The natural environment (Section A)

Chapter 1: River environments

The hydrological cycle
The hydrological cycle is a closed system – there is a fixed amount of water on Earth that is constantly recycled.

Key clouds condensation

Stores
Flows (transfers) snow

ice sheet
precipitation

The natural environment (Section A)

interception glacier

solar energy infiltration

evapotranspiration
river surface run off percolation

evaporation soil rock

run off
groundwater flow
the sea
lake/freshwater
surface store

Figure 1.1 The hydrological cycle: water is held in stores and moves between them in transfers

Stores
• The atmosphere – water is held as water vapour or droplets in clouds.

• The land – water is held in ice sheets, glaciers and snowfields; in lakes, rivers and reservoirs; in
vegetation; and as groundwater in the soil or bedrock.

• The sea.

95 per cent of the Earth’s water is stored in the sea.

Transfers
• Evaporation – important in transferring water from the sea to the atmosphere.

• Transpiration – the transfer of water vapour into the atmosphere by plants.

• Precipitation – water condenses in the atmosphere and then transfers from the atmosphere to the land
or sea surface as rain, hail or snow.

• Overland flow – precipitation that runs off the ground surface into a stream, river or lake.

• Infiltration/percolation – the transfer of water through the soil into the groundwater store.

• Throughflow – water that doesn’t enter groundwater but moves slowly through the soil until it reaches
a stream or river.

• Groundwater flow – the underground transfer of water to rivers, lakes and the sea. 1

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 Drainage basins and their features
Each drainage basin has a unique combination of different features such as size, shape, rock types, relief and land
use.

The watershed marks the dividing line between neighbouring drainage basins. Most precipitation happens in the
upland areas near the watershed.

confluence
mouth

A
ry
uta
trib

source
The natural environment (Section A)

Key
A drainage basins FIELDWORK INVESTIGATION
B
watershed Channel networks can be
lowland
mapped and their lengths
upland
and densities measured and
compared.
Figure 1.2 Drainage basin features

The channel network is the system of surface and underground channels that collect and transport the precipitation
that falls on the drainage basin.

The different features of a drainage basin affect how quickly or slowly water moves through the drainage
basin.
External factor:
Upland areas receive
Precipitation more rainfall
High channel Heavy precipitation
network density: increases run off Steep slopes:
rapid run off rapid run off

Channel
Relief
network density

Lower channel Gentle slopes:

network density: reduced run off
reduced run off
Factors
affecting run off
Cleared land and
paved surfaces: Impermeable rocks:
rapid run off rapid run off

Land Rock
use type People can have little impact
on drainage basin rock type or
Forested land: Permeable rocks:
reduced run off External factor: reduced run off relief, but human activity can
Temperature affect land use greatly, with major
High temperature
increases evaporation
implications for the speed of run
off in some drainage basin areas.
2 Figure 1.3 Drainage basin features and external factors can all affect overland flow (run off)

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 Hydrographs and river regimes
Make sure you know and understand these key terms:

• River regime: the variations in a river’s discharge throughout the year in response to precipitation,
temperature, evapotranspiration and drainage basin characteristics.

• Hydrograph: a graph showing a river’s rate of discharge over time past a specific point.

River regime is closely connected to local climatic conditions, especially the rainfall regime.

Hydrographs display data on a river regime. They show what happens to a river’s discharge over the course
of the year. A storm hydrograph covers a much shorter time period. It records river discharge as the
drainage basin reacts to a rainstorm. A storm hydrograph is a very useful tool for comparing the
characteristics of different drainage basins.

The lag time is the Basin lag time

difference in time Peak flow The line graph shows

The natural environment (Section A)

between the peak of the river discharge.
3
the rainstorm and It is measured in cubic

Rece
the peak of the metres of water per
river discharge. second (m3/s or cumecs).
limb
limb

ssion
Discharge (m3/s)

Rising

2 Overland flow As rainfall increases in

intensity, overland flow
5(mm) (and, later, throughflow)
Throughflow transfers water quickly
4
to the river channel.
1 3

2 Base flow
The bar graph shows The base flow is the
the amount of rainfall. normal day-to-day
It is measured in discharge of the river.
millimetres (mm). 0
12 24 36 48 60 72
Hours from start of rainstorm
Figure 1.4 A storm hydrograph

