1.

DEFINITION AND ASPECTS

CONCEPTUAL
FROM THE INTERVIEW
CONXAPERPIÑÁ

The interview is a technique for gathering information, and therefore

of evaluation; but it is also much more than that. Its versatility and
flexibility allows shaping an interview for each purpose and adap
including the interviewee's needs and the personal style of
interviewer, which gives him a great advantage over the rest of the
techniques of psychological evaluation. The objectives of this chapter
they are the description and study of:

The importance of the interview in psychology: historical aspects.

2. Definition of the interview and essential characteristics.
3. Classifications based on various criteria.
4. Comparison with other information gathering techniques.
5. Scientific guarantees of this instrument (reliability, validity, utility).
6. Ethical issues.

After reading this chapter, the reader will be able to:

➪ To know the origin, utility, and purpose of the interview in the psychological field.
logical.
➪ Know how to recognize its defining characteristics.
➪ Differentiate their purposes, objectives, and scopes.
➪ Familiarize yourself with the skills needed to be a good entre-
visitor regarding your scientific and ethical guarantees.

1.1. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE INTERVIEW

IN PSYCHOLOGY: HISTORICALASPECTS
The most direct way to know what is happening to a person is
ask him/her, and this is basically what the interview consists of. It is the technique
most widely used data collection method, but also the most
difficult and complex to carry out. Its versatility is such that, although 23
 Manual of the psychological interview

born in a context of evaluation and diagnosis, it has been used

starting with many other functions in the evaluation process-
prevention and even outside the field of health or the relationship of
help.
The interview has been adapting and, above all, enriching it with
all those fields for which it has been used. There are various
authors (for example, Silva, 1988) who indicate that the interview begins-
to have special relevance in the clinical field of the hand of
Kraepelin, in his interest to explore the symptoms in detail
the patients. This would allow for a diagnosis to be made that can
would articulate in a classification of mental disorders. With this
Finally, the exploration of the patient's mental state was essential.
dible, and that exploration and other data from the patient's medical history
they were collected, precisely, through an interview.
Another fundamental contribution was that of psychoanalysis, the "therapy par-
lante» de Freud, en la que se funde la búsqueda de la información, la
assessment and therapy. The interview becomes a great me-
to promote the patient's spontaneous communication and with it
to provoke their "healing" thanks, among other things, to the flow of their associations
free minds. Freud is one of the first to understand that the interview-
dor (the therapist) has a notable influence on the dynamics of the
interview. The therapist is a neutral element of the interview, and
for that reason, they must strive to play a passive role in it,
so it is not anecdotal that to control that influence the between-
the visitor should stay out of the sight of the interviewee and remain
taking notes after his patient's couch.
One step further in this acknowledgment that the interviewer does not
it is a neutral element in the inevitable 'relationship' that is established in the
interview between its two protagonists is given by Sullivan, who in his classic
The Psychiatric Interview indicates that the interview is a process
It is about a planned interpersonal relationship. It emphasizes that between both
members of this dyad an interaction is produced "real" and that the tera-
the tip must take advantage of this by acting as a "participating observer"
and actively working on that real social interaction for the benefit of
your patient.
Finally, it is necessary to mention the figure of Carl Rogers, who in his
client-centered therapy gives the therapeutic interview a ...
"non-executive" tile par excellence that consolidates and focuses on the
framework of the client and in its expression and emotional understanding
24
It is national and avoids any kind of interpretation of it; on the other hand,
 Definition and conceptual aspects of the interview

it is worth mentioning the advance that Rogers represented in the research of

the interview. The first textual transcription is done by Rogers in the
the 1940s, in addition to adopting as a usual methodology
the routine recording of the audio from the interviews for their post-study
interior.
Alongside the criticisms of psychiatric diagnosis, Skinner and Eysenck
In the 1950s, they also put the interview to the test.
by highlighting certain biases produced, for example by the
verbal reinforcements, as well as other sources of error that also
they begin to be evidenced from the social area and the research interviews
navigation. However, with the emergence of behaviorism in the years
Try, the behavior therapists themselves were not willing to re-
to announce a technique that, despite its problems, was so useful
(Turkat, 1985, 1987). In 1965, Kanfer and Saslow published Behavior Analy-
sister, among whose arguments it is worth noting that they indicate that the interview
it is a fundamental instrument in the functional analysis of conduction
Yes, but demanding a good methodological level to guarantee its reliability.
legitimacy and validity.
The criticism of the lack of standardization and quantification, to the ex-
excessive trust placed in the interviewer to that the interview-
view to be reliable and valid - even more so than in the technique itself -
to the recognition of the great usefulness of this tool, they will carry
many authors to strive to equip it with mechanisms that help
to ensure their reliability and validity. The standardized interviews
for diagnostic purposes, such as the SCID (Structured Clinical Inter-
view for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders, SCID-I; First, Spitzer, Robert, Gibbon
by Williams 1996), or the series of the ADIS, were created with that purpose,
ensuring that the interviewer can reach through their technique to
reliable diagnostic conclusions or formulate intervention hypotheses
valid.
The contribution of social research to the interview, from a
completely different field, has also contributed to the standardization
tion and quantification of the technique, often forced to handle
large amount of data and people evaluated. From sociology and
Social psychology includes at least two types of development:
the interviews aimed at the selection of personnel and evaluation of re-
human resources in companies, fundamentally focused on value-
rationing of the capabilities, attitudes, and motivation of the candidates for
the job position they aspire to, and the survey interviews, highlight
25
you are going to evaluate a part of the population sample that is to be pre-
 Manual of the psychological interview

tend to probe into specific aspects, and then generalize

the results. Here the possibility of quantification and structuring will be
crucial, not only for being efficient at the time of collection of the
answers but also to generalize to the reference population.

