 Functions: retransmit signals, keep path info,

Reviewer – Module 1: Networking Today notify errors.

1.1 Networks Affect Our Lives

Network Media - The medium that carries messages
Networking Today – connects people globally (copper, fiber optic, wireless).
without boundaries.

Human network – communities interacting

worldwide. 1.3 Network Representations and Topologies

Network diagrams (Topology diagrams) – symbols

for devices.
1.2 Network Components
NIC – Network Interface Card.
Host Roles
Physical Port – connector for cables.
Host / End Device – every computer on a
network. Interface – often same as port.

Servers – provide information to end devices Physical Topology – physical location and
(email, web, file). cabling.

Clients – request info from servers (web page, Logical Topology – devices, ports, addressing
email). scheme.

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) 1.4 Common Types of Networks

 Device can be both client and server. Networks by Size

 Recommended only for small networks. Small Home – few devices connected.

SOHO – home/remote office to corporate.

small office home office
End Devices Medium/Large – hundreds to thousands of
computers.
 Where a message originates or is received.
World Wide – millions of computers
 Data flows from one end device → through the (Internet).
network → to another end device.

LANs vs. WANs

Intermediary Devices
LAN – spans small area.
 Interconnect end devices.
WAN – spans wide geographical area.
Examples: Switches, routers, firewalls, wireless access
points.
 Network infrastructure security
• Physical security of network devices
nformation Security
• Protection of the information

Internet LANS are connected using WANS Scalability – expand easily without affecting
performance.
 Interconnected LANs & WANs.
Quality of Service (QoS) – ensures smooth
 Uses copper, fiber, wireless. WAN delivery, esp. voice/video.
 Not owned by anyone. Security – protects devices & data.
 Maintained by groups: IETF, ICANN, IAB.

Network Security Goals

Intranet & Extranet Confidentiality – only intended recipients
read data.
Intranet – private network for internal use.
Integrity – data not altered during
Extranet – secure external access (e.g.,
transmission.
partner organizations).
Availability – reliable access for authorized
users.
1.5 Internet Connections

Home/Small Office
1.7 Network Trends
 Broadband cable, DSL, wireless WANs, mobile.
Recent Trends
Businesses
BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) – flexibility
 Require higher bandwidth & dedicated for users. use own devices
connections.
Online Collaboration – e.g., Cisco WebEx,
 Business-class: DSL, leased lines, Metro Ethernet. messaging, file sharing. work with others over the
network
Video Communication – video calls, Cisco
can deliver data, TelePresence.
Converged Networks voice, and video over the same
network infrastructure. Cloud Computing – storage & apps via
Before: separate cabling for voice, video, internet.
data.

Now: converged → all services over one

network infrastructure. Types of Clouds

Public – open, pay/free.

1.6 Reliable Networks Private – for one organization.

Network Architecture (4 key characteristics): Hybrid – mix of types.

Fault Tolerance – redundancy, multiple paths, Custom – industry-specific.

packet switching. limit impact of failure
Technology in the Home GUI (Graphical User Interface)

Smart Home – appliances connected (oven  Uses icons, menus, windows.

linked to calendar).
 Examples: Windows, macOS, Linux KDE, iOS,
Powerline Networking – uses electrical Android.
outlets to connect to LAN. network cables to connect
to a LAN  Easier but can fail → network devices usually use
Wireless Broadband – common in rural areas CLI.
via WISP (wireless ISP).

OS Purpose
1.8 Network Security
PC OS: mouse, text commands, monitor
Threats output.

External – viruses, worms, Trojan, spyware, CLI-based OS: keyboard only for
zero-day, DoS, data theft. commands/output.

Internal – lost/stolen devices, misuse,

malicious employees.
Access Methods
Solutions
Console – physical port for initial
Home/Small Office – antivirus, antispyware, config/maintenance.
firewall.
SSH – secure remote CLI (recommended).
Large Networks – dedicated firewall, ACL, IPS,
VPN. Telnet – insecure remote CLI (plaintext).

