Sensation and Perception

Module IV fever or meningitis).​

Sensation and Perception

●​ The illness left her blind and deaf, cutting
off her access to most sensory input.​
CASE STUDY: The Story of Helen Keller

●​ Because of this, her understanding of the

Hellen Keller (June 27, 1880)
world was very limited — she could only feel
and imitate others without meaningfully
understanding what she was doing.

Anne Sullivan’s Role

●​ Anne Sullivan, a partially blind teacher from

the Perkins School for the Blind, was
assigned to teach Helen.
●​ She began by spelling words onto
Helen’s hand using sign language. For
example, she spelled “W-A-T-E-R” while
Helen felt running water over her hand.
●​ This became the breakthrough moment —
​ ​ ​
Helen suddenly made the connection
Helen Keller’s life illustrates the close connection
between the sensation (touch of water)
between sensation, perception, and learning.
and the concept (the word “water”).
She was both deaf and blind due to an illness at
19 months old. Despite losing her primary senses
Learning Beyond Sensation
of sight and hearing, she learned to understand and
communicate with the world through the sense of ●​ Helen eventually learned to speak, read
touch and language training from her teacher, Braille, and write, earning a college degree
Anne Sullivan. and becoming a global advocate for people
with disabilities.
Early Life and Loss of Senses ●​ She showed that even with limited sensory
input, human perception and intelligence
●​ Helen Keller was a healthy baby until she
can adapt and flourish.​
contracted a severe illness (possibly scarlet

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 Sensation and Perception

●​ Her achievements highlight the brain’s ●​ Stimulus thresholds

plasticity — its ability to reorganize and ●​ Sensory adaptation
use other senses to compensate for loss.

Sensation And Perception

Definition:
1. Absolute Threshold
●​ Sensation — process where information
from the environment is detected by the Definition:​
senses and transmitted to the brain.​ The minimum intensity of a stimulus that can just
barely be detected.
●​ Perception — interpretation and
organization of these sensations into Sense Example
meaningful experiences.
Sight Candle flame seen from 30
miles away on a clear night
A. The Physical Stage of Hearing Ticking of a clock heard from
20 feet away
Sensation
Taste One teaspoon of sugar in two
gallons of water
This stage involves the interaction between a
physical stimulus and a sense organ. Smell One drop of perfume in a
3-room apartment
Key Concept:​ Touch A bee’s wing falling 1 cm onto
Each sense has a specific stimulus (light → eyes, the cheek

sound → ears, etc.).

2. Terminal Threshold
Psychophysics​
Definition:​
The branch of psychology that studies the
The maximum level of stimulus intensity that
relationship between physical stimuli and
can still be detected.​
sensory experiences.​
Beyond this, sensation either stops or becomes
Founded by Gustav Fechner (1801–1887), who
painful.
first measured how stimulus strength a affects
detection ability.
Example:

Topics under Psychophysics:

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●​ Sound so loud that hearing turns into pain ●​ When lights go out, it seems pitch dark —
instead of sound. If a person can hear but after a few minutes, your eyes adjust.​
sound up to 20,000 Hz, then 20,000 Hz is ​
their terminal threshold for hearing, as
sounds above that frequency are no longer
Purpose: ​
sensed.
Prevents sensory overload and helps focus on new
stimuli.

3. Differential Threshold / Just

Noticeable Difference (JND)

Definition:​
The smallest detectable change between two
B. The Physiological Stage of
stimuli. Sensation
Example:​
This stage covers how the body and brain
When increasing the volume slightly, the change
process sensory input.
may be too small to notice.

Bashically 🤓☝️:​ Process:

The greater the initial stimulus, the larger the 1.​ Stimulus activates receptors.
change needed to notice a difference (Weber’s 2.​ Receptors convert input into neural
Law). impulses.
3.​ Impulses travel to the brain, particularly the
4. Sensory (Neural) Adaptation cerebral cortex.
4.​ The brain interprets the data — this
Definition:​
becomes perception.
A decrease in sensitivity to a constant stimulus or
an increase in sensitivity after lack of stimulation.

Examples: Aspect Description Example

Modality Type or category Vision ≠

●​ You stop feeling your clothes after wearing of sensation Hearing
them for a while.

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the recognition of this sensory experience as

Quality Variation within Sweet ≠ Salty;
one modality Blue ≠ Red manifested in a reaction by the subject.