1.2. DEFINITION. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS

FROM THE INTERVIEW
The perhaps most generic and intuitive definition of the interview is the
classical by Bingham and Moore (1924; in Bingham and Moore, 1973).

The interview is a conversation with a purpose.

Therefore, the elements that are enclosed behind this statement are:

➪ Conversation: 'COMMUNICATION.'
➪ The conversation takes place, at least, between two people: "INTERAC-
TION.
➪ Purpose: "OBJECTIVE", AIM.

Even being elements that overlap and participate in the rest, go through
we will analyze each one of them.
The "COMMUNICATION" component includes the following ca-
Characteristics:

➪ The interview is a conversation between two or more people but

in which one —the interviewer— is the one who asks (with an ob-
predetermined objective.
➪ The channel is a symbolic communication, preferably oral and
bidirectional, but there is also an important non-component
verbal.
➪ Both verbal and non-verbal information are recorded and
analyzed for performing the evaluation, the diagnosis, the advisory-
lying or psychological intervention.

As for the 'INTERACTION' component, it is necessary to break down

tacar:

➪ Bidirectional process. Participants share activity in

26
the course of the interview, and they influence each other, being the
 Definition and conceptual aspects of the interview

information gathered in the interview the result of this in

reaction.
➪ The interviewer and the interviewee can be one or several people.
➪ The interviewer and the interviewee perform two differential roles and thus-
metrics.
➪ In the field of health, it is about a helping relationship in
one is a professional and the other is a client. In that sense-
it is not a relationship between equals. It is the interviewer in
the one who bears the responsibility of conducting the interview, not the
opposite. This asymmetry prevents it from turning into a talk in-
three friends.
➪ Ultimately, the interview, in its aspect of interaction, is
fine as an asymmetric situation: "interpersonal relationship such as-
"metric" in which each one has a different role. The interview-
it is recognized as an expert in the field, it is the one who asks
information. The interviewee is the one who initiates the demand.
hoping to take advantage of such a relationship, and it is who provides
the information.

Lastly, regarding the "PURPOSE" or objective:

➪ The people in the interview converse according to certain frameworks.

but the guidelines of a specific problem or issue and pursue
a professional purpose, which, in the field of the clinic, has to
see with the help relationship.
➪ The objective and reason for the interview come from the interviewee, but the
the ultimate objective of it is known at least by the interviewee
tador, being able or not to coincide with that of the client-patient, and can
communicate it or not to the patient-client as deemed appropriate
to obtain information or provide assistance.
➪ The questions and verbal interventions are made based on
certain guidelines and are related to the problem or the demand
What does the interviewee do?
➪ In the clinical field, it is a longitudinal technique by which
the entire clinical process is carried out, that is, it is the tool to
through which the evaluation, the intervention, and the evaluation is established
action of the intervention.

Table 1.1 makes a comparison between a conversation or-

27
dinaria and an interview.
 Manual of the psychological interview

TABLE1.1
Differences between conversation and interview
(based on McConaughy, 2005)

CONVERSATION INTERVIEW

Informal, casual. It is planned over time and carried out

Spontaneous. with an appointment.
About topics of mutual interest. It has a purpose and an intention-
The speakers lead to parts purpose.
equal the weight of the conversation. The "conversers" have roles
There is no need to reach any different agreements and functions, being one
conclusion. of them, the one who chooses the topic. The
It may simply be because the interviewer asks a question, or poses
time or have fun. topics to reflect on,
and the interviewee answers or reflects
xiona.
The interviewer accepts the expression-
The essence of feelings and facts
narrated by the interviewee without judgment
to talk about them or to discuss them.
The interviewer is required to
maintain confidentiality and not
reveal the obtained information.

From this analysis, a first conclusion can already be drawn, which is

that, beneath its appearance of simplicity, the interview is really a
one of the most complex techniques and the most difficult to handle. In principle,
The interview is a technique that may seem easy because it is based on
in one of the skills that we develop every day: conver-
to brainstorm and communicate. But the point is to make something spontaneous-
neo and "natural", a technique that we apply in the service of some pro-
posits, seeking certain effects and results, regardless of
that at that moment we feel like "talking, or not", or showing our
communication skills. As professionals, we must be aware
adherents to certain rules of communication and interaction and apply
to create a series of techniques to modulate effects for the benefit of our
client. As illustrated in figure 1.1, the difference between one with-
ordinary conversation and an interview basically mark the
interaction between the participants and the object or purpose of such an inte-
28 reaction.
 Definition and conceptual aspects of the interview

COMMUNICATION

CONVERSATION
VS. PURPOSE
INTERVIEW

INTERACTION

Figure 1.1. Verbal exchange of information: interview vs. conversation.

The element "interaction" is what makes the difference in this con-

conversation that takes place in the interview. In this dialogue everything revolves
regarding the interviewee providing the appropriate information
Regarding the purpose of the demand; the interviewee must feel then how-
He/she has the freedom to speak about what he/she is going to be asked.
to raise. The interviewer uses his knowledge, contributes his experience
experience and work with the most suitable techniques. He must know what pre-
Guntar, how to ask and know how to keep silence and listen. The between-
The visitor is responsible for directing and controlling behaviors.
verbal and non-verbal, of course yours, but it must also
know how to influence those of the interviewee, control the distribution of the in-
interventions and understand the nature of the contents that will be
to develop. The one who makes the claim, normally the interviewee, ne-
needs help, and the professional offers it. This difference in roles makes
that the interview differs from a friendship or among equals
yes, bringing with it the advantage of emotional distancing
and the objectivity to address the problem. At the end of the chapter, in the
Table 1.1 summarizes some of the characteristics that define a
good interviewer.