Factors affecting lag time

• The amount and intensity of the rain

• Temperature

• Land use
See Figure 1.3 (page 2)
• Channel density

• Relief

• Rock type

• Dams and reservoirs – these hold back discharge and so reduce the risk of flooding downstream

• Abstraction – taking water out of a river, for example for irrigation

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 River processes
There are three main river processes involved in shaping landforms:
1. erosion
2. transportation
3. deposition.
Rivers do this work in a sort of partnership with two other processes:

• weathering

• mass movement.
Figure 1.5 summarises these processes and shows the different types of each process that you need to know
about. Make sure you understand what each type involves.

Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soils and minerals

Weathering through contact with the atmosphere, rainfall and life forms.
The natural environment (Section A)

Biological There are three main types: physical, chemical and biological.
weathering

Physical Chemical Mass movement is when weathered material moves

weathering weathering Mass Slumping downhill because of gravity. Water makes mass movement
movement
more likely by saturating weathered slopes.
Soil creep
Erosion: rivers are powerful eroders, especially when
discharge is high. Make sure you understand the different
Hydraulic Erosion ways rivers erode.
Corrosion
action
Attrition
Abrasion Transportation: rivers transport load – the more energy they
have, the more load they can carry. Make sure you know the
Suspension Transportation different ways rivers transport material.
Traction

Solution Saltation Deposition happens when there is a decrease in the energy,

speed and discharge of the river.
Deposition

Figure 1.5 Processes involved in shaping river landforms

Factors affecting river processes

Erosion, transportation and deposition, plus weathering and mass movement, are all affected by a range of
factors. For example:

• A wet climate may mean more weathering, more mass movement (saturated slopes of weathered material
are prone to slumping) and greater river discharge. Therefore there will be more powerful erosion and
transportation, causing more load to be deposited downstream.

• Softer, less resistant rocks may be weathered more quickly and eroded more rapidly.

• Gentle slopes reduce the river’s energy, causing it to deposit some of its load.

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 Downstream changes in river channels and TOP TIP ✓
Make sure you know how the
landforms: Upland landforms following upland landforms
Upland landforms are associated with erosion because here the river is are formed: V-shaped valleys,
interlocking spurs and
flowing a long way above sea level, giving it lots of energy. Here the river’s
waterfalls.
long profile is steep and irregular.

river has been cut down Key

V-shaped valley – by vertical erosion S – interlocking
cross-section spurs

mass movement of
material down the
valley sides

The natural environment (Section A)

river cutting down river swings from
A side to side
Figure 1.6A V-shaped valley: much of the river’s energy
is spent cutting downwards. Hydraulic action and river cutting down
B
abrasion are key processes. Mass movement from the sides
adds load, used in abrasion. Figure 1.6B Interlocking spurs: formed as the river swings
from side to side. The river cuts down (vertical erosion)
between the spurs rather than eroding them away.

hard cap rock – present waterfall

difficult to erode
direction of
waterfall hard rock
gorge retreat
original position
of waterfall

softer rock – waterfall gorge

easier to erode
plunge pool
direction of
waterfall retreat
C
D
Figure 1.6C Waterfall: forms where a band of rock
resistant to erosion outcrops above less resistant rock. A Figure 1.6D Waterfalls gradually retreat upstream,
plunge pool is eroded by hydraulic action. Eventually the leaving a gorge downstream.
resistant rock is undercut so far that blocks fall off and
add to abrasion in the plunge pool below.

FIELDWORK INVESTIGATION
If you have done fieldwork on rivers you may have PRACTICAL SKILLS
studied changes in channel characteristics along the Practise drawing annotated diagrams to show how
course of a river. these upland landforms are formed.

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 Downstream changes in river channels and
TOP TIP ✓
Make sure you know how the
following lowland landforms
landforms: Lowland landforms are formed: meanders, oxbow
Lowland landforms are associated with deposition because here the river is lakes, floodplains and levees.
closer to sea level. The river’s long profile is gentler and smoother.

