MODULE - V
Syllabus
State Variable Analysis of Linear Dynamic Systems: State variables, state equations, state variable representation
of electrical and mechanical systems, dynamic equations, merits for higher order differential equations and
solution.
Transfer function from State Variable Representation, Solutions of the state equations, state transition matrix
Concept of controllability and observability and techniques to test them - Kalman’s Test.
STATE SPACE ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS
The state space model of Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system can be represented as,
Ẋ=AX+BU
Y=CX+DU
The first and the second equations are known as state equation and output equation
respectively.
Where,
X and Ẋ are the state vector and the differential state vector respectively.
U and Y are input vector and output vector respectively.
A is the system matrix.
B and C are the input and the output matrices.
D is the feed-forward matrix.
Basic Concepts of State Space Model
The following basic terminologies are:
State
It is a group of variables, which summarizes the history of the system in order to
predict the future values (outputs).
State Variable
The number of the state variables required is equal to the number of the storage
elements present in the system.
Examples − current flowing through inductor, voltage across capacitor
State Vector
It is a vector, which contains the state variables as elements.
In the earlier chapters, we have discussed two mathematical models of the control
systems. Those are the differential equation model and the transfer function model. The state
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space model can be obtained from any one of these two mathematical models. Let us now
discuss these two methods one by one.
State Space Model from Differential Equation
Consider the following series of the RLC circuit. It is having an input voltage, vi(t)
and the current flowing through the circuit is i(t).
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There are two storage elements (inductor and capacitor) in this circuit. So, the number
of the state variables is equal to two and these state variables are the current flowing through
the inductor, i(t) and the voltage across capacitor, vc(t).
From the circuit, the output voltage, v0(t) is equal to the voltage across capacitor, vc(t).
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State Space Model from Transfer Function
Consider the two types of transfer functions based on the type of terms present in the
numerator.
Transfer function having constant term in Numerator.
Transfer function having polynomial function of ‘s’ in Numerator.
Transfer function having constant term in Numerator
Consider the following transfer function of a system
And u(t)=u
Then,
Here, D = [0]
Example:
Find the state space model for the system having transfer function.
Transfer function having polynomial function of ‘s’ in Numerator
Consider the following transfer function of a system
Rearrange, the above equation as
and u(t)=u
Then, the state equation is
Transfer Function from State Space Model
We know the state space model of a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system is -
Ẋ=AX+BU
Y=CX+DU
Apply Laplace Transform on both sides of the state equation.
s X(s) =A X(s) + B U(s)
⇒ (sI−A) X(s) = B U(s)
⇒ X(s) = (sI−A)−1 B U(s)
Apply Laplace Transform on both sides of the output equation.
Y(s) =C X(s) + D U(s)
Substitute, X(s) value in the above equation.
⇒Y(s) = C ( sI−A)−1 B U(s) + D U(s)
⇒Y(s) = [C (sI−A)−1 B + D] U(s)
⇒Y(s) U(s) = C (sI−A)−1 B + D
The above equation represents the transfer function of the system. So, we can calculate the
transfer function of the system by using this formula for the system represented in the state space
model.
Note − When D = [0], the transfer function will be
Example:
Let us calculate the transfer function of the system represented in the state space model as,
Therefore, the transfer function of the system for the given state space model is
State Transition Matrix and its Properties
If the system is having initial conditions, then it will produce an output. Since, this output
is present even in the absence of input, it is called zero input response xZIR(t). Mathematically,
we can write it as,
From the above relation, we can write the state transition matrix (t) as
So, the zero input response can be obtained by multiplying the state transition matrix
(t) with the initial conditions matrix.
Properties of the state transition matrix
If t=0, then state transition matrix will be equal to an Identity matrix.
(0)=I
Inverse of state transition matrix will be same as that of state transition matrix just by
replacing ‘t’ by ‘-t’.
If t=t1+t2, then the corresponding state transition matrix is equal to the
multiplication of the two state transition matrices at t=t1 and t=t2.
(t1+t2) = 𝛟(t1) 𝛟(t2)
Controllability and Observability
Let us now discuss controllability and observability of control system one by one.
Controllability
A control system is said to be controllable if the initial states of the control system are
transferred (changed) to some other desired states by a controlled input in finite duration of time.
We can check the controllability of a control system by using Kalman’s test.
Write the matrix Qc in the following form.
Find the determinant of matrix Qc and if it is not equal to zero, then the control system is
controllable.
Observability
A control system is said to be observable if it is able to determine the initial states of the
control system by observing the outputs in finite duration of time.
We can check the observability of a control system by using Kalman’s test.
Write the matrix Qo in following form.
Find the determinant of matrix Qo and if it is not equal to zero, then the control system is
observable.
Example:
Let us verify the controllability and observability of a control system which is represented in the
state space model as,
Since the determinant of matrix Qc is not equal to zero, the given control system is controllable.
For n=2, the matrix Qo will be –
Since, the determinant of matrix Qo is not equal to zero, the given control system is observable.
Therefore, the given control system is both controllable and observable.