Perfect — here’s your fifth full version of the same five tutorials.
This version is written in a lecture-note style: concise explanations, logical flow, and
summary formulas. It’s ideal for quick reading or class handouts.
Tutorial 1: Stress Analysis in Shafts under Combined Loading
Purpose:
To understand and calculate the stresses in a circular shaft subjected to bending, shear,
and torsion.
Key Concepts:
• Bending stress:
[
\sigma_b = \frac{M c}{I}
]
• Transverse shear stress:
[
\tau_v = \frac{VQ}{I b}
]
• Torsional shear stress:
[
\tau_t = \frac{T c}{J}
]
• Equivalent stress (von Mises):
[
\sigma_{eq} = \sqrt{\sigma_b^2 + 3(\tau_t^2 + \tau_v^2)}
]
Procedure Summary:
1. Draw the free-body diagram.
2. Determine internal loads (M), (V), and (T).
3. Compute stresses using above equations.
4. Compare (\sigma_{eq}) with yield strength to evaluate safety factor.
Note:
Neglecting torsion or transverse shear can underestimate failure risk in rotating
machinery shafts.
Tutorial 2: Natural Frequency of a Uniform Beam
Purpose:
To estimate the first natural frequency of vibration for a simply supported beam.
Fundamental Equation:
[
f_1 = \frac{1.875^2}{2\pi L^2} \sqrt{\frac{EI}{\rho A}}
]
Steps:
1. Measure beam geometry ((L), (b), (h)).
2. Compute (I = \frac{b h^3}{12}) and (A = b h).
3. Substitute into the equation to obtain (f_1).
Discussion:
• Increasing stiffness (E) or thickness (h) → higher frequency.
• Increasing length (L) or density (ρ) → lower frequency.
Summary:
(f_1) reflects the beam’s dynamic stiffness and is critical for avoiding resonance.
Tutorial 3: Strain Measurement using a Wheatstone Bridge
Purpose:
To measure mechanical strain through electrical resistance change.
Fundamentals:
• Strain–resistance relation:
[
\frac{\Delta R}{R} = k \varepsilon
]
• Bridge output:
[
V_o = \frac{V_{in}}{4} k \varepsilon
]
Steps:
1. Wire the strain gauges into a bridge circuit.
2. Apply voltage (V_{in}).
3. Measure (V_o) for known loads.
4. Calculate strain (ε = \frac{4 V_o}{k V_{in}}).
Practical Notes:
• Use temperature-compensated gauges.
• Employ a full-bridge for improved sensitivity.
Takeaway:
Bridge circuits allow accurate conversion of strain into measurable voltage signals.
Tutorial 4: Thermal Stress in Restrained Members
Purpose:
To find thermal stress when a structure is prevented from expanding.
Formulas:
• Free thermal strain:
[
\varepsilon_t = \alpha \Delta T
]
• Thermal stress (if fully restrained):
[
\sigma = E \alpha \Delta T
]
Process:
1. Identify constraint condition.
2. Calculate strain and resulting stress.
3. Compare stress with yield limit.
Engineering Note:
Thermal mismatch between joined materials can cause residual stresses, cracking, or
delamination.
Example Insight:
Steel ((E=200,GPa), (α=12×10^{-6}/°C), (ΔT=40°C)) → (σ ≈ 96,MPa).
Tutorial 5: Sensor Calibration, Linearity, and Accuracy
Purpose:
To understand calibration and performance metrics of measurement sensors.
Definitions:
• Sensitivity: slope of output–input curve.
• Accuracy: closeness to true value.
• Nonlinearity: deviation from best-fit line.
Method:
1. Apply known inputs and record sensor outputs.
2. Plot calibration curve.
3. Determine slope (sensitivity).
4. Compute:
o Max error → accuracy
o Deviation from line → nonlinearity
Example:
Sensor full-scale = 100 units, max deviation = 1 unit → nonlinearity = 1%.
Summary:
Regular calibration maintains reliable sensor performance over time.