1.

0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

1.1 Meaning of Education and Comparative Education.
Education has been defined by many educationists, philosophers and authors. It is considered the
most significant activity in any society but subject to a number of opinions and assumptions.
Education is the process of training man to fulfill his aim by exercising all the faculties to the
fullest extent as a member of society. Aristotle
Education is every interaction that happens, is every association that occurs between adults with
children, is a field or a state where the educational work in progress. M.J. Langeveld
Education means the bringing out of the ideas of universal validity which are latent in the mind
of every man. Socrates
Education is all one with growing; it has no end beyond itself. (Education is everything along
with growth; education itself has no final destination behind him). John Dewey (1978)

Comparative education is a complex field. Scholars are divided on the definition, nature and its
purpose as it is ever testing new ground (Wiseman & Wolhuter 2019).

Adeyinka (1994) gives the following definitions for the concept:

a) A study of two or more education systems.

b) A study of how the philosophy, objectives and aims, policy and practice of education in
other countries influence the general development, policy and practice of education in a
particular country.
c) A study of how the development of education in the past, across the ages and continents,
has influenced the development of education in particular countries.
d) A study of the school systems of two or more countries, and of the administrative
machineries set up to implement or to control the implementation of government policies
at various levels of education systems.

Comparative Education according to Good (1962) is a field of study dealing with the comparison
of current educational theory and practice in different countries for the purpose of broadening
and deepening understanding of educational problems beyond the boundaries of one's own
country. From the above definitions, the study of Comparative education allows the person
involved to have a better understanding of the system of education outside his own country.
To Kandel (1957), Comparative Education is the comparison of various philosophies of
education based not only on theories but the actual practices which prevail. From this above
definition, Kandel is of the opinion that comparative education goes beyond the comparison of
education philosophies but also includes the comparison of the real education practices. Perhaps,
from the definition, comparative. Education can be regarded as being pragmatic.

In his own contribution to the concept of comparative Education, Mallinson (1975) defines the
subject as: a systematic examination of other cultures and other systems of education deriving
from those cultures in order to discover resemblances and differences, and why variant solutions
have been attempted (and with what result) to problems that are often common to all.
1.2 The scope of Comparative Education.
The scope of comparative education means the area or areas covered by the discipline. It also
implies the various subjects or disciplines from where Comparative education draws its
information directly or indirectly.

Comparative education manifests a three-in-one perspective on education (Wolhuter et al. 2018):

 an education system perspective

 a contextual perspective
 Comparative perspective.

In the first place, the national specific education system is a subject of study in comparative
education.

Secondly, the education system is studied within its societal context, as influenced by societal
forces (geographic, demographic, social, economic, cultural, political and religious). This
influence of the societal context on education is also a subject of study in comparative education.
Also it studies the societal outcomes of education, that is the effect of education on the economy
(e.g. the effect of education on economic growth), or on the social system (e.g. the effect of
education on social mobility), etc.

Thirdly, comparative education studies and compares different education systems, as they are the
outcome of forces exerted by their societal contexts, hence the comparative perspective. Because
of changes in both the worlds of scholarship and in education, there has recently been a
contention that the field should have its name modified to comparative and international
education.

Comparative education tends to have a global or international perspective in its exploration of

education issues.
A critical look at the various definitions of the discipline no doubt reveals that Comparative
Education is an interdisciplinary subject since it relies on other subjects to be able to accomplish
its objectives. As an interdisciplinary subject, its scope covers the historical development of
education right from the Roman as well as the Greek civilization. It also includes the historical
development of non-formal education in any country of study. The discipline has its scope
extended to the purpose or purposes of education systems of the countries being studied, an
investigation into the similarities as well as differences existing in the educational practices of
the countries under investigation. Comparative Education draws its content from other
disciplines which include the following: (a) History of Education (b) Philosophy of Education (c)
Sociology of Education (d) Anthropology(e) Economics (f) Geography (g) Psychology (h)
Statistics (i) Literature (j) Political geography (k) Political science and The International
relations. It is a discipline that relates to other subjects for the accomplishment of its aims and
objectives. It may be reasonably concluded that the interdisciplinary nature of the subject has
contributed to the wideness of the discipline.

1.3 Purpose for the study of Comparative Education.

According to (Wolhuter 2019), the purposes or significance of comparative education are:

1. Description of different societies education systems or teaching learning organization.

2. Provides an understanding of different education systems as outcomes of societal forces
and how education systems in turn shape societies.
3. To carry out domestic and a more holistic evaluation of global education systems. The
universal or holistic evaluation of education means evaluating how well the world
education systems respond to the challenges of the 21st century as well as an estimation
of potential societal impact of education. Examples include:
 Can education effect economic modernization?
 Can education stamp out unemployment?
  Can education entrench or secure a democratic culture?
 Can education foster intercultural tolerance and sensitivity in a multicultural
society?
 Which country has the best education system in the world?
 What is the place of education in the war against the Covid-19 pandemic?
4. It assists nations to design, plan and reform an education system based on the education
experience of others.
5. It can contribute to the improvement of teaching practice of teachers. An understanding
of comparative education literature aids teachers’ reflection on issues of concern in their
classrooms, such as diversity, conflict/peace, pedagogy, curriculum and classroom
organization in a wider global context, and for learning from the innovations, experiences
and practices of other teachers, schools, countries and regions
6. It benefits other fields of educational studies. For instance, Philosophy of Education,
where, comparative education can reveal the benefits and disadvantages of the
implementation of particular philosophies of education in certain locations at certain
periods in history.
7. It can be applied as a comparative method of research by researchers of various sub-
disciplines of education. Comparison is a remarkable method applicable in virtually any
research project in the social sciences, humanities and natural sciences (Neuman
2003:402–404).
8. Motivating and teaching students to conduct research particularly by use of the
comparative method to enrich teacher education programmes.
9. It promotes a philanthropic ideal by nurturing a global citizen, with a creative, critical,
caring predisposition towards humanity.

