Module – 1

1.2
Biomolecules:-

Biomolecules are the most essential organic molecules, which are involved in the
maintenance and metabolic processes of living organisms. These non-living molecules
are the actual foot-soldiers of the battle of sustenance of life. They range from small
molecules such as primary and secondary metabolites and hormones to large
macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids etc.

Types of Biomolecules
There are four major classes of Biomolecules

1. Carbohydrates,
2. Proteins,
3. Nucleic acids and
4. Lipids.

Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates are macronutrients and are one of the three main ways by which our
body obtains its energy. They are called carbohydrates as they
comprise carbon, hydrogen and oxygen at their chemical level. Carbohydrates are
essential nutrients which include sugars, fibers and starches. They are found in
grains, vegetables, fruits and in milk and other dairy products. They are the basic
food groups which play an important role in a healthy life.
• The food containing carbohydrates are converted into glucose or blood sugar during
the process of digestion by the digestive system
• Our body utilizes this sugar as a source of energy for the cells, organs and tissues.
The extra amount of energy or sugar is stored in our muscles and liver for further
requirement. The term ‘carbohydrate’ is derived from a French term ‘hydrate de
carbone‘ meaning ‘hydrate of carbon‘. The general formula of this class of organic
compounds is Cn(H2O)n.
 Classification of Carbohydrates

1. Simple Carbohydrates: Simple carbohydrates are broken down quickly by the

body to be used as energy. Simple carbohydrates are found naturally in foods such
as fruits, milk, and milk products. They are also found in processed and refined
sugars such as candy, table sugar, syrups, and soft drinks.
2. Complex Carbohydrates: Complex carbohydrates represent an important energy
source for your body. They provide the sustained fuel your body needs for
exercise, daily living activities and even rest.
• The different types of carbohydrates can be classified based on their behavior in
hydrolysis. They are mainly classified into three groups:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Polysaccharides
[Link]
Glucose is an example of a carbohydrate monomer or monosaccharide. Other examples
of monosaccharides include mannose, galactose, fructose, etc. The structural
organization of monosaccharides is as follows:

Monosaccharides may be further classified depending on the number of carbon atoms:

(i)Trioses (C3H6O3): These have three carbon atoms per molecule. Example:
Glyceraldehyde
(ii)Tetroses (C4H6O4): These monosaccharides have four carbon atoms per molecule.
Example: Erythrose.
Similarly, we have-
(iii) Pentoses,
(iv) Hexoses, and
(v) Heptoses

2. Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides combine to form a disaccharide. Examples of carbohydrates
having two monomers include- Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose, etc.
3. Oligosaccharides

• Carbohydrates formed by the condensation of 2-9 monomers are called

oligosaccharides. By this convention, trioses, pentoses, hexoses are all
oligosaccharides.
• Complex Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)
• Complex carbohydrates have two or more sugar molecules; hence they are
referred to as starchy foods. In complex carbohydrates, molecules are digested
and converted slowly compared to simple carbohydrates. They are abundantly
found in lentils, beans, peanuts, potatoes, peas, corn, whole-grain bread, cereals,
etc.
• Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates formed by the polymerization of a
large number of monomers. Examples of polysaccharides include starch,
glycogen, cellulose, etc. which exhibit extensive branching and are
homopolymers – made up of only glucose units.
 Functions of Carbohydrates
• The main function of carbohydrates is to provide energy and food to the body
and to the nervous system
• Carbohydrates are known as one of the basic components of food, including
sugars, starch, and fibre which are abundantly found in grains, fruits and milk
products.
• Carbohydrates are also known as starch, simple sugars, complex carbohydrates
and so on.
• It is also involved in fat metabolism and prevents ketosis.
• Inhibits the breakdown of proteins for energy as they are the primary source of
energy.
• An enzyme by name amylase assists in the breakdown of starch into glucose,
finally to produce energy for metabolism.
• Sources of Carbohydrates
• Simple sugars are found in the form of fructose in many fruits.
 • Galactose is present in all dairy products.
• Lactose is abundantly found in milk and other dairy products.
• Maltose is present in cereal, beer, potatoes, processed cheese, pasta, etc.
• Sucrose is naturally obtained from sugar and honey containing small amounts
of vitamins and minerals.

