SOIL FERTILITY AND

MANAGEMENT AND
PLANT NUTRITION
Soil fertility - the ability of the soil to supply
nutrients for plant growth & development.
Plant Nutrients
- are the essential elements needed for plant
growth. Plants absorb at least 90 elements.
Only 16 are needed, the rest are not; e.g.,
cobalt is needed by the animals that eat the
plants. Some, like lead, are even toxic.
Essentiality Criteria:

• A lack of the element stops a plant from

completing growth or reproduction (life cycle).
• The element is directly involved in plant
nutrition (or metabolism), not merely “taking
up space” in plant tissues.
• A shortage of the element can be corrected
only by supplying that element (the element is
non-replaceable).
The six macronutrients in decreasing order from
the greatest amount used by most plants
(nitrogen) to the smallest amount (sulfur).
N > K > Ca > Mg > P > S

Because most soils (but not all) supply enough

calcium, magnesium and sulfur, soil scientists
call them secondary macronutrients.
The primary macronutrients (NPK), sometimes
called fertilizer elements, are usually not
available in large amounts to support growth,
hence added as fertilizers.

The other seven nutrients are labelled

micronutrients or trace elements, because
they are used in small amounts.
Nutrient ions
- are charged atoms or molecules.
Example, when the soluble fertilizer
potassium nitrate dissolves, the molecule
breaks into two ions:
solution

KNO3 K+ + NO3-

• Plant roots absorb nutrient ions; soil particles

adsorb them.
 NAME SYMBOL IONIC FORM ION NAME
Carbon C - -
Hydrogen H H+ (not used by plants
in this form)
Oxygen O -

Primary
Macronutrients
Nitrogen N NO3-, NH4+ Nitrate, Ammonium
Phosphorus P HPO42- , H2PO4- Orthophosphate
Potassium K K+ -

Secondary
Macronutrients
Calcium Ca Ca2+ -
Magnesium Mg Mg2+ -
Sulfur S SO42- Sulfate
Micronutrients
Boron B *
Copper Cu Cu2+ Cuprous
Chlorine Cl Cl- Chloride
Iron Fe Fe2+ Ferrous
Manganese Mn Mn2+ Manganous
FIGURE 9-1. Essential elements and their ionic forms.
2- Nickel has been tentatively
Molybdenum Mo MoO
identified as an essential element, while Na, Si, and
Molybdate
4 Co are used by many plants but
Zinc 2+
Zn are not considered universally
Zn essential.
Nickel Ni Ni2+

Others
Sodium Na
Silicon Si
Cobalt Co

Essential elements and their ionic forms. Ni has been

identified as essential, while Na, Si, and Co are used by many
plants but are not considered universally essential.
The 4 sources of plant nutrients in the soil.
Nutrient sources least available to plants are shown on the left. Those in
their most available form are shown on the right. The elements can change
forms. As crops remove nutrients, some stored nutrients go into solution and
become available to plants.
 THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS
The Primary Macronutrients

Nitrogen (N)
• Promotes rapid growth and dark green color.
* Plants need a lot of N because it is part of
many important compounds, e.g., protein and
chlorophyll.
*Plants use H2O best if they have ample N
Problems associated with too much N:
• Soft & weak growth; plant stems are weaker and
more easily topple, or lodge in the rain.
• Soft growth is more prone to diseases and
insects.
• Overly rapid growth slows ripening and maturity.
• Too rapid growth also delays the hardening-off
process (plants build resistance to stress by slowly exposing them to
harsher conditions, so they don’t go into shock when transplanted)
• Excess nitrogen impairs flavour in several
vegetable crops.
• High level of nitrates may accumulate in some
crops, with possible health effects to animals or
people consuming them.
Of the 17 elements, Nitrogen undergoes the
most movement and change. The series of
gains, losses, and changes is termed the N
cycle.

Forms of N in the Soil.