Intensity Degree within Light vs. dark

one quality blue

Duration How long it lasts Touch felt briefly C. The Psychological Stage of
or continuously

Reaction Delay between Hearing a beep

Sensation (Perception)
Time stimulus and then pressing a
response button At this stage, the brain interprets and gives
meaning to the raw sensory data.

Definition:
[Link] MODALITY of a sensation
Refers to the categories of a sensation making, for Perception is a constructive process
instance a visual (colors) where we go beyond the stimuli and
sensation is different from an auditory (sound) form a meaningful understanding.
sensation.
Information Processing:

2. The QUALITY of a sensation

●​ Bottom-up processing (specific to
Refers to the different experiences within the same
general) - no prior knowledge;
modality. The sensation of blue is different from red,
perception starts with the raw sensory
and sweet is different from salty.
information coming from the
environment
3. The INTENSITY of a sensation
●​ Top-down processing (general to
It refers to a distinction in degree within the same
specific) - the brain uses existing
quality. For example, the different shades of blue.
knowledge, experiences, and
expectations to interpret sensory
4. The DURATION of a sensation
information
It indicates the length of time a sensation lasts in
the consciousness. Example:​
Your eyes detect colors and shapes — but your
5. The REACTION TIME of a sensation brain recognizes them as a tree.
Refers to the time interval between the application
of a sensory stimulus on a sensory receptor and

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​ ​
THE (MORE THAN) THE VISUAL SENSE
FIVE SENSES (VISION)
Overview Overview

We are often taught that there are only five senses: Vision gives us the most information about our
sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch.​ environment—shapes, colors, distances, and
However, this is an oversimplification. Human movements.​
sensory abilities extend far beyond these five.(A We often rely on our sight for truth, hence the
dozen extra senses) saying, “seeing is believing.”

●​ Humans are sensitive not just to touch, but

to pain, pressure, temperature, vibration,
1. The Physical Stage
and more.
Light is the stimulus that activates our visual
●​ The ear helps us not only to hear but also to
system. It is a form of electromagnetic radiation,
maintain balance.
measured in wavelengths.
●​ Psychologists now recognize at least a
dozen distinct senses, all of which work The part of this radiation that our eyes can detect is
together.​ called the visible spectrum.

Color Wavelength (millimicrons)

In summary: Human sensory systems are complex
Violet 400
and interrelated, allowing us to interpret the world
through multiple forms of physical input. Blue 450

Green 500

Yellow 600

Red 800

Light travels at approximately 186,000 miles per

second.

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The visible spectrum ranges from 400 to 800 ○​ Dim light → pupil dilates​
millimicrons:
3.​ Iris – Colored part of the eye; adjusts pupil
●​ Below 400 → ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma
size.
rays (invisible)
4.​ Lens – Bends light to focus the image onto
●​ Above 800 → infrared, radar, radio waves
the retina.
(invisible)​
5.​ Retina – Thin layer of nerve cells that
converts light into electrical signals.
●​ Visible spectrum: 400–800 millimicrons
○​ Contains rods (dim light, night
●​ Colors correspond to specific
vision)
wavelengths
○​ Contains cones (color and detail)
●​ The human eye cannot detect infrared or
6.​ Fovea – Central part of retina with the
ultraviolet light.
highest concentration of cones; responsible
for sharp vision.
7.​ Optic nerve – Carries visual signals to the
occipital lobe, the brain’s visual center.

*Light - pupil adjustment -focusing the lens - light

detection - signal conversion - signal transmission -
visual processing (order)​

2. The Physiological Stage

Light enters the eye, is focused, and then Rods and Cones
converted into neural signals that the brain
Feature Rods Cones
interprets.
Shape Long, cylindrical Short, thick
Sequence of Visual Processing
Function Night and Color and
peripheral vision detail
1.​ Cornea – Transparent layer that protects
Location Peripheral retina Fovea
and focuses incoming light. (center of
2.​ Pupil – Circular opening that controls the vision)
amount of light entering the eye. Active in Dim light Bright light
○​ Bright light → pupil constricts

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3. The Psychological Stage

(Perception of Shapes and
Patterns) b. Proximity

The brain organizes visual information into Objects that are close together are perceived as

meaningful patterns through principles of Gestalt belonging to the same group.​

Psychology.​ Proximity overrides differences in color or shape.

Perception is an active process—it constructs

reality from incoming sensory data.

Gestalt Principles of Organization

a. Closure

The mind tends to complete incomplete figures

to form a whole.​
Example: Seeing a zebra in a collection of black
c. Similarity
stripes because the mind fills in missing details.
Elements that look alike (in shape, color, or size)
are grouped together.​
Example: Circles and triangles in a row appear as
separate groups.