Meanders and oxbow lakes

Meanders are formed by erosion and deposition. Lateral erosion is more PRACTICAL SKILLS
significant here because the river is close to sea level. On the outside of the Practise drawing annotated
diagrams to show how
bend, lateral erosion forms a river cliff. On the inside of the bend the water
these lowland landforms are
flow is slower and deposition forms a slip-off slope. Figure 1.7 shows this formed.
process and how oxbow lakes can form.

sealed by
deposits
fastest steep river bank
flow on oxbow river now
The natural environment (Section A)

outside slip-off slope lake flows straight

bends cut off
river cliff
much
slower deposits of sand larger
flow on outside bend narrow neck
and silt in channel of land meander
inside eroded
bends more sharply
by river current
x

y
Channel cross-section x–y
fastest water
A B C flow here
river
cliff
deposited material x y
Figure 1.7 Formation of meanders and oxbow lakes on the slip-off slope

Floodplains and levees

TOP TIP ✓
Make sure you know a case
study of the physical features
When a river floods, the water rapidly loses velocity as it spreads over the of a drainage basin. You should
land, so it deposits its load. Over thousands of years this forms a floodplain. know physical characteristics
Lateral erosion on the outside banks of meanders helps to widen the of the drainage basin and how
floodplain. they affect the river regime.
Make sure you know how
The flooding river drops its heaviest load (the biggest particles) first and the river channel changes
this gradually forms banks along the side of the river. These are levees. downstream and that you can
describe landforms along the
the river’s energy is reduced when it river’s course.
leaves the channel
layers of deposits build up
in great thickness
levee levee

river in flood

silt or alluvium

Figure 1.8 Formation of floodplains and levees

6

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 UK USA Malawi
Agriculture 2.9%
Domestic
Domestic 14.9%
21.7% 22.3%
5%

9%
75.4% 68.7% 80.1%

Industry Domestic Agriculture Industry Agriculture Industry

Figure 1.9 Water use in three different countries

Water uses, demand and supply The increase in demand comes from population
growth and development. As countries develop:
Water is essential for life and is used for many
purposes: agriculture, industry, hygiene and • more water is used in industry (e.g. for power
sanitation, and leisure. Figure 1.9 shows how the generation)

The natural environment (Section A)

proportion of water that is used in homes, in • more water is used in agriculture to feed growing
industry and in agriculture changes between populations
countries. Ninety per cent of people in Malawi farm
land, so water for agriculture is very important • more water is used as standards of living improve:
there. Less than 1 per cent of Americans work in flush toilets, showers, washing machines, etc.
agriculture, but the USA uses a huge amount of Water can be transported from areas of surplus to
water for irrigation of farmland. In the UK, industry areas of deficit, e.g. in pipelines or tankers. But
uses most water: the majority of this is in energy water is heavy and expensive to transport.
production – water is used as a coolant in power
stations.
Water-deficit areas are places where water
demand exceeds water supply. Water-surplus TOP TIP ✓
Make sure you know a case study of the rising demand
areas are places where there is more water available
for water in one country. The UK is an interesting example
than there is demand for it. because population growth is happening fastest in the
south and east of the country, which receives the least
Global demand for water has doubled every 20 years precipitation, while the areas of highest water supply are
for the last 100 years. in the north and west.

Areas of water
Areas of water
deficit are also
deficit may be
often areas
areas that receive
that have large
little precipitation
populations
all year.
and rising
development (e.g.
India).

Areas of water
surplus are
typically remote,
mountainous
areas with high
rainfall and small Water
deficit
Water
surplus
populations.

Figure 1.10 Areas of water deficit and areas of water surplus 7

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 Water quality
Water quality varies from place to place for a number of reasons. Many diseases are spread through water.
If people do not have access to safe water this can have a devastating impact on their lives.

fertilisers silt from FIELDWORK INVESTIGATION

and run off from You may have investigated
pesticides ploughed fields variations in water quality in
and deforested your fieldwork.
areas
discharge of
silage and untreated
slurry from Agriculture sewage
farm animals from houses
leaks of
sewage from
Sources Sewage
pipelines,
treatment TOP TIP ✓
The natural environment (Section A)

water of water and Make sure you know a case

plants
used for energy wastewater study of a water storage
pollution
generation is often project. You should know
returned to river wastewater about its construction,
systems at high from other management and impacts.
temperatures domestic uses, Often the impacts of major
e.g. washing dam projects are the relocation
Industrial clothes
waste of villages and the destruction
of habitats in flooded valleys.
processing Major dam projects can also
spillages involving heavy
from cause a rapid build up of silt
water use, behind the dam. But dams
industrial e.g. mining
plants can regulate water to ensure
supply, reduce flooding and
also generate electricity
Figure 1.11 Sources of water pollution through HEP.

