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13 views31 pagesPsychological Observation Methods Explained
The document discusses various methods of observation and data collection in psychology, including direct observation (naturalistic, participant, structured) and indirect (physical traits, records). Direct observation methods vary in the level of researcher intervention, while indirect methods involve the observation of evidence of past behavior.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
13 views31 pagesPsychological Observation Methods Explained
The document discusses various methods of observation and data collection in psychology, including direct observation (naturalistic, participant, structured) and indirect (physical traits, records). Direct observation methods vary in the level of researcher intervention, while indirect methods involve the observation of evidence of past behavior.
Translated by
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MethodsofObservationandDataCollectioninPsychology
Estácio Juiz de Fora University Center
Psychology Course
Caio Mendes de Freitas
Master in Psychology (UFJF)
Doctoral student in Psychology (UFJF)
Unit 3: Observation Methods
Direct observation
OBSERVATIONAL METHODS
Indirect observation
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
Direct observational methods
Without intervention Naturalistic observation
Describe behavior as it occurs naturally and examine the
relationship between the variables;
Helps to obtain the external validity of the results;
Experimental control is not possible;
Studies in the field of ethology.
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
Naturalistic observation (STERNBERG, 2000; DALLOS, 2010)
▪ systematically observe and record behaviors as they occur
occur in the natural environment of the observed subjects (people or animals);
▪ detect the behavioral patterns that exist naturally;
▪ it involves a wide variety of methods (from a perspective
relatively "external", even a more participatory position – to become
native);
▪ the behavior is context-specific;
▪ observation involves paying attention to the parameters of different situations,
including cultural definitions;
▪ The observation of behavior must take into account contextual meanings.
(broad understanding of the phenomenon);
▪ possibility of generalizations.
(STERNBERG, 2000; DALLOS, 2010)
Example: suppose we want to measure if the students' attention is
reduced in classes with a longer time period than the standard. Thus, the
the researcher inserts themselves into the classroom with the aim of observing and
register behaviors that typify attention difficulties.
(STERNBERG, 2000)
- Matsumoto and Willingham (2006) observed athletes in the situation
"natural" of a judo tournament;
- Kramer (2009) analyzed happiness through records in
Hartup (1974) investigated the frequency and types of
aggressiveness displayed by preschool children in a
creche.
SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012
Observation with intervention
Most psychological research uses observational intervention.
the three methods of observation with intervention are observation
participant, structured observation and field experiment.
Participant observation allows the researcher to observe
behaviors or situations that are not usually open to
scientific observation.
if subjects change their behavior when they know they are
being observed (“reactivity”), the behavior will no longer be
representative.
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
often used by clinical psychologists and
development
structured observations are prepared to record
behaviors; that can be difficult to observe using
naturalistic observation;
In a field experiment, researchers manipulate
one or more independent variables in a natural situation
to determine the effect on behavior.
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
Participant observation
Observation with intervention Structured observation
Field experiment
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
Participant observation
Researchers observe people's behavior and participate.
actively from the situation they are observing;
What are the possible risks?
➢ the researcher may lose objectivity;
➢ the observer can influence people's behavior (difficulty of
generalization
Examples: Rosenhan's study (1973); observation of group dynamics; etc.
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
Structured observation
intervention is used to categorize behaviors (record the facts);
level of control over the observed events;
procedures
it is created developed to fully investigate the
behavior
lower level of control than in field experiments;
balance between the non-passive intervention of naturalistic observation and the
systematic manipulation and control of independent variables of the
laboratory experiments.
more natural observations than in laboratories.
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
Example: study of "attentional blindness" associated with cell phone use
(HYMAN et al., 2009).
Source: HypeScience
(HYMAN et al., 2009)
developmental psychologists often use observations
structured, like Jean Piaget (1896-1980), who investigated the
cognitive development of children
Source: Pinterest
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012).
Field experiment
one or more variables are manipulated in a natural situation to
determine the effect on behavior;
the most extreme form of intervention in observational methods;
Researchers exert more control by manipulating a
independent variable
used frequently in social psychology.
Example: Milgram (1986) investigated subjects cutting in line to
to study the reaction of the people who were already in line.