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THE PERCEPTION OF
FIGURE AND
BACKGROUND
d. Simplicity (Prägnanz)

We perceive patterns in the simplest and most Definition

organized way possible.​
●​ Figure – The object that stands out or
The brain reduces complex shapes into basic,
captures focus.
familiar forms.
●​ Ground – The background that appears
less distinct or extends behind the figure.
●​ This distinction helps the brain organize
Summary Table what we see into meaningful patterns.

Stage Process Main Idea Factors Affecting Figure-Ground

Physical Light as Visible Perception
electromagnetic spectrum
energy (400–800 mm)
1.​ Contour (Outline):​
Physiological Eye converts Rods (dim Objects with a distinct outline are perceived
light → neural light), Cones
impulses (color) as the figure.​

Psychological Brain organizes Gestalt

sensory input principles 2.​ Relative Size:​
(Closure,
Smaller parts enclosed by larger areas are
Proximity, etc.)
seen as the figure.​
​
3.​ Meaning or Interest:​
Objects that are meaningful or personally
relevant to the observer are more likely to
become the figure.​

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Reversible Figures 1.​ Retinal Image Size:

○​ Nearby objects create larger retinal
Sometimes, the figure and ground can alternate, images, while faraway objects
creating two different perceptions in one image. produce smaller ones.
○​ The brain interprets these size
●​ Example: You can either see a white vase
differences as distance, not actual
or two black faces looking at each other.
size.
2.​ Interocular Distance
○​ Because the eyes are a few inches
apart, each eye sees a slightly
different image.
○​ The brain fuses these images into
one, giving a sense of depth.
○​ People using only one eye have
difficulty judging distances
accurately.
○​ Sample: Hold a pen at arm’s length
and alternate closing each eye. The
pen appears to shift position —
THE PERCEPTION OF evidence of binocular vision.
3.​ Convergence:​
DISTANCE AND
○​ When focusing on a nearby object,
DEPTH the eyes turn inward.
○​ The degree of inward movement
Overview helps the brain gauge distance.

Our perception of depth (the third dimension) arises Cue Description Example /
from both physiological and psychological cues.​ Effect

It allows us to judge how far away objects are and Linear Parallel lines Roads or
Perspective appear to railways
understand spatial relationships.
1 converge at a meeting at the
distance. horizon.

Physiological Factors Atmospheric Distant objects Mountains

Perspective look hazier due appear bluish

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2 to particles in and faded.

the air.

Superimpositio An object A tree covering

n blocking part of a house
(Interposition) another seems looks nearer.
3 closer.

Closeness to Objects nearer Clouds near the

Horizon the horizon horizon appear
4 seem farther more distant. 2
away.

Light and Bright areas Shaded shapes

Shadow appear closer; give a 3D
5 dark areas effect.
seem farther.

Texture Near objects Grass texture

Gradient show clearer fading into the
6 details; distant distance.
ones blur.

THE PERCEPTION OF
COLOR
Definition
1
Color perception depends on the wavelength of
light reflected from an object.​
Different wavelengths correspond to different hues.

Attribute Definition Example

Hue Quality of color Red, green,

based on blue
wavelength

Saturation Purity of the Deep blue vs.

color pale blue

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Visual impairment refers to partial or complete

Brightness Intensity of light Bright yellow
vs. dim yellow loss of vision that cannot be corrected by
glasses, lenses, or surgery (Williams, 2020).

The World Health Organization (2019) classifies

impairment using:

●​ Visual acuity (clarity of sight)

COLOR BLINDNESS ●​ Visual field (area visible when eyes are
fixed on an object)​

Overview

●​ Affects 1 in 12 men and 1 in 200 women Testing Visual Acuity

worldwide.
●​ Measured using the Snellen Chart.
●​ Usually genetic; caused by a defect on the
●​ Expressed as a fraction: 20/X.
X chromosome.
○​ Example: 20/80 means you see at
●​ Common types: Red-Green and
20 feet what a person with normal
Blue-Yellow color blindness.​
vision sees at 80 feet.​

Types of Vision Based on Color

Types of Visual Impairment
Sensitivity
Type Description Criteria
Type Description Ability to See
Colors Low Visual Reduced clarity 20/70 or ≤20°
Acuity / even with visual field
Trichromat Normal vision Sees all colors Moderate correction
Impairment
Dichromat One color Partial color
dimension blindness (usually Blindness Severe loss of 20/400 or ≤10°
missing red-green) sight visual field