Reviewer – Module 2: Basic switch and end Terminal Emulation Programs

device configuration Tools: PuTTY, Tera Term, SecureCRT.

2.1 Cisco IOS Access

2.2 IOS Navigation
Operating Systems
Command Modes
Shell – interface for users (CLI/GUI).
User EXEC Mode → basic monitoring (>).
Kernel – manages communication between
hardware & software. Privileged EXEC Mode → full access (#).

Hardware – physical components.

Configuration Modes

Global Configuration → general config.

 Line Configuration → console, SSH, Telnet, Hot Keys & Shortcuts
AUX.
 Commands can be shortened (e.g., configure →
Interface Configuration → switch ports, conf).
router interfaces.
--More-- prompt → space to continue, Enter
for one line.

Navigation Commands Ctrl+C, Ctrl+Z, end → exit operations.

enable → user EXEC → privileged EXEC.

configure terminal → enter global config. 2.4 Basic Device Configuration

exit → back one level. Device Names

end or Ctrl+Z → back to privileged EXEC.  Use hostname command.

Direct switch: (config-line)# → (config-if)#.  Guidelines: start w/ letter, no spaces, end w/

letter/digit, max 64 chars.

 Reset: no hostname.
2.3 Command Structure

Basic Structure
Password Guidelines
Keyword – predefined (e.g., ip protocols).
 8 characters, mixed case, numbers, special chars.
Argument – user-defined (e.g., [Link]).
 Avoid common/simple passwords.

Command Syntax
Password Configuration
Bold = keyword.
Console Access:
Italic = user input.
line console 0 console line configuration
Examples:
password <password>
ping [Link]
login
traceroute [Link]
Privileged EXEC:

enable secret <password>

Help Features
VTY (Telnet/SSH):
Context-sensitive help → available
commands/arguments. line vty 0 15 remot access configuration

Command syntax check → verifies correct password <password>

command.
login
Encrypt Passwords 2.6 Ports and Addresses

service password-encryption protect pass from IP Addresses

being visible
Verify: show running-config. current active settings
IPv4: dotted decimal (0–255). Needs subnet
mask + default gateway.

IPv6: 128-bit hex, groups separated by :, not

Banner Message case-sensitive.
banner motd # message # Interfaces & Ports
Shown on login attempts.  Depend on: media type (twisted-pair, fiber, coax,
wireless).

 Differences: distance, environment, speed, cost.

2.5 Save Configurations

Configuration Files
2.7 Configure IP Addressing
startup-config – saved in NVRAM (retained
after reboot). Manual IPv4 Configuration (Windows PC):
running-config – stored in RAM (lost after  Go to Control Panel > Network Sharing Center >
reboot). Change adapter settings.
Save changes: copy running-config startup-  Open adapter Properties → TCP/IPv4 Properties.
config.
 Enter IPv4, subnet mask, default gateway.

Restore Configurations
Automatic IPv4 Configuration (DHCP)
 Undo changes manually.
 Default for end devices.
reload – reverts to saved config (causes
downtime).  Steps similar to manual, but select:

erase startup-config + reload – reset Obtain IP address automatically

completely.
Obtain DNS server automatically.

IPv6
Capture Config to Text File
Uses DHCPv6 or SLAAC for dynamic addressing.
 Open terminal software (PuTTY/Tera Term).
Switch Virtual Interface (SVI)
 Enable session logging.
interface vlan 1
 Run show running-config or show startup-config.
ip address <ip> <subnet-mask>
 Disable logging.
no shutdown
 Text file can serve as backup.
Reviewer – Module 3: Protocols and Models Message Encoding

 Convert info into acceptable form (light, sound,

3.1 The Rules electrical signals).

Communication Fundamentals  Receiver decodes.

 All communication needs:

1. Source (Sender) Message Formatting & Encapsulation

2. Destination (Receiver) Messages must have a specific structure depending

on type/channel.
3. Channel (Media) – the path used

Message Size
Protocols
Messages broken into bits for transmission.
 Protocols are rules for communication.

 Devices must agree on how to communicate.

Message Timing

Flow Control – regulates transmission speed.