1.3. CLASSIFICATION OF THE INTERVIEW

There are many types of interviews and many criteria that can...
of helping to classify them. There are some typologies that classify them in-
even according to the number of participants (individual or in a group) or the
number of sessions in which it is distributed. Here the option will be to choose
those criteria that are more related to the essential dimensions
qualities of the interview, and which seem to be more useful in their conceptualization 29
 Manual of the psychological interview

zation and delimitation. According to the theoretical framework of therapeutic reference,

Interviews can be classified according to their:

➪ Structure.
➪ Degree of leadership or participation.
➪ Scope of application - purposes or objectives.
➪ Functions.
➪ Temporal sequence.
➪ Therapeutic theoretical framework.

1.3.1. Structure
The structure of the interview is commonly understood to mean the degree of specificity.
standardization and standardization of its different elements/components, ta-
read as: questions, answers, sequence of questions (fixation of
a sequence), recording and processing of information and even the
interpretation of the information. In that sense, there are structured interviews
torrents, unstructured and semi-structured.

a) Unstructured
The interview is only conducted based on some very general lines.
rales; it is the very process of interaction that will determine the order
of questions and their type, which allows treating each interviewee as
idiosyncratic way (Segal and Hersen, 2010).

b) Structured
That interview in which the elements previously mentioned...
two, in their entirety or in part, have a predefined format; that is, the
questions are pre-established, the order of formulation and the
the interviewer’s response possibilities are limited and restricted
Yes, there is a directive order for the interview through its sections.
And the combination of certain criteria aids in the interpretation of the
responses from the interviewee.
According to Segal and Hersen (2010), in structured interviews there are
ask in a certain way and with a predetermined sequence. The res-
the interviewee's responses are usually well encoded in a dichotomous format.
good, using a Likert scale, especially to evaluate the fre-
sequence, the duration or the severity of that which is being referred to
30
question. Table 1.2 illustrates an item from the ADIS-IV (Di Nardo,
 Definition and conceptual aspects of the interview

Brown and Barlow, 1994) an example of a structured or semi-structured interview

structured.

TABLE1.2
Structured and semi-structured interviews: an example

4a. Do you feel anxious about these situations because you fear that it might
having an unexpected panic attack? (if necessary, explain what a
panic attack
YES _________ NO _________
If the answer is YES,
4b. In other occasions when exposed to _________, have you experienced
of an episode of intense fear/anxiety that has appeared in a way
abrupt and unexpected?
ADIS-IV (Di Nardo, Brown and Barlow, 1994)

The structured interview facilitates the possibility of being-

to clarify, quantify and, therefore, subject the results to comparison
numerical values. As mentioned before, this type of interview
emerged to solve the problem of the low reliability and validity of the
interviews, especially those that involve classification decisions
risks (for example, diagnosis) and have consequences for the future and
the prediction. They are the type of interviews suitable for the research.
since all the interviewees are asked the same questions
tasks, which are encoded in the same way, resulting in information
more uniform, valid and reliable information. They are usually the most suitable for
to carry out diagnostics and personnel selection tasks because they reduce
the degree of variability and discrepancy of the exploration. In the ca-
Chapter 8 illustrates some of the most relevant structured interviews.
vantes.

c) Semi-structured
The questions have some type of structuring: the outline is for-
made by specific areas, within which the interviewer can ha-
ask the questions that seem appropriate to you, following some kind of
31
some detailed guidance. Example of semi-structured interviews
 Manual of the psychological interview

they are the ADIS-IV (Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV)
previously mentioned or the SADS (The Schedule for Affective Dis-
schizophrenia; Spitzer and Endicott, 1978), designed for the diag-
Diagnosis of affective and psychotic disorders in adults.
Now, the structuring in the interview can also present
to have certain disadvantages and limitations:

➪ The rigidity to which one has to submit and its little flexibility in
the individual application could lead to formulating the questions in
the least convenient moment.
➪ It can pose the risk of becoming an interrogation.
➪ It can generate resistances.
➪ Precisely to avoid falling into the two previous risks, they require
a dual skill: knowing how to conduct interviews and knowing how to do that in-
structured interview in concrete; that is to say, it requires training
specific for such purpose.

1.3.2. Degree of management or participation

Degree to which the interviewer determines the content and development
from the interview. This will affect the way questions are formulated or
his verbal interventions, when to speak, when to listen and when
change focus or topic. In this sense, we talk about interviews di-
directive and non-directive.

a) Directives
From the point of view of a "goal" parameter, for example
quantifying the time each interlocutor is speaking, in the
During executive interviews, the interviewer spends a lot of time on their in-
interventions. However, it is not only a matter of the time he speaks
one and the other, but rather the style that it gives: the interviewer speaks more
in order to ask questions and intervene, he seems more active in the
conversation initiative, choose the topic to talk about, it guides it. The
the interviewer's participation is determined by their frame of reference
Reference, from its own perspective, that is to say, its interpretations, its analysis-
analysis of what at that moment can help their client the most, their in-
indications and their vision of the problem. It is a style of interview whose
the main objective is to obtain the maximum amount of information to formulate
32
hipótesis que guíen la evaluación y la intervención.
 Definition and conceptual aspects of the interview

b) No directives
In this case, the one who takes the most time in their interventions is the
interviewed. The interviewer tries to interfere as little as possible in the
natural course of the client's speech. The interventions made by him-
interviewers are conducted from the framework and the focus of the between-
viewed, since the primary objective is to put it in contact with
with his experience and his life experiences, avoiding, therefore, to offer the point
from the interviewer's perspective or to constrain the interviewee.
The immediate goal of this style is to create a good atmosphere, the capturing
empathetic action of the interviewee, who is helped to clarify their pro-
problem from its own position (Ibáñez, 2010). Its highest expression
they will be the style of client-centered therapy by Rogers (1961) and the
non-directive verbal techniques that will be discussed later in the
Chapter 4. It is the paradigm of active listening; it requires great layers
city of concentration and empathy, guiding the interviewee when
began to ramble, either doing so deliberately or avoiding it
the barriers that are detected to verbalize their ideas. In table 1.3 there
make a comparison of both styles of conducting an interview.