Monochromat Only light-dark Totally colorblind Legal As per National 20/200 or ≤20°
dimension Blindness Council on side vision in
(PH Disability better eye
Definition) Affairs (NCDA)

VISUAL IMPAIRMENT Challenges Faced by the Visually

Impaired
Definition
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1.​ Lack of Access to Visual Information​ ○​ Due to social stigma,

unemployment, and inaccessibility.
○​ Most environmental data (signs, ○​ Emotional support and inclusive
timetables, advertisements) are environments are essential.
visual.
○​ Limited access reduces
independence and autonomy.​

2.​ Overly Helpful Behavior​

○​ Sighted individuals may over-assist,

unintentionally making the visually
impaired feel helpless.a
○​ True support respects their
THE SENSE OF
independence.​
HEARING
3.​ Societal Stigma​
Definition
○​ Accidents or errors are often
Hearing is a mechanical sense — it transforms
misread as incompetence.
physical vibrations into electrical signals that the
○​ Visual impairment does not equate
brain interprets as sound.
to lower intelligence or
unhappiness.​
The Physical Stage

4.​ Employment Barriers​ Sound is the movement of air molecules caused by

vibrating objects.​
○​ Limited accessible workplaces → It travels through air in wave patterns, similar to
fewer opportunities. ripples in water.
○​ Impacts economic independence
and confidence.​ Characteristics of Sound Waves:

1.​ Frequency – number of vibrations per

5.​ Isolation​
second (measured in Hertz).​

○​ Human range: 20–20,000 Hz.

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○​ Animals can hear beyond this range. 2.​ Eardrum (Tympanic Membrane) – vibrates
○​ ↓ Low frequency → bass tones when sound waves hit.​
○​ ↑ High frequency → treble tones​
3.​ Middle Ear – contains three tiny bones:​

○​ Hammer (Malleus)
○​ Anvil (Incus)
○​ Stirrup (Stapes)​
These amplify and transmit
vibrations to the oval window.​
2.​ Amplitude – strength of vibration
(measured in decibels).​ 4.​ Inner Ear (Cochlea) – converts vibrations
into neural signals.​
○​ 0 dB = threshold of hearing
○​ 120 dB and above = painful and ○​ Basilar membrane has hair cells
damaging that send signals to the temporal
lobe.
○​ High decibel sounds can damage
hair cells, causing hearing loss.

The Physiological Stage

The Pathway of Sound:

1.​ Outer Ear – collects and funnels sound into

the ear canal.​ The Psychological Stage

Characteristics of Sound Perception:

○​ Helps identify sound direction.​

1.​ Pitch – corresponds to frequency​

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○​ Slow vibrations = low pitch​ Hearing Impairment

○​ Fast vibrations = high pitch​ Definition (WHO, 2020): Difficulty hearing as well
as normal (0–20 dB) thresholds.​

2.​ Intensity (Loudness) – depends on Can be mild, moderate, severe, or profound.

amplitude​
Types of Hearing Impairment:

1.​ Conductive – blockage in ear canal or

middle ear.
○​ Often treatable via surgery or
hearing aids.​

3.​ Timbre (Tone Quality) – distinguishes

2.​ Sensorineural – inner ear or nerve
sources with same pitch/intensity​
damage.
○​ Affects perception of voice
○​ Caused by overtones (vibrations of
frequencies.​
partial lengths)​

3.​ Mixed – combination of both types.​

4.​ Direction of Sound – depends on:​

○​ Time difference between sound

Common Challenges:
reaching each ear
○​ Intensity difference between ears​ ●​ Communication difficulties
●​ Delayed speech development
5.​ Distance of Sound – depends on:​ ●​ Social isolation

○​ Intensity (near = loud, far = weak)

○​ Frequency composition (high THE SENSE OF
frequencies fade faster)​
SMELL (Olfaction)
6.​ Auditory Selectivity – influenced by focus
or emotion​ Overview

○​ Example: Hearing your phone ring From an evolutionary perspective, the sense of
when anticipating a call. smell is one of the most primitive and essential

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senses.​
It is also regarded as the most intimate, directly
linked to memory and emotion. Stage 2: The Physiological Stage