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
Indirect observational methods
indirectly observed behaviors (records and other evidence);
They are non-reactive (advantage);
Physical traits
Indirect observations
Archival records
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
Usage Traces
Physical traits
Products
Products of past behaviors
Usage traces: physical evidence resulting from use (or absence of
use) of an object. Examples: cigarette butts in ashtrays, cans of
aluminum in a recycling bin, notes in textbooks, etc.
Products: creations, constructions, or other artifacts of behavior.
Examples: anthropologists are generally interested in products
survivors of a culture (paintings, vases, and other artifacts);
modern era products: TV shows, fashion, electronic devices,
etc.
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
Archival records (SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
tools that psychologists can use to study the
behavior
public and private documents that individuals' activities,
groups, institutions, and governments;
- used to test hypotheses (multimethod approach) and
establish the external validity of laboratory results.
selective deposit, selective survival, possibility of
spurious relations (disadvantages).
abundant data and avoids the long phase of data collection
(advantages).
It presents the following disadvantages (biases):
- selective deposit: certain information is deposited in
files, but other information is not. Certain events have
better chance of being selected than others - selection
biased (bias).
selective survival: when there are missing records or
incomplete (something that the researcher may not know). Some
"records" survive and others do not.
spurious relationship: when the evidence incorrectly indicates
that two or more variables are associated (related variables)
by coincidence and inadequate statistical analyses.
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
Spurious relationship
archival records indicate that ice cream sales and crime rates
are associated:
ice cream sales ↑crimes
This relationship can be explained by a third variable (temperature).
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
What is the alternative to reduce the disadvantages of archival data?
Pluralistic approach (multimethods)
Complementary evidence
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
Recording the behavior:
In addition to direct and indirect observation, observational methods are also
different in the way behavior is recorded;
- comprehensive description of behavior or a description of
selected behaviors;
the synthesis, analysis, and publication of the results depend on how the
Behavioral observations are recorded.
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
Comprehensive records of behavior: (SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
narrative records in the form of written descriptions of
behavior, as well as audio and video recordings, are records
comprehensive;
narrative record data are classified and organized for testing
hypotheses
- narrative records must be made during or shortly after the
comportamento ser observado, e os observadores devem ser treinados
for the registration based on established criteria.
Example: In the study by Valentino et al. (2006), videos were used to
record the interactions between mothers and children in families where
they observed mistreatment in families where it was not observed.
A clinical psychologist can record certain
behaviors of an individual with knowledge of their
diagnostic hypothesis or specific clinical issues.
Scientific record accuracy and precision
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
Selected records of behavior:
Researchers are only interested in certain types of
behaviors
describe specific behaviors and/or facts (measures
quantitative aspects of behavior, such as frequency or duration;
electronic recording devices can be used in
natural environments (for example, pressure device such as
instrument to investigate the relationship between strategies of
confrontation and blood pressure–Dollan et al., 1992.
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
Analysis of observational data:
Researchers use qualitative and quantitative data analysis to synthesize
observational data.
use of scales (depression, anxiety, etc) quantitative analysis
narrative or archival records qualitative or quantitative analysis
Qualitative analysis of the data
The reduction of data (the process of abstracting and synthesizing behavioral data) is
an important step in the analysis of narrative records;
Researchers encode behaviors (encoding) according to criteria
specific, for example, categorizing behaviors. The categories are
related to the study objectives;
Content analysis is used to analyze archival records, following three
steps: identify a relevant source, sample sections of the source and encode
units of analysis.
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
Quantitative data analysis
Data is synthesized using descriptive statistics, such as counts.
of frequency, mean and standard deviation;
The reliability between observers refers to the level at which observers
independents agree to use observations;
The reliability among observers increases if there are clear definitions about
the behaviors and facts that must be recorded, training oneself
observers;
The high reliability among observers increases accuracy (validity)
the observations.
The fidelity between observers (degree to which two or more observers
independent agreements) is evaluated by calculating the percentage of
agreement or correlations.
(SHAUGHNESSY et al., 2012)
General considerations
A good observational study involves:
➢ choose how to sample the behavior of the facts to observe,
➢ select the appropriate observational method,
➢ decide how to record and analyze observational data.
Thank you!
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