Rule Establishment
Response Timeout – wait time for replies.
 Protocols must define:
Access Method – rules for when devices can
Sender & receiver send (collision handling).

Common language/grammar

Speed & timing Message Delivery Options

Acknowledgment/confirmation Unicast – one-to-one

Multicast – one-to-many (not all)

Network Protocol Requirements Broadcast – one-to-all (only IPv4, not IPv6)

 Message encoding Anycast (IPv6) – one-to-nearest device in a

group
 Message formatting & encapsulation

 Message size
3.2 Protocols
 Message timing
 Define common rules for communication.
 Message delivery options
 Implemented in software, hardware, or both.
Functions TCP/IP Communication Process

 Each protocol has specific functions. Server encapsulates webpage → sends to

client.
 Devices use multiple protocols simultaneously.
Client de-encapsulates → displays webpage.

3.3 Protocol Suites

3.4 Standards Organizations
Definition
Open Standards
 A protocol suite = group of interrelated
protocols working together.  Promote interoperability, competition,
innovation.
 Organized in layers:
 Vendor-neutral, nonprofit.
Higher layers = application/services

Lower layers = moving data

Internet Standards Organizations

ISOC – promotes internet growth.

Evolution of Suites internet society
IAB – manages internet standards.
TCP/IP – most common, maintained by IETF.
IETF – develops & maintains TCP/IP.
OSI protocols – by ISO and ITU.
IRTF – focuses on long-term TCP/IP research.
AppleTalk – Apple proprietary. Internet Research Task Force

Novell NetWare – Novell proprietary.

Other Key Groups

ICANN – coordinates IP allocation, domain

TCP/IP Protocol Example names.
 Layers: Application, Transport, Internet, Network IANA – manages IP addresses, domains,
Access. protocol IDs.
 Common LAN protocols: Ethernet, WLAN.

Electronic & Communication Standards

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
TCP/IP Suite Characteristics IEEE – standards for telecom, networking.
Electronic Industries Alliance
 Open standard (any vendor can use). EIA – wiring, connectors, equipment racks.
Telecommunications Industry Association
 Industry-endorsed, ensures interoperability. TIA – standards for VoIP, satellite, cellular.

ITU-T – global standards for video, IPTV, DSL.

International Telecommunication Union
Telecommunication Standardization Sector
3.5 Reference Models Transport = Segment

Why Layered Models? Network = Packet

 Simplify networking concepts. Data Link = Frame

Benefits: Physical = Bits

1. Assist protocol design.

2. Allow vendor competition. Encapsulation Process

3. Isolate changes to one layer. Top-down: each layer adds its header → sent
as bit stream.
4. Provide common terminology.
De-Encapsulation

Bottom-up: each layer removes its header →

Two Models final data stream delivered.
OSI Model – 7 layers.

TCP/IP Model – 4 layers. 3.7 Data Access

Addresses
3.6 Data Encapsulation Network Layer (IP) – delivers packets from
original source to final destination.
Segmenting Messages
Data Link Layer (MAC) – delivers frames
 Breaks large messages into smaller units.
between NICs on the same network.
Benefits:

Speed – faster transmission.

Layer 3 Logical Addressing (IP)
Efficiency – only lost segments retransmitted.
 Source IP = sender.

 Destination IP = receiver.
Sequencing
Structure:
 Numbering of segments for reassembly.
Network Portion / Prefix – network group.
 TCP handles sequencing.
Host Portion / Interface ID – unique device.

Protocol Data Units (PDUs)

Same Network Example
 Data form at each layer:
PC1: [Link]
Application = Data
FTP Server: [Link]
Role of Data Link Addresses (Same Network)  Different connections = different performance
levels.
Source MAC = sender NIC.

Destination MAC = receiver NIC.

Physical Layer Role

 Transports bits across media.

Different Networks
 Accepts frames from Data Link layer → encodes
If source & destination are in different → transmits.
networks → must use Default Gateway.
 Next device decodes, re-encapsulates, and
Default Gateway = router IP in LAN → processes.
forwards traffic to remote networks.
 Last step in encapsulation.