TABLE1.3
Comparison of management and non-management styles in the interview

DIRECTIVE STYLE NON-DIRECTIVE STYLE

Get the maximum amount Get a relationship and
of reliable, valid information, and an environment that enhances the
Purpose useful. availability of the interview
to reflect and elaborate
to express their thoughts.

It carries the weight of the conversation - It explicitly shows acceptance

action. training and understanding.
Ask specific questions, Encourage expression of
Interviewer
choose topics, explain. emotions, attitudes and re-
Active: proposes areas to exploit - reflections on behavior -
to rare or modify. mind.

Convert the conversation in Derive to a conversation.

an interrogation. trivial.
Dangers Biases can be incurred (the relevant information
more precipitates, selection ina- can be diluted.
appropriated information, etc.) 33
 Manual of the psychological interview

In any case, as mentioned earlier, one of

the qualities of the interview is its flexibility; therefore, the style that
it can vary when printed and, in fact, it is good that it varies based on
of certain factors:

➪ About the purpose of the interview: those interviews whose purpose

to obtain the maximum information in the least possible time
they clearly require a directive style. For those whose
the purpose is to increase the self-direction of the interviewee.
it is more appropriate to use a non-directive style.
➪ About the characteristics of the interviewee: the people who have ten-
she begins to ramble, to get lost in her reasoning and they need to clarify
specific clues to continue a conversation will require a esti-
the most directive.
➪ From the therapeutic school: there are therapeutic interviews with a es-
very defined style. Thus, the phenomenological cutting interviews
Humanists are almost by definition non-directive, while
behavioral interviews have a direct orientation
tiva.
➪ About the personal style of the interviewer: given that part of the ha-
The skills of the interview come from our everyday ability to
the time to talk and relate to others, there are ample
individual differences in our styles and preferences in dialogue
to be with others.
➪ It can vary throughout the interview, and in fact, it will vary. Start
the interview with a non-directive style will help create a better
climate.

Now, one should not confuse the directive or non-directive style.

from the interview with your 'management'. Let it be clear that, whatever the...
Interview guide, who must direct it at all times (and this is
a theme of interaction and differentiated roles) is the interviewer; from the
On the contrary, something must be going irreparably wrong.

1.3.3. Areas of application - purposes or objectives

from the interview
The most relevant distinction regarding fields or areas of application
This refers to its purposes or objectives. Without intending to be ex-
34
exhaustive, and taking into account that the interview with the function of eva-
 Definition and conceptual aspects of the interview

evaluation will be common to several fields, the most important areas of the
interviews tend to be:

a) Counseling

In this context, the interviewee asks for professional help to locate-

focus on some aspect, whether in relation to aspects of
everyday life, what is known in our field by the term
nocounselling (see chapter 11), or regarding your
school or vocational guidance (see chapter 15). It is about a
helping relationship, but in this case the client has all their
intact mental resources; his problem is something that he himself solved
He tells with the help of the professional, who will accompany him throughout the pro-
resolution process.

b) Clinical

In this area, the problem for which the client seeks help and with-
sulta has to do with psychopathology and mental disorders. In
in this case the interviewee is not in full possession of their mental faculties,
and what is required is a therapeutic change. As will be seen next-
Within the clinical interview, there are various functions and purposes:
evaluation and diagnostic, motivational and therapeutic.

c) Selection

In this field of application, the demand consists of finding the

best candidate for a job position. The profile that he must have
nuevo trabajador lo proporciona la empresa, y el entrevistador suele
use the interview as a technique to select the person who me-
That adjustment will be made to it. This topic is developed in chapter 13.

1.3.4. Functions

Since the interview is such a versatile technique, it is used in various

functions even in the same area of application. Thus, we find ourselves
more with the clinical field, the interview plays at least three
35
clearly differentiated functions:
 Manual of the psychological interview

a) Evaluation and diagnosis

Its function is to gather the precise and necessary information for valuation,
evaluate or diagnose the problem. It should cover both the information-
verbal communication as well as non-verbal. The information is used to assess the
functioning of the person and decide, if necessary, an intervention,
and, if so, what type. Here we could also include the interview of
anamnesis, a specific type of assessment interview, in this case
of the biography and development of the interviewed person. This topic is de-
develops in chapter 8.

b) Motivating
It is about encouraging the patient to take ownership of their problem, to start
the process of therapeutic change and see the need not only to involve
to grow in it, but also to maintain it (chapter 10).

c) Therapeutic
It aims to establish therapeutic goals and steps to achieve them
in order to induce a change that helps the person to improve their
quality of life regarding their illness or disorder. The relationship
the patient-therapist relationship is always fundamental, but in this case it is going to be
an essential part of the change process (see chapter 11).