NUCLEIC ACID
Every generation of every species resembles its ancestors in many ways. How are these
characteristics transmitted from one generation to the next? It has been observed that
the nucleus of a living cell is responsible for this transmission of inherent characteristics,
also called heredity. The particles in the nucleus of the cell, responsible for heredity, are
called chromosomes which are made up of proteins and another type of biomolecules
called nucleic acids.
These are mainly of two types
1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Since nucleic acids are long-chain polymers of nucleotides, they are also called
polynucleotides.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Chemically, DNA is composed of a pentose sugar, phosphoric acid and some cyclic
bases containing nitrogen. The sugar moiety present in DNA molecules is β-D-2-
deoxyribose. The cyclic bases that have nitrogen in them are adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine(C) and thymine (T). These bases and their arrangement in the molecules of
DNA play an important role in the storage of information from one generation to the next
one. DNA has a double-strand helical structure in which the strands are complementary
to each other.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

The RNA molecule is also composed of phosphoric acid, a pentose sugar and some
cyclic bases containing nitrogen. RNA has β-D-ribose in it as the sugar moiety. The
heterocyclic bases present in RNA are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine(C) and uracil
(U). In RNA the fourth base is different from that of DNA. The RNA generally consists
of a single strand which sometimes folds back; that results in a double helix structure.
There are three types of RNA molecules, each having a specific function:
1. messenger RNA (m-RNA)
2. ribosomal RNA (r-RNA)
3. transfer RNA (t-RNA)
PROTEIN

Proteins are complex biological molecules composed of amino acids. They are
polypeptide structures made up of long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins are one
of the most abundant organic molecules that perform diverse functions in living
organisms. They act as structural components, catalysts, hormones, enzymes, and
regulators of cellular processes. Proteins are also involved in DNA replication, molecule
transport, catalyzing metabolic reactions, and providing structural support to cells.

Protein Structure

In general, they are two types of protein molecules fibrous proteins and globular proteins.
Fibrous proteins are insoluble and elongated. Globular proteins are soluble and compact.
Fibrous and Globular proteins may comprise one or four types of protein structures and
they include primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure.
Primary Structure: It is a specific sequence of amino acids. The order of amino acids
bonded together is detected by information stored in genes.
Secondary Structure: It is a three-dimensional form of a local segment of proteins.
They are formed by hydrogen bonds between the atoms along the backbone of the
polypeptide chain.
Tertiary Structure: It is determined by R-groups. It is a three-dimensional shape of a
protein. Many numbers of tertiary structure fold to form Quaternary Structure.
Quaternary Structure: It is the arrangement of multiple folded protein subunits in a
multi-subunit complex.

Protein Synthesis
Protein synthesis takes place through a process called translation. This process occurs in
the cytoplasm. It involves the rendering of genetic codes. Ribosomes of a cell help in
translating genetic codes into a polypeptide chain. These polypeptide chains become
functioning proteins only after undergoing certain modifications.

Functions of Proteins
Enzymes: Enzymes mostly carry out all numerous chemical reactions which take place
within a cell. They also help in regenerating and creating DNA molecules and carry out
complex processes.
Hormones: Proteins are involved in the creation of various types of hormones which
help in balancing the components of the body. For example hormones like insulin, which
helps in regulating blood sugar and secretin. It is also involved in the digestion process
and formation of digestive juices.
Antibody: Antibody also known as an immunoglobulin. It is a type of protein which is
majorly used by the immune system to repair and heal the body from foreign bacteria.
They often work together with other immune cells to identify and separate the antigens
from increasing until the white blood cells destroy them completely.
Energy: Proteins are the major source of energy that helps in the movements of our
body. It is important to have the right amount of protein in order to convert it into energy.
Protein, when consumed in excess amounts, gets used to create fat and becomes part of
the fat cells.

LIPIDS
These organic compounds are nonpolar molecules, which are soluble only in nonpolar
solvents and insoluble in water because water is a polar molecule. In the human body,
these