Role of Data Link in Remote Networks

4.2 Physical Layer Characteristics
Each hop = new MAC addresses (source &
destination). Physical Layer Standards (3 Functional Areas)

IP addresses remain the same end-to-end. Physical Components – hardware,

connectors, cables.

Encoding – converts bits into recognizable

Hop Examples patterns (e.g., Manchester, 4B/5B, 8B/10B).
First Hop: PC1 → Router1 (DGW). Signaling – representation of 1s & 0s over
medium:
Second Hop: Router1 → Router2.
Copper → electrical signals
Final Hop: Router2 → Web Server.
Fiber → light pulses

Wireless → microwave signals

Reviewer – Module 4: Physical Layer
Bandwidth

4.1 Purpose of the Physical Layer  Capacity of medium to carry data.

Physical Connection  Digital bandwidth = bits per second.

 Before communication, a physical connection  Determined by media properties, tech, physics.

must exist.

 Can be wired or wireless.

Bandwidth Terminology
 NIC (Network Interface Card) connects device to
network (can have multiple NICs). Latency – time for data to travel (includes
delays).

Throughput – total bits transferred over time.

 Goodput – usable data transferred 4.4 UTP Cabling
(Throughput – overhead).
Properties

 4 pairs of twisted wires in plastic sheath.

4.3 Copper Cabling
 No shielding, relies on:
Characteristics
Cancellation – opposite polarities
 Most common: cheap, easy to install, low cancel EMI/RFI.
resistance.
Twist Variation – reduces crosstalk.
Limitations:

Attenuation (signal weakens with distance).

Standards
EMI/RFI interference.
 Set by TIA/EIA-568.
Crosstalk (signals interfere).
 Defines cable types, lengths, connectors,
 Mitigation: length limits, shielding, grounding, termination, testing.
twisting pairs.
 Electrical standards by IEEE.

 Categories: Cat 3, Cat 5/5e, Cat 6.

Types of Copper Cabling

1. UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)

Connectors
 Most common.
 RJ-45 connector & socket.
 Terminated with RJ-45.
 Proper termination crucial.
 Outer jacket, twisted pairs, insulation.

2. STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)

Types of UTP Cables
 More noise protection, but expensive &
harder to install. Straight-through – connects different devices.

 Shielding: braided foil, per-pair foil, Crossover – connects similar devices.

insulation.

 Terminated with RJ-45.

4.5 Fiber-Optic Cabling
3. Coaxial Cable
Properties
 Layers: outer jacket, shield (foil/braid),
 Higher bandwidth, longer distances.
insulation, copper core.
 Immune to EMI/RFI, less attenuation.
 Uses: antennas (wireless), cable internet.
 Made of pure glass strands.
  Uses laser/LED to send light pulses. Copper → local device connections.

Types

1. Single-Mode Fiber (SMF) 4.6 Wireless Media

Small core, expensive lasers, long distance. Properties

2. Multimode Fiber (MMF)  Uses electromagnetic signals (radio/microwave).

Larger core, LEDs, shorter distance (up to  Provides mobility.

550m).
Limitations:
More dispersion than SMF.
Coverage area (affected by environment).

Interference from other devices.

Usage
Security risks (no physical access needed).
Enterprise Networks –
backbone/interconnections. Shared medium → half-duplex, reduced
bandwidth with many users.
FTTH (Fiber-to-the-Home) – broadband.

Long-Haul Networks – connect

cities/countries. Standards (IEEE)

Submarine Cables – undersea, high-speed, Wi-Fi (802.11) – WLAN.

long distance.
Bluetooth (802.15) – WPAN.

WiMAX (802.16) – broadband wireless,

Connectors point-to-multipoint.

ST (Straight-Tip) Zigbee (802.15.4) – low-power IoT.

SC (Subscriber Connector)

LC (Lucent Connector, simplex & duplex) Wireless LAN (WLAN) Requirements

Access Point (AP) – concentrates signals,

connects to wired LAN.
Patch Cords
Wireless NICs – give devices wireless
Types: SC-SC, LC-LC, ST-LC, ST-SC. capability.