Important Facts on N
- Between 97% and 99% of soil N resides in organic
matter (esp. plant residues) , the soil’s storehouse of
N.
- Generally, plants cannot use organic N until it is
broken down by microorganisms to the NH4+ or NO3-
forms.
- Deficiencies of N can occur in all soils due to the
leaching of NH3 and NO3- and denitrification in wet
soils. They are easily rectified by the addition of
fertilizers, but excessive fertilization should be
stringently avoided to minimize pollution of the
waterways.
Phosphorus
• also spurs rapid growth but to a lesser extent
than N.
• is part of the genetic material (chromosomes
and genes) and is so involved in plant
reproduction and cell division.
• is part of the chemical (ATP) that stores and
transfers energy in all living things. Without P,
all biological reactions come to a halt.
Examples of energy reactions include the
capture of light energy by photosynthesis and
the transport of energy in roots for nutrient
absorption.
Phosphorus
• Spurs early and rapid root growth and helps a
young plant develop its roots
• Helps plants use water more efficiently by
improving water uptake by the roots
• Helps plants resist cold and disease, speeds crops
maturity, aids blooming and fruiting, and
improves the quality of grains and fruits
• Improves the efficiency of nitrogen uptake by
plants, making better use of fertilizer N and
reducing the risk of ground water pollution due
to nitrate leaching
• Adequate soil phosphorus ensures that animal
feeds will supply efficient P
Forms of P in the Soil.
• Soil P is provided by the weathering of
minerals like apatite, a calcium phosphate
mineral.
• Many soils contain large amounts of P, but
much is unavailable.
• Between 25 % and 90 % of all soil P resides in
organic matter.
Movement and Uptake in the Soil
The uptake of P depends on a number of soil
conditions:
• Soil pH largely sets the degree of fixation. P is
most free at a pH of 6.5 to 6.8
• Dry soil stalls the diffusion of P to roots.
• Oxygen is needed for the breakdown of
organic phosphates. Thus, a loose, well-
drained soil improves P uptake.
• Cold soil slows the activity of microorganisms that
place P in solution, slows diffusion to roots, and
retards root growth. Root respiration also declines,
depriving roots of the energy needed to absorb P.
• The total nutrient balance is also important.
Nitrogen, for instance, improves P uptake. Too
much zinc seems to lower it.
• Mycorrhizae infection of plant roots helps the plant
absorb P, especially in P-deficient soils.
• Controlling P availability requires a control of the pH
(liming of acid soils), the application of P fertilizers
in bands and the maintenance of the organic matter
Potassium
• often called potash.
• necessary for the development of thick cell walls
and strong, rigid plant stems.
• regulates the opening and closing of leaf stomata
by passing O2, CO2, and water vapor into and out
of the leaf). Thus, K is involved in the gas
exchange needed for photosynthesis and in
transpiration.
• instrumental in moving sugars produced by
photosynthesis within the plant, so it is important
in the development and ripening of fruits like
apples or tomatoes.
• balances the effect of N (a particular N:K ratio is
suggested for many crops)
Forms of K in the Soil
• Weathering releases K ions into the soil
solution from a number of common minerals
such as feldspars and micas.
• K can also be fixed by certain 2:1 layers.

Movement in the Soil. K moves more readily in

the soil than does P, but less readily than N.
Because K is held on clay or other colloids, it is
least mobile in fine-textured soil, and most
readily leached from sandy soils.
K Deficiencies.
• Occur primarily in sandy, heavily leached soils,
especially if irrigated, or in organic soils.
• Over-fertilization with nitrogen can cause
plant tissues to lack potassium.
• Dry, cold, or poorly aerated soil may also slow
uptake.

* K uptake is most rapid near neutral pH.

 Secondary Macronutrients
Calcium (Ca)

• Plants mainly use Ca to build cell walls. A thin

layer of calcium pectate lends strength to
plant cell walls.
• Ca is neither fixed in the soil nor held in
organic matter. It is the main occupant of the
cation exchange complex. Dry soil or excess
potassium may inhibit Ca uptake.
Magnesium (Mg)
• an essential ingredient in chlorophyll—each
molecule has one Mg atom at its center. Mg
also aids the uptake of other elements, esp. P.
• Clay holds Mg less strongly than Ca, so it is
more easily leached. As a result, low-Mg soils
are more common than low-Ca soils.
• High levels of soil K may also induce a Mg
shortage in plants. Forage low in Mg is known
to cause grass-tetany disease in cattle.
Sulfur (S)
• Crops need less S than the other
macronutrients, but it is still a crucial nutrient.
Several proteins include S, and it is needed for
making chlorophyll. It aids nodulation of
legumes and seed production of all plants
• Most soil S comes from the weathering of sulfate
minerals such as gypsum CaSO4.2H2O. 70-90% of
the soil S is in the soil O.M.. Interestingly, acid
rain supplies some S in many areas.
• Deficiency has been identified in some soils in
Davao grown to banana, some áreas in Cotabato
and in calcareous soils in Cebu.
 Trace Elements/Micronutrients

• Trace elements play many roles in plants.