1.3.5. Temporal sequence

In the clinical field, the evaluation-intervention process goes...

opening different objectives depending on the moment in which it is located
in the process; thus, in this area the following types are usually distinguished
post-interview:

a) Screening
It is a type of interview, usually semi-structured and of me-
nor duration, which allows for the evaluation of important aspects that occur
or the person suffers in order to assess that their needs can be valued.
they are covered by the services provided in that unit or dispo-
36
sensitive.
 Definition and conceptual aspects of the interview

b) Initial interview
That which serves as the first point of contact and that has as
purpose to identify the generic objective of the helping relationship that is
can be established.

c) Feedback interview
Once the interviewer has completed their evaluation, it is essential
not only to respond to the patient's demand but also to provide feedback
from the perspective that the professional has of the problem that brought them to the consultation and
communicate the formulation that the clinician has made. It is usually the first
step to increase the patient's motivation, through understanding-
a session of what happens to him and the means he has to improve and
start the therapy. It will be more complex the more complicated the pro-
problem presented by the patient. This topic is developed in chapter 9.

d) Clinical discharge interview

Its purpose is to complete the process and discharge the patient by closing
the case. An appointment may be made in the future as continued
lie; the farewell may be temporary and the relationship may be rejuvenated
me at a later time due to a relapse or for another reason, but the
the objective that motivated this meeting and this consultation has been resolved and,
Therefore, the process must be closed.

1.3.6. According to the theoretical framework of reference

therapeutic
The theoretical foundation of therapeutic guidance will determine
In reality, what relevant information is it necessary to gather, what things will there be?
what to modify, what the therapeutic goals will be, how the
interview, and even the style that will best help the therapist to with-
to follow their objectives. Within this section, there are three main models
therapeutic approaches that give rise to three ways of conceiving the interview:

a) Dynamic interview
Focused on the discovery of the unconscious and in the interpret
sessions that the therapist conducts with the purpose of the patient in-
37
he integrates his conflicts into his consciousness and resolves them. The interviewer does not
 Manual of the psychological interview

it is a neutral element and therefore it strives not to interfere in the flow

free from the patient's associations of ideas, although it has a style
clearly directive. Verbal expression is fundamental for the analysis-
and the interpretation made by the therapist.

b) Phenomenological interview
Paradigm of a non-directive interview style; the strategy is
help promote self-awareness and the development of potential
customer's human, whose difficulties have originated from a
insufficient personal development, so it is not considered a "in-
"quiet", unless someone who is unaware of the way in which their peculiar manner
perceiving reality affects their specific behaviors. The interview-
and the interviewer, therapist, and client maintain a human relationship
in reality and therefore the interaction itself plays an important role
therapeutic. It enhances the expression of feelings and attitudes and their
integration.

c) Behavioral interview
As long as the patient's problems originate in experience-
maladaptive learning behaviors, the interview gathers data to
carry out a functional analysis of such behaviors. The problem behaviors
they break down into functional units that are defined topographically
and functionally for, subsequently, to outline some indications-
About therapeutic measures to follow according to the hypotheses that are
they have proposed. The style is clearly directive, and the therapist in this
interaction is the expert who evaluates the obtained data, defines
the therapeutic objectives and the techniques to be used, to finally
analyze moment by moment the results of the selected treatment
I need.

1.4. COMPARISON WITH OTHER TECHNIQUES

ON INFORMATION GATHERING

The interview can be framed broadly within the lla-

madas "self-report techniques", that is to say, those in which the person-
It informs about itself, about its experiences and meanings. There is
38
another type of self-reports, tests, which are standardized techniques of
 Definition and conceptual aspects of the interview

collection of information that is mostly provided by a re-

quantitative result, allowing for comparisons regarding
a population or reference condition. Instead, the interview, pre-
precisely because of its flexibility, it allows for maximum individualization of the eva-
valuation, managing to adapt to the circumstances and issues
from each interviewee, as well as the information that is emerging from it
long of her.
They are two types of instruments widely used by professionals;
In fact, in the professional work of the psychologist, the evaluation techniques...
the most commonly used evaluation methods are interviews and questionnaires because they tend to be
complementary instruments. Table 1.4 presents a comparison
connection between both types of strategies.

TABLE 1.4
Advantages of the interview over tests as techniques
for gathering information

TESTADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES INTERVIEW

Resultados que se comparan con Se recaba información verbal y no

reference values. verbal.
You can study—and improve—their A large amount and variety is obtained
psychometric virtues (reliability and relatively little information)
validity. time.
Applying a test is less complex. Two-way communication.
to conduct an interview. Provide immediate feedback.
It is a unidirectional relationship (it allows the observation of samples.
responses do not influence the presence of one's own behavior
presentation of the following stimuli), interview report.
which facilitates the simplification of interpersonal relationships allows
technique. that the interviewee feels exasperated
chado.
Interaction through which it is achieved
complete the entire evaluation process
intervention.
The best, sometimes the only, means to
evaluate people with difficulties
(sensory, mental, etc.).