●​ Smell has the most direct neural pathway ●​ Olfactory Cells are the smell receptors..
to the brain among all senses. ●​ Located in the Olfactory Epithelium, high
●​ The olfactory system is less complex and in the nasal cavity.
more primitive compared to other sensory ●​ Contain hair-like cilia that detect airborne
systems. molecules.
●​ Signals are sent via the olfactory nerve to
Species Function of Example the brain.
Smell
●​ Condition: Anosmia – loss of smell due to
Animals Hunting, Mice detect cats; damaged cilia.
protection, foxes smell other
communication, dogs; bees ●​ Humans: olfactory center = 1/20 of cortex
reproduction identify rank by ●​ Dogs: olfactory center = 1/3 of cortex
odor

Humans Emotion and Smell of cut grass Important Facts:

memory recall evokes childhood
memories ●​ Humans: olfactory center = 1/20 of cerebral
cortex
●​ Dogs: olfactory center = 1/3 of cerebral

Stage 1: The Physical Stage cortex

●​ Loss of smell = Anosmia (caused by
Substances must possess two key properties to damaged cilia)
trigger smell: ●​ Smell perception fatigues quickly and
recovers slowly
1.​ Volatile – Ability to vaporize and release
airborne molecules. Non-volatile
substances such as glass, stone, and iron
are odorless. (perfume)​

2.​ Fat-soluble – Ability to dissolve in fats or

oils (essential oils)​

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Stages of Taste Perception

3. Psychological Stage
1. Physical Stage
Henning’s Six Primary Odor Categories
Taste stimuli must be soluble in water or saliva to
Odor Type Examples contact the taste receptors.
Flowery Roses, sampaguita
Condition Result
Fruity Apples, oranges
Soluble in water/saliva Taste detected
Spicy Cloves, cinnamon
Insoluble (e.g., steel, Tasteless
Burnt Toasted or smoky scents glass)
Putrid Decaying fish Dry substances No taste even if in
contact with tongue
Resinous Pine, resin, varnish

●​ Most odors are mixtures of these six

2. Physiological Stage
qualities.
●​ Olfactory experiences are interpreted as Structure and Function
perceptions “of something” rather than
as isolated sensations. ●​ Taste receptors are primarily located on

●​ Visual cues can modify olfactory perception the tongue, with some on the roof of the

(e.g., onion smell alone = unpleasant; onion mouth and throat.

+ meat = appetizing). ●​ The papillae (surface bumps) contain taste

buds, each with about 100 receptor cells.

THE SENSE OF TASTE Papilla Type Location/Description

Circumvallate Large, back of tongue

(Gustation) Foliate Sides of tongue

Filiform Thin, center of tongue

Overview (no taste buds; for
texture)

Gustation is the special sense associated with the Fungiform Front and tip of tongue
tongue. Taste helps us identify nutrients and avoid
harmful substances. It interacts closely with
smell, texture, and temperature to create flavor.

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Factors Affecting Taste Sensitivity ●​ Some debate whether it’s a fundamental

taste.
●​ Age: Children have about twice as many
taste receptors as adults. Brain Mapping of Taste
●​ Elderly: Significantly fewer taste receptors.
Taste Type Cortical Location

Sour/Bitter One end of taste cortex

Sweet Opposite end

Salty Distributed throughout

cortex

●​ Taste fatigues quickly but recovers fast,

allowing multiple flavors in sequence.

3. Psychological Stage

Four Fundamental Tastes

Taste Location on Description lTaste perception is multisensory.​

Tongue
Other sensory inputs modify or enhance flavor
Sweet Tip Indicates perception.
energy-rich
foods”
Factor Influence on Taste
Salty Behind sweet Detects mineral
content Smell Enhances or defines flavor

Sour Sides Detects acidity Texture Affects mouthfeel (e.g.,

creamy vs. gritty)pppp
Bitter Rear Often warns of
toxins
Temperature Warmer foods release more
aroma molecules

Additional 5th Taste: Umami Appearance Color and presentation

influence taste expectations
●​ Means “savory” or “meaty” in Japanese.
●​ Associated with amino acids (e.g., MSG, ●​ Food and beverage companies ensure
soy sauce, broth). consistency in taste, odor, and appearance
for quality control.

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something sharp
or too hot)

THE SKIN SENSE —

SOMESTHESIS
Overview

The skin sense, also known as somesthesis,

encompasses the sensations that arise from the
surface of the body. While Aristotle believed touch
was a single sense, modern psychology recognizes .
it as a combination of multiple subsystems =
●​ Pain spots are most numerous across the
pressure, temperature, and pain.
body surface.
●​ Followed by pressure, cold, and warmth

3. Unequal Distribution of Receptors

●​ Sensitivity varies across the body.