• These metals form special organic-metal
molecules, called enzymes.
Iron (Fe)
• is part of many enzymes necessary in the
formation of a number of chemicals, especially
chlorophyll. Most soils have sufficient Fe, but
much is in the form of insoluble compounds such
as ferric hydroxide, Fe(OH)3.
• The solubility of iron compounds, declines by
about 100x for each rise of one pH point.
Sorghum, soybeans, and flax are crops sensitive
to an Fe shortage. Fe hunger is most likely in
alkaline or calcareous soils, or with excesses of P,
Zn, Cu or Mn.
• Iron chlorosis is the usual symptom of Fe hunger.
It is easy to see interveinal chlorosis on new,
growing leaves.
Manganese
• Manganese acts with Fe in the formation of
chlorophyll. It speeds seed germination and
crop maturity and helps plants take up several
other nutrients.
• Mn deficiencies are usually seen on calcareous
soils or on soils that have been overlimed.
Dwarfing is a common symptom of Mn
deficiency. Flecks of dead tissue, along with
chlorosis, often appear on new leaves. When
soil pH is below 5.0, so much Mn may be free
that it reaches toxic levels.
Zinc
• The zinc cation is weathered out of soil minerals.
Several biological reactions use zinc, including
chlorophyll production. The symptoms of a Zn
deficiency in plants are quite varied, but dead
spots on leaves are a common sign. Chlorosis
between leaf veins is also common on field crops.
• Zinc is most available in acid soil, least available
on alkaline or recently limed soils. Cold soils or
excess levels of phosphate inhibit uptake. Like Fe,
a lack of Zn can be treated by fertilizing soil or
spraying foliage with Zn compounds or chelates.
Sewage sludge is an excellent source of Zn.
Zinc
• Deficiency in lowland rice is likely on soils with
pH>7 and regardless of pH, on poorly drained
soils and on soils with a low total Zn like sandy
soils.
• Solubility of Zn decreases with increasing pH.
The antagonism between Zn and Mg provides
another explanation for the occurrence of Zn
deficiency in soils of high pH.
Copper
• A constituent of many enzymes, most
important is cytochrome oxidase, ascorbic
acid oxidase, etc.
• Copper is held by cation exchange and
combines chemically with organic matter.
Some organic complexes are so stable that the
copper is unavailable to plants. Cu affects
how well a plant resists disease and how well
it controls moisture. Shortages are most likely
to be seen either in leached sands or peats
and mucks.
Copper
• Deficiency in cereals is indicated in the
yellowing and curling of the leaf blade,
restricted ear production, poor grain set and
indeterminate tillering. In citrus, die-back of
new growth.
Boron
• is released by weathering and enters the soil
as boric acid, H3BO3.
• taken up by plants and gathers in OM near the
soil surface. Fixation at high pH and leaching
limit the amount of boron plants can use.
• shortages are most often seen in dry weather.
• is needed to create a number of proteins and
plant hormones.
• controls carbohydrate transport and is needed
in the development of new cells.
Molybdenum
• Molybdenum is needed by nitrogen-fixing
bacteria, both those on legumes and free-
living bacteria. Thus, Mo is important to both
legume growth and nitrogen fixation. Plants
also need Mo to make protein.
• Molybdate, MoO4-2, gathers in soil organic
matter. It is most available at a high soil pH.
Shortages are most common on acid, leached,
and low-organic-matter coarse soils, as well as
acid peats.
 Nutrient Deficiency or Toxicity
Five types of deficiency or toxicity symptoms are
observed.
• Chlorosis—yellowing of plant tissue due to
limitations on chlorophyll synthesis. The
yellowing can be generalized over the entire
plant, localized over entire leaves or isolated
between some leaf veins (i.e.. interveinal
chlorosis)
Nutrient Deficiency or Toxicity

marginal chlorosis
Nutrient Deficiency or Toxicity

Interveinal chlorosis
 Nutrient Deficiency or Toxicity

• Necrosis—death of plant tissue sometimes in

spots
 Nutrient Deficiency or Toxicity

• Accumulation of anthocyanin resulting in

purple or reddish color
• Lack of new growth
• Stunting or reduced growth—new growth
continues but it is stunted or reduced
compared to normal plants.