1.4 Historical Development of Comparative Education.

Historical Background
In the beginning, Comparative Education was predominantly descriptive of educational systems
of each country without necessarily making comparisons. However, the 19th Century witnessed
an increased interest in the study of Comparative Education in its Comparative form.
Serious studies in Comparative Education began in the early 19th century after the Napoleonic
wars. Since the Europeans enjoyed peace among themselves, they considered the study of
comparative education to enhance their interaction and unify the youths of various European
countries. To this end, John Griscom visited Europe and on his return, published his findings on
educational institutions in Great Britain, France, Switzerland, Italy and Holland between 1818
and 1819.

In the same vein, Victor Cousin, a representative of the French Minister of education visited
Prussia in 1931 and also on return home, published his findings on the Prussian educational
institutions and practices. His findings were later translated to English and enhanced the
educational development in France, England as well as in America.

Another pioneer was Horace Mann of America who after a six-month visit to Europe published
his findings in 1843 on educational institutions and practices in England, Scotland, Ireland,
France, Germany as well as Holland. His report was purely on the comparison of the school
organization and methods of instruction.

Matthew Arnold of England visited both France and Germany in 1859 and 1865. He advised that
some useful aspects of the educational systems of France and Germany should be integrated into
England’s.

Sir Michael Sadler in one of his publications; How far can we learn anything of practical value
from the study of Foreign Systems of Education? (1900), went further than other pioneers before
him who were more utilitarian and straight forward in the description of the foreign educational
systems.

Kandel observed that: The chief value of a Comparative approach to educational problems lies in
an analysis of their causes, comparison of the differences between the various systems and the
reasons underlying them and finally, in a study of the solutions attempted. In other words, the
comparative approach demands first an appreciation of spiritual and cultural forces which
underlie an educational system.

In the same vein, Friedrich Schneider, a German speaking and Director of the Institute of
Comparative Education, Salzburg started the editing of the international Review of Education in
four languages in 1930. In his 1947 publication, he gave the factors that can influence the
educational theory and practice of any country as: (a) National character (b) Geographical space
(c) Culture (d) Sciences (e) Philosophy(f) Economic life and politics (g) Religion (h) History (i)
Foreign influences and (j) The development of pedagogies. He applied historical approach to the
problems of education of all the countries he visited.

Sergius Hessen, a Russian Philosopher looked at Comparative Education from a Philosophical

Education perspective. He selected four problems as an educational policy focus: (a) compulsory
education (b) The school and the State (c) The school and the church and (d) The school and
economic life. Hessen was perhaps the first education philosopher to apply philosophical
approach.

The Comparative Education Society, introduced by Brickman, started at a conference in New

York in 1956. This society assists in the publication of journal called "The Comparative
Education Review" and holds national as well as regional conferences and seminars.

In 1961, a similar society was established in London, Europe. Membership was extended to
experts in Comparative or International Education in the tertiary Institutions or the International
organizations. It holds its conferences every two years and publishes the proceedings.

Similar societies have been established in Canada, Korea, Japan as well as Nigeria. The World
congress on the discipline came into being in 1982 for Cooperation among the people involved
in the study of the subject as well as the general development of Comparative Education. Today,
the discipline is one of the subjects being offered in most of the Universities and Colleges of
Education worldwide.

Factors responsible for increased interest in the study of Comparative Education.

Osokoya, P G (1992) gives the following as the factors responsible for increased interest in the
study of Comparative Education.

a) The rise of newly independent states and developing countries who wanted good
educational systems. For instance, the 8-4-4 system in Kenya was borrowed from
Canada.
b) Frequent travels to attend conferences, seminars as well as workshops abroad.
c) The improvement in the modern means of transport and communication.
 d) Scientific and technological achievements in the advanced countries such as Russia and
Sputnik.
e) The socio-economic and political problems facing other countries.
Phases in the Development of Comparative Education
The phases in the historical development of Comparative Education can be divided into three
namely:
a) Descriptive and borrowing stage
b) Predictive stage
c) Scientific stage.
First phase: The educational comparativists involved in this stage include: Marc-Anthony
Jullien de Paris, 1817, Mathew Arnold of England, Victor cousin of France, Leo Tolstoy and
K.D. Aushinsky ofRussia, Domingo Sermiento of Argentina, Horace Mann and Henry Barbard
of America. At the borrowing stage, the education data collected would be compared so as to
make use of the best educational practice of the country studied for the purpose of transplanting
it to other countries.

Second Phase: It occurred in the first half of the 20th century. It’s regarded as a stage of
Prediction because at this stage the educational comparativists were able to predict the likely
success or failure of adopting the educational practices of the country studied by their own
country. The basis of a country's educational practice may not be the same with that of education
comparatives studying the education system of other countries. The educational comparativists
involved in this stage included: Friedrich Schneider and Franz Hilker of Germany, Isaac Kandel
as well as Robert Ulich of America., Nicholas Hans as well as Joseph Lanwerys of England
including Pedro Rosselo of Switzerland. They tried to find out the reasons behind the educational
practices of the country they visited and became more careful in transplanting the educational
practices of another country to their own.

Third Phase: Regarded as the scientific or analytical period, it took place in the second half of
the 20th c. It involved rigorous analysis as well as objectivity in the study of educational
practices of other countries. Before adopting the educational practices of another country, they
have to be subjected to a critical analysis. The comparativists involved in this stage included:
Schneider, Kandel as well as Uich.