●​ Most sensitive: hands, lips, tongue, genital
Types of Skin Sensations
areas.
●​ Least sensitive: back and upper arms.
Type of Stimulus Function /
Sensory Spot Detected Example
4. Factors Affecting Pain Sensitivity
Pressure Physical Feeling a
spots contact, touch handshake or a
soft fabric a. Biological: Women often feel pain more strongly

Warmth spots Increase in Sensation of heat due to hormonal changes.​

temperature from a mug of b. Genetic: Pain thresholds can be inherited.​
coffee
c. Cognitive & Emotional: Attention, anxiety, and
Cold spots Decrease in Feeling of cool mindset can increase or decrease pain.
temperature breeze

Pain spots Intense or Protects body Example:

damaging from harm (e.g.,
stimuli touching

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●​ Pain during childbirth is reduced by positive ●​ It enables precise coordination in activities

emotions. such as:​
●​ Minor pain at the dentist feels stronger due
to anxiety ○​ Walking
○​ Writing
○​ Eating
THE MUSCLE SENSE ○​ Dressing​

— KINESTHESIS
Without it, movement becomes clumsy and
uncontrolled.
Overview

Kinesthesis is the sense that tells us about the

position and movement of body parts relative to
each other. It allows smooth, coordinated, and
skillful movement.

Receptors and Function

●​ Located in muscles, tendons, and joints.

●​ Muscle spindles detect stretching or
contraction.
●​ Tendon receptors detect pressure or
THE SENSE OF
tension.
●​ Joint receptors signal limb position.
EQUILIBRIUM
(Vestibular
Importance

●​ The kinesthetic sense is extremely

Proprioception)
sensitive, detecting movements smaller
than 0.3°.

Overview

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The vestibular sense, or sense of equilibrium, ●​ Ferris wheel or roller coaster rides
provides feedback about: (continuous rotation).
●​ Sea sickness / motion sickness: results
●​ The position of the head and body in space.
from constant, conflicting motion signals.
●​ Movements such as rotation, acceleration,
●​ Facing the direction of movement (like
and gravity changes.
watching the road in a car) can help restore
balance.
Location of Receptors

Receptors are found in the inner ear, specifically:

EXTRASENSORY
●​ Semicircular canals – detect rotational
motion. PERCEPTION (ESP)
●​ Vestibular sacs – detect linear movement
and gravitational pull.
Definition

How Balance Works

Extrasensory Perception (ESP) — also called the
sixth sense — is the ability to gain information
●​ Movement of the head causes fluid inside
without using the five traditional senses.​
the semicircular canals to shift.
It involves mind-based perception without
●​ This movement stimulates hair-like
sensory organ stimulation.
receptors that send messages to the
cerebellum and brainstem, which control Key Point: ESP remains controversial due to lack
posture and coordination.​ of scientific verification.

Scientific Controversy
Disturbances of Equilibrium
●​ Some psychologists accept limited forms of
When this system is overstimulated or confused: ESP, while others reject it for lack of
empirical proof.
●​ Disequilibrium occurs, leading to dizziness
●​ Many reported ESP experiences are
or nausea.
products of imagination, fantasy, or
​ deception.
●​ If proven valid, ESP would reshape
modern science, including psychology and
Examples of Disequilibrium:

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 Sensation and Perception

physics.​

Common Types of ESP

Type Definition Example

Telepathy Transference of Reading

thoughts from someone’s
one person to
another.
mind.
SUMMARY OF
Clairvoyance Awareness of
objects or
“Seeing” an
event INTERNAL BODY
events hidden happening
from view. elsewhere.
SENSES
Precognition Knowledge of Predicting an
future events. accident before
it happens. Sense Receptors Stimuli Purpose /
Located In Detected Function
Psychokinesis Moving or Bending metal
(Telekinesis) influencing using Somesthesis Skin Pressure, Detects
physical objects concentration. (Skin Sense) temperatur surface
with the mind. e, pain contact and
potential
injury
Scientific Position
Kinesthesis Muscles, Tension Guides
●​ There is no conclusive evidence to (Muscle tendons, and coordinated
Sense) joints movement motion
confirm ESP.​
Equilibrium Inner ear Rotation, Maintains
(Vestibular) acceleratio balance
●​ Controlled studies often fail to reproduce n, gravity and
posture
results.​
ESP None Non-physic Perception
(Hypothetica proven al or beyond
●​ Thus, while fascinating, ESP remains
l) mental normal
outside mainstream psychology.​ senses

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