On the other hand, it should be noted that the potential sources of error
39
both techniques are similar in terms of their dimen-
 Manual of the psychological interview

self-report session (Fernández-Ballesteros, 1992; Márquez, 2004):

when a person reports about themselves, the information is their-
susceptible of being falsified by hiding data or silencing circumstances,
or it may be positively skewed due to the desirability effect
social legitimacy; it may also happen that the informant is not at all
motivated and refuses to respond (negativism, lack of collaboration)
or there is a tendency to respond affirmatively, or to acquiesce.
science.
As for specific and particular inconveniences of the interview,
it should be noted that it is a technique very susceptible to generating biases
none of its three components: the interviewer, the interviewee, and
of the interview situation. Without a doubt, and lastly, the greatest inconvenience
The downside of the interview is that it is a high-cost technique, as it requires
a good preparation and training in various fields, precisely
so that each of the advantages mentioned above is not
ended up becoming a double-edged sword and introducing drawbacks
flaws and errors in the evaluation.
As will be discussed in more detail in chapter 8, the en-
Interview is an instrument that is present throughout the pro-
evaluation-intervention process: at the beginning of the evaluation, in the
communication of the results, in the formulation of the case and the con-
hypothesis framework, in the motivation for change, in the intervention and
process of change, in the evaluation of that change and in the monitoring
to and in the discharge (Márquez, 2004). However, it must be borne in mind
that professionals deal with unique and specific cases, and each
one of them must be approached in the most individualized way and
as adequate as possible. In its function of gathering information, the objec-
the purpose of the interview is to make the most of its features
to create a rich, useful, and solid information base that allows its
use for generating hypotheses, and the quality of the information
data collection will largely depend on its reliability, validity, and accuracy
(Ibáñez, 2010).

1.5. SCIENTIFIC GUARANTEES

As mentioned in the historical notes, the concern
from the most experimentalist and behaviorist orientations by the
quality that the interview had as a means of obtaining information
reliable and valid action did not completely undermine the need for it. The
40
the need not to give up such a versatile and useful instrument led to
 Definition and conceptual aspects of the interview

that many researchers will analyze their possible biases and sources
of error precisely in order to achieve better control. From
the behaviorist paradigm, one of the ones that had the most reluctance to the
interview, but also with the willingness not to give up on it, it
they conducted a series of studies in the 1970s starting
of a fundamental assumption: that the communication of the interview
it is a 'verbal behavior'. In this way, it could start to be proposed
the study of the laws that will regulate the verbal conduct of the interviewee
take control of it in order to obtain the most reliable information and
valid.
When considering the information provided by the person as a conduit
verbal behavior, and, like all behavior, something susceptible to being reinforced
the contributions of tipogreenspoony are starting to become relevant
his known effect of 'aha, mmm, mmm' and the use of the conditional
verbal lying, the susceptibility to conditioning of the responses
verbal tasks (a powerful reinforcer that makes the interviewed person ...
anime to continue delving into the topic that is reinforced.
Although verbal reinforcement of speech is a magnificent tool
lie so that the interviewee organizes the interviewee's speech
In service of the interview's objective, not everything can rely on it.
Kanfer himself (1968), in a second phase of studies, emphasized the
made of the problem of controlling verbal behavior was mu-
more complex than initially thought, as they act more
variables than the simple reinforcement. For example, the status of the interview-
or, the expectations of the interviewee, the context of the interview, etc.,
all of these are themes that will be developed in chapter 5 on the inte-
reaction.
Another important source of studies on verbal control of the
interview came from Matarazzo's work and his anatomy of the between-
view (Matarazzo and Wiens, 1972). Their studies on the anatomy of the
interviews focused on analyzing how the verbalizations of the between-
interviewers end up shaping the verbalizations of their interviewee in
issues that are of interest, such as the duration of the emissions
verbal, the reaction time in responding or the time of initiative
in the verbalization or interruptions. The main parameters
"verbalization": variable that acts as a unit of analysis,
specifically the total time it takes for a communicator to emit
all the words that refer to a common content. From this
measure is taken an average: total speaking time of the interviewee or
41
interviewee divided by the number of speech units;"latency
 Manual of the psychological interview

reaction time": time in silence that elapses between the

verbal intervention of one interlocutor and that of the other; 'latency of
initiative time: time that elapses between the self-interruption
the speech of a subject and its subsequent continuation, without that
verbalization of the other, and finally, 'interruptions': inter-
references of a verbalization from the other interlocutor. It is detected as
a simultaneity of vocalizations. These parameters help to identify
to identify the speaking pace of each of the speakers, and even
They are used to detect communication patterns in the interviewee and
to achieve processes of 'synchronization' between both interlocutors
through the "modeling" of these parameters by the
interviewer.
Since the interview is an evaluation technique, it can be
demand that the information gathered through it is reliable and
validity, like any other assessment technique, although more advanced
we will consider the opposing perspective. Now then, if we consider
that the interview must meet the same guarantees as any
another standardized information instrument, the questions that de-
we should ask ourselves, following Márquez (2004), would be: how to guarantee-
is the obtained information reliable? (i.e., that the contents
verbal agreements correspond to what is intended to be known); how to guarantee
to ensure that the information is valid? (i.e., that the information represents
what is necessary to evaluate), and how to ensure that it represents it with
precision?
The classic concept of reliability refers to consistency and
stability of the measurements of an instrument. Operationally, with res-
regarding the interview, this would be specified as: if the information obtained
In one part of the interview, it is consistent with that obtained in others.
sections; if repeating the interview after a period of time results in
it would provide the same information, and, especially for diagnostic purposes, if the
information obtained by two different interviewers interviewing
the same person would be the same, and they would reach the same conclusions.
As for validity, and more specifically regarding validity
of content, it would be the representativeness of the information that
it is collected regarding the problem to be evaluated, that is, the valuation would be
interview regarding its ability to generate responses that represent
has the universe of what is intended to be evaluated. As far as
the criterion validity expresses the degree to which the information collected
can be used to predict (predictive) or infer a covariation with
42
another similar (concurrent) variable.
 Definition and conceptual aspects of the interview

