finger pointing and toward ways of resolving the conflict.
Step 4: Identify solutions both disputants can support: Whilst developing the solution, fighting between the parties is liable
to break out again. It is then the mediator’s responsibility, to keep the parties focused on the goal of the process, and divert their
attention from the differences resulting in these minor conflicts. After identifying the need and desire of both the parties’ mediator
must draft suitable solutions to support the issue. If the negotiation and solution be win-win situation, then the chances of conflict
resolution is maximum.
Step 5: Agreement: The mediator needs to get the two parties to shake hands. Some mediators go as far as to write up a
contract in which actions and time frames are specified. Agreement between two parties is made by convincing them by their
nearest person whom they respect.
2.7 IMPORTANCE OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN AN ORGANIZATION
When conflict is managed effectively, team members see conflict as a tool to exchange ideas while allowing each party to be
equally heard. "Teams cannot have effective communication without productive conflict." Adequately managed conflict is an
effective form of communication rather than a fearful argument.
The following highlight the importance of conflict management in an organization:
1. Increased team performance, productivity, energy, and engagement.
2. Improved leadership throughout the entire team.
3. Greater innovation and creativity.
4. Increased trust and connection among team members.
5. Higher employee retention rates.
6. Reduced employee stress and absence.
7. Advanced workplace communication and collaboration.
2.8 METHODS OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AND RESOLUTION
This is based on the assumption that people choose how cooperative and how assertive to be in a conflict. It suggests
that everyone has preferred ways of responding to conflict, but most of us use all methods under various circumstances. It is
helpful to understand the five methods, particularly when you want to move a group forward.
1. Avoiding: Avoiding is when people just ignore or withdraw from the conflict. They choose this method when the
discomfort of confrontation exceeds the potential reward of resolution of the conflict. While this might seem easy to accommodate
for the facilitator, people aren’t really contributing anything of value to the conversation and may be withholding worthwhile ideas.
When conflict is avoided, nothing is resolved. An avoiding style completely evades the conflict. You would neither pursue your
beliefs nor those of the other people involved. Simply, you would continuously postpone or completely dodge the conflict whenever
it comes up.
This style could be appropriate to use when the conflict seems trivial, you don't have the time, you need more time to
think, you feel as though you have no chance of winning, or you're afraid of being met with resentment.
2 Competing: Choosing this style means that a person is putting his/her interest before anyone else’s interests. Some
people who use this style try so hard to get what they want irrespective of whether or not they ruin the friendship. A lion is a
symbol of this style. For example, when the lion’s family is hungry, the lion may use its strength and loud roar to get the food,
because it is important for the family (Daresh, 2011). Competing is used by people who go into a conflict planning to win. They’re
assertive and not cooperative. This method is characterized by the assumption that one side wins and everyone else loses. It
doesn’t allow room for diverse perspectives into a well-informed total picture. Competing might work in sports or war, but it’s rarely
a good strategy for group problem solving.
A competing style takes a firm stance and refuses to see the perspectives of the other parties. You would keep pushing
your viewpoint or rejecting other people’s ideas until you get your way. This style could be appropriate when you have to stand up
for your rights or morals, need to make a quick decision and force others to get on board, need to end a long-term conflict, or have
to prevent a terrible, opposing decision from being made.
3 Accommodating: People choosing this style put their interests last and let others have what they want. They believe
that keeping a relationship is more important than anything else. A chameleon is a symbol of this style because it changes its
colour to match that of its environment. It also uses other styles depending on the situation (Daresh, 2011). Accommodating is a
strategy where one party gives in to the wishes or demands of another. They’re being cooperative but not assertive. This may
appear to be a gracious way to give in when one figures out s/he has been wrong about an argument. It’s less helpful when one
party accommodates another merely to preserve harmony or to avoid disruption. Like avoidance, it can result in unresolved issues.
Too much accommodation can result in groups where the most assertive parties commandeer the process and take control of most
conversations.
An accommodating style forsakes your own needs or desires in exchange for those of others. You would be putting the
concerns of others before your own. This style usually takes place when you simply give in or are persuaded to give in. This style
could be appropriate when others care more about the issue than you do, you want to keep the peace, you feel as though you are
in the wrong, or you have no choice but to agree with the other person’s point-of-view.
4 Collaborating: Collaborating is the method used when people are both assertive and cooperative. A group may learn to
allow each participant to make a contribution with the possibility of co-creating a shared solution that everyone can support.
A collaborating style attempts to find a solution that will meet the needs of all parties. Rather than trying to find a middle
ground solution, you would aim for a solution that satisfies everyone and ends up being a win-win situation. This style could be
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appropriate when multiple perspectives need to be addressed, there is an important relationship between the parties, the final
solution is too important for anyone to be displeased, or the beliefs of multiple stakeholders must be represented.
5 Compromising: People choose this style when it is important to satisfy some of their interests, but not all of them. They
might say that let us split the difference for something better than nothing. A zebra is a symbol of this style. Zebras’s unique look
seems to indicate that it does not care if it is a black or white horse, so it “splits the difference” and chooses black and white
stripes, but it may choose other styles depending on the situation (Green et al., 2002; Hanson, 2003). The concept is that everyone
gives up a little bit of what they want, and no one gets everything they want. The perception of the best outcome when working by
compromise is that which “splits the difference.” Compromise is perceived as being fair, even if no one is particularly happy with
the final outcome.
A compromising style attempts to find a solution that will at least partially please all parties. You would work to find a
middle ground between all the needs, which would typically leave people unsatisfied or only satisfied to a certain extent.
This style could be appropriate when it's more important to reach a solution than for the solution to be great, a deadline is rapidly
approaching, you're at an impasse, or you need a temporary solution for the moment.