Jacket colors: Yellow (SMF), Orange/Aqua Admins must enforce strict security policies.
(MMF).

Fiber vs. Copper

Fiber → backbone, high-traffic links.

Reviewer – Module 5: Number systems 3. If ≥ value → record 1 and subtract.

4. If < value → record 0.

5.1 Binary Number System
5. Repeat until reaching 1.
Binary and IPv4 Addresses
Decimal to Binary Example (168)
 Binary system = 1s and 0s (bits).
168 ≥ 128 → 1 (remainder 40).
 Decimal system = digits 0–9.
40 < 64 → 0.
 Hosts, servers, and networking equipment use
40 ≥ 32 → 1 (remainder 8).
binary addressing.
8 < 16 → 0.
 IPv4 address = 32 bits → divided into 4 octets (8
bits each). 8 = 8 → 1 (remainder 0).
 Octets separated by dots (e.g., Fill rest with 0 → 10101000.
11000000.10101000.00001011.00001010).
So, 168 = 10101000 in binary.
 Converted to dotted decimal for human use
([Link]).

Key Point

Binary Positional Notation  Computers/routers use binary.

 Value of digit depends on its position.  Humans use decimal for readability.

 Decimal uses powers of 10.

 Binary uses powers of 2. 5.2 Hexadecimal Number System

Hexadecimal Basics

Binary to Decimal Conversion Example  Base 16 system: digits 0–9 and letters A–F.

Convert 11000000.10101000.00001011.00001010:  Easier to express values than binary (1 hex digit =

4 bits).
11000000 = 192
Used for:
10101000 = 168
IPv6 addresses
00001011 = 11
MAC addresses
00001010 = 10
IPv6 and Hexadecimal
Final address: [Link]
IPv6 = 128 bits.
Decimal to Binary Conversion Process
Every 4 bits = 1 hex digit.
1. Start at 128 (most significant bit).
Total = 32 hex digits.
2. Compare decimal number with positional value.
 OSI Model (7 Layers – Top to Bottom)

Application Layer – You interact here (web browser, email).

Written in groups of 4 hex characters → called a Sends the message you type.
hextet.
Presentation Layer – Translates the message into a format the
network understands (like converting text to binary or encrypting it).

Session Layer – Opens and keeps the conversation going

Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion Steps between devices (like a “meeting” for your data).
Convert decimal → 8-bit binary. Transport Layer – Breaks the message into segments,
makes sure they arrive correctly (TCP/UDP).
Group binary into 4 bits.
Network Layer – Adds IP addresses so data knows where to go.
Turns segments into packets.
Convert each group into hex digit.
Data Link Layer – Puts packets into frames and adds MAC
addresses for local delivery.

Example (168 → Hex) Physical Layer – Sends the frames as bits (0s and 1s) over cables,
Wi-Fi, or other mediums.
168 in binary = 10101000.
TCP/IP Model (4 Layers – Top to Bottom)
Split = 1010 and 1000.
Application Layer – Combines Application, Presentation,
1010 = A, 1000 = 8. and Session. You use apps like web, email, or streaming.

Transport Layer – Handles segments, ensures correct

Result: A8. delivery (TCP/UDP).

Internet Layer – Adds IP addresses, routing, and Final Answers

packets.
160₁₀ = 10100000₂
Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion Steps Network Access (Link) Layer – Handles frames
and sends bits through cables or wireless. ABC₁₆ = 101010111100₂
1. Convert hex → 4-bit binary groups.
1111₂ = 15₁₀
2. Combine into 8-bit binary groups.
11111110₂ = FE₁₆
3. Convert to decimal. AF₁₆ = 175₁₀

B7₁₆ = 183₁₀

Example (D2 → Decimal) 128₁₆ = 296₁₀

150₁₀ = 96₁₆
D = 1101, 2 = 0010.
128₁₀ = 80₁₆
Combined = 11010010.
79₁₀ = 4F₁₆
Binary 11010010 = 210.

So, D2 = 210.