Both the aspects of reliability and validity are thus

crucial for interviews with diagnostic purposes. Spitzer,
Endicot and Robins (1975), in their classic work on standardization
conduct of interviews and criteria and diagnoses, made manifest
to various sources of variance that would affect both the reliability
regarding the validity: 'of the sources of information and observation'
(different amount of collected information and re-
record); "of the subject" (can show different problematic behaviors-
stages at different moments in time, as they are stages of a mis-
my process or, on the contrary, for being different problems); "of
"exhaustive or not use of the informing resources" (for example-
plo, consult with other relatives), and "of criteria" (not to use the mis-
more diagnostic criteria). In fact, with the increase in the use of the
structured interviews, as well as the official classification systems
In classification, the reliability and validity of the diag- have increased.
predictions. At the end of the chapter, in table 1.2, some are gathered.
of the strategies to ensure the quality of the information of the
interview.
However, there are positions that do not agree with applying the
goodness criteria of psychometric techniques for the interview
that are not comparable, and given their special characteristics, do not have
neither why to apply the same parameters; however, this does not
it means to refuse to provide information through the interview
of quality for the evaluation of people; this is the stance of
understand and use qualitative methods in research. By
For example, Kvale (1996) indicated that quantitative research methods
applied research for the interview did not make sense since it was not
It raises the objectivity or subjectivity of the data, but rather the essence
what is the "intersubjectivity" of interaction. This author proposed a
research methodology through seven stages to ensure the
scientific requirements of an interview. Table 1.5 presents the
stages of the interview research process according to Kvale
(1996). While the quantitative approach gathers and analyzes data
to test previously established hypotheses, as is the case
from a diagnostic test, the qualitative approach is not necessarily
it does not test hypotheses, but is used to discover or refine pre-
research questions and therefore can be a useful methodology in
the verification of the quality of the information in the many others
areas and purposes that the interview can have (Vázquez and Angu-
43
lo, 2003).
 Manual of the psychological interview

TABLE 1.5
Stages of qualitative research in the interview (Kvale, 1996)

Define the topic. Formulate the purpose to be investigated before starting.

the interview. The why and the what must precede the how.
Design the plan that will be followed to obtain the information that re-
he/she wants.
The person will be interviewed, guiding the interview towards the proposed objective.
Transcribe what happened, through some system of mechanical recording or
written that can later be analyzed.
Analyze the data obtained with appropriate analysis methods.
interview.
Verify the results, with a methodology of your own type of interview
qualitative and content analysis.
Inform (communicate) verbally or in writing about said results you-
taking into account scientific criteria and the comprehensibility of these.

1.6. ETHICAL ISSUES

The interviewer, whether it is because they are gathering information, or in-
even more so because I am doing it from a field that implies
a professional relationship (often of assistance) must look out for the
good use that is made of the data of which it is made a custodian
client. Therefore, it will not ask about those contents that do not
adjust to the client for reasons of age, sex, or culture; will not be formulated
questions about content that is not accessible to the interviewee
(Márquez, 2004). This should be supplemented by a kind of 'maxim' in
the evaluation: do not ask anything that the interviewer does not know why
he is asking; the purpose of the question must be clear;
Behind every question there must be a why, a reason, and a purpose.
site; or, in other words, to not ask anything that is not known jus-
to clarify why one asks.
In addition to the ethical norms that should regulate the taking of
decisions throughout the entire diagnostic and therapeutic process, in
this particular interaction is given by the asymmetry of the roles,
It is the professional who, first of all, holds in their hands a...
training that solely belongs to the client, and secondly, it
finds itself in the position of the one who "rules". This will imply from a
from an ethical point of view, a double moral consideration: one’s own, being
coherent with its principles and values without ceasing to be honest, authentic-
44 polite and respectful towards the person with whom that relationship is established
 Definition and conceptual aspects of the interview

asymmetrical, and, on the other hand, that ethics which guides it and marks its own
profession. In summary, the principles most directly related
with the overall evaluation and with the particular interview would be (Ibá-
ñez, 2010):

➪ Respect, privacy and confidentiality, informed consent

window.
➪ Competence related to ethics, to its preparation, to its ability.
dad, to the procedures used and the update of knowledge-
thoughts.
➪ Integrity regarding the recognition of professional boundaries
yes, impartiality, honesty, prudence, sincerity, not having
conflict of interest.
➪ The problems that can arise: incompetence (real or suggested)
by the user), negligence, invasion of privacy, of pro-
protection of privacy and reduction of the guarantee of secrecy
sional.

In addition to the above, everything regarding guarantees must be added, no longer

not only of the confidentiality of what has been reported but also of the recorded data
and stored, that is, from the 'physical' protection of data and its safekeeping
custody.

1.7. RESUMEN
The interview is a technique for psychological assessment, although,
due to its flexibility, it can fulfill many other functions and,
fact, can be present throughout the entire evaluation process.
action-intervention. It is a conversation that, at the request of
interviewee, has a purpose, a known objective, at least,
the interviewer. The communication channel is both verbal and non-verbal.
establishing a bidirectional process between both communities
songs, whose interaction is characterized by being an asymmetric relationship.
There are several criteria for classifying the interview: degree of structure-
tura (estructuradas vs. no estructuradas), de participación o direc-
action (directive vs. non-directive), areas or purposes (counseling, clinical,
selection), functions (evaluation and diagnosis; motivating and therapeutic
therapeutic), temporality (screening, initial, feedback, clinical discharge) or
according to the therapeutic theoretical framework (dynamic, phenomenological, with-
45
ductual).
 Manual of the psychological interview

The interview, as a special technique of self-reporting, is subject to

to the same limitations as any other self-report, plus those
others originated by their own characteristics. Finally, and as a summary-
As an evaluation tool, the interview must have certain guarantees.
scientific regarding the quality of the recorded information, and the profession
It must be a jealous ethical guardian of its use and utility.