Managing the supply of clean water Delivery:

The main sources of water supply are: • In high income countries (HICs), water delivery
from the treatment works to homes and
• rivers
businesses is usually in pipes. By this method,
• reservoirs and lakes water is almost never contaminated during
delivery. But this infrastructure of pipes is very
• aquifers and wells.
expensive to develop and to maintain.
Treatment aims to remove pollutants from
collected water so it is fit to drink. Treatment • In urban areas in low income countries (LICs),
water is more often delivered to a street by a
processes are usually combined:
standpipe. People fill containers from the
• aeration – removes dissolved iron and manganese standpipe and carry their water home. The water
can sometimes become contaminated in this way.
• chlorination – removes biological growth

• disinfection – removes bacteria • In rural areas in LICs, water usually comes from a
well or water hole and is untreated. Water is often
• sedimentation – removes suspended solids
heavily polluted.
8 • filtration – removes very fine sediments.

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 Flooding: causes and control
Flooding occurs when the amount of water moving down a river exceeds the capacity of the river’s channel to
hold it.

Human activities can make

Causes
natural flooding events much
Rivers usually flood because of heavy rain or snowmelt, but the critical worse, through deforestation,
factor is how quickly that rainwater or meltwater reaches the river urbanisation and also through
climate change, which may cause
channel. The shorter the lag time (see page 3), the greater the risk that
more rain and more intense
river capacity will be exceeded and flooding will occur. Figure 1.3 (see precipitation.
page 2) summarises the main factors affecting this.

Control

afforestation

The natural environment (Section A)

reservoir
flood basin
dam

sluice gates
limit of flooding

wetland

flood relief channel

channel
straightening
flood
embankments
(levees)

Figure 1.12 Flood control and flood management can involve hard engineering and soft engineering strategies

Hard engineering: the building of structures such as dams, embankments, sluice gates and flood relief channels.
These structures either hold back floodwater or divert it. They are usually very expensive to construct and maintain.

Soft engineering: these methods try to avoid flood damage altogether or to minimise it. They include reforesting
drainage basin slopes, or preserving marshes and wetlands on floodplains to act as temporary stores for floodwater.
Urban development can be zoned also, so houses, shops and services are located on higher ground while lower
ground is used for parks, car parking, etc.

Prediction: rivers are monitored carefully and defences planned according to past flood events. The problem is that
flood events vary. Most control is developed to meet medium-risk threats.

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 Exam-Style Questions

1 Study Figure 1.13, which shows two drainage 9 Study Figure 1.14, which shows ways in which
basins. rivers transport their load. Name the processes
shown at W, X, Y and Z. (4)
confluence
W
mouth

A
ry
uta
trib

source
large boulders material dissolved in the water
rolled on the bed

small boulders bounced

B along the bed

lighter material
carried along by
river flow
X
Key
The natural environment (Section A)

A drainage basins
B Y
watershed
Z
lowland
upland
Figure 1.14

Figure 1.13 10 Draw a labelled diagram(s) to show the formation

of a waterfall in the upland course of a river. (6)
a) Which drainage basin has a more dense
channel network, A or B? (1) 11 Draw labelled cross sections of a typical upland
river valley and a typical lowland river valley. (6)
b) What is a watershed? (1)
12 Consider the advantages and disadvantages of
2 What is the long profile of a river? (2)
hard engineering strategies as a means of
3 What is a levee? (2) controlling flooding. (6)
4 What is an aquifer? (2) 13 Use a named example to discuss the aims and
impacts of a water storage project. (9)
5 Name two types of mass movement associated
with river valleys. (2) Exam Section C question
6 State two causes of water pollution. (2)
14 Name three channel characteristics that could
7 Outline two reasons why global water demand be investigated during fieldwork. (3)
is increasing. (4)
8 Describe two factors that increase surface run off
in a drainage basin. (4)

10

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