1.8. SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONS

What differentiates an interview from an everyday conversation is:

a) The topics of the conversation.
b) The objective of the conversation.
c) What is being asked.

2. A non-directive style in the interview aims to

diato
a) Create an environment that enhances the interviewee's re-
reflection and development of their own thoughts and emotions
actions.
b) Obtain the maximum amount of information, precise and specific.
c) Facilitate the interviewer to ask specific questions and propose
give new perspectives.

3. In the counselling interviews, the user and recipient have

a profile:
a) From a patient with a mental disorder that requires undergoing
the therapy.
b) From candidate to a job position that needs to be selected
born out of several candidates.
c) Of a person overwhelmed yet still with their faculties
untouched tales that need help to reach their own ela-
boración of the solution to your problem.

4. The dynamic orientation interview is essentially of one style:

Executive.
b) Structured.
46
c) Non-managerial.
 Definition and conceptual aspects of the interview

5. Una de las diferencias entre en la entrevista y cualquier otro au-

this report is:
a) The bias introduced by social desirability.
b) The presence of acquiescence.
c) The observation and recording of behavior samples
throughout the evaluation.

ANSWER KEYS TO SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONS

c/ 5 a/ 4 c/ 3 a/ 2 b1

1.9. BASIC BIBLIOGRAPHY WITH COMMENTS

Ibáñez, C. (ed.) (2010). Self-report techniques in psychological assessment.

clinical interview. Guipuzkoa: Editorial Service of the University of the Basque Country
Vasco.
It is a manual for psychological evaluation specially developed around
to the concept of self-report and, within this strategy, to the interview. Even-
which is much more focused on the therapeutic interview, the first chapters
The results of the book are dedicated to developing conceptual aspects of the interview.
in general.
Márquez, M. O. (2004). The interview. In R. Fernández-Ballesteros (ed.). Evaluation
Psychological. Concepts, methods, and case studies. Madrid: Pyramid.
Within this basic manual on psychological assessment, in this chapter
the technique of the interview is developed in depth within the section
de «Métodos de recogida de información». En el capítulo se comentan los prin-
main conceptual aspects relating to the essential elements of the entre-
view, the issues of interaction and the analysis of the information obtained
regarding its quality. Special emphasis is placed on the role of the interview
as a technique that is present throughout the evaluation process
expiration.
Shea, S. C. (2002). The psychiatric interview. The art of understanding, 2nd ed. Madrid:
Elsevier.
This is a manual entirely dedicated to the interview. Although it is a book
performed from the field of psychiatry and therefore very focused on the
interview with patients with mental disorders, in the first part, and to the
spanning four chapters, fundamental aspects are developed in the interview.
such as planning, communication, and interaction that is established in
three interviewer and interviewee.
47
 Manual of the psychological interview

TABLE 1.1
Characteristics of a good interviewer
(based on Bögels, 1994)

The ability to interview can be acquired and improved with practice (and, if
It is possible, guided by a supervisor). You learn a lot from mistakes.
A good interviewer should present:
Attitudinal characteristics and values
➪ Show sensitivity and interest towards others.
➪ Be respectful of the opinions, attitudes, and values of others, without
to prejudge the people being interviewed.
And develop the following skills:
Content skills
WHAT SHOULD I ASK? They are acquired through study.
of the scope and field of action in the service of which it is placed the
view. Knowing how to ask and intervene on what constitutes the purpose
from the interview.

Process skills
HOW SHOULD I ASK; HOW SHOULD I RELATE TO THE BETWEEN-
VIEWED. They have to do with communication and interaction. To give
clear evidence that one is being listened to. Ability to motivate and
promote the cooperation of the interviewee.

Cognitive skills
Connect data and select questions on the fly, ability to do
hypothesis...
Maintain a certain emotional distance that does not disturb the necessary one.
measurement of the relationship.
Do not appear distant.
While remaining flexible, lead the interview at all times.
In short, a good interviewer must:
➪ Know how to listen.
➪ Knowing how to ask the right questions.
➪ Knowing how to ask the right questions.
➪ Organize and prepare for the interview.

48
 Definition and conceptual aspects of the interview

TABLE 1.2
Especially relevant aspects in the guarantees
from the interview as a technique for collecting information
for diagnostic and prognostic purposes

Objectivity
➪ Structuring questions and answers, although, if done excessively-
from rigidness, what is gained in objectivity can be lost in usefulness
the data, that is, so that the information becomes irrelevant.
➪ Ordering of responses on scales or patterns.
➪ Use of well-defined registration categories.
➪ Unit of judgment among various interviewers.
➪ Training.

RELIABILITY
➪ Increase the motivation of the interviewee.
➪ Use clusters of questions on a topic instead of isolated questions.
➪ Use time specification of questions and of an activity with-
creta (for example, what did you eat this weekend?, what time did-
sayunó?).
➪ The questions should be directed towards objective events or indicators.
behavioral observables. The meaning of words is very different
for each person; besides, it is changing. It is necessary to ask the between-
Visited us to give examples of what they define as determination.
no way.
➪ Facilitar al entrevistado la posibilidad de contrastar la adecuación de sus
answers.

VALIDITY
➪ Give instructions and clarifications to place the interviewee in the diver-
these topics.
➪ Ask transparent questions; use clear language.
➪ Facilitate, when appropriate, several alternative responses.
➪ Detect and neutralize response trends (by asking the same thing)
with different formulations).
➪ Ensure confidentiality and professional secrecy.
➪ To have the possibility of corroboration with other sources of information.
➪ Avoid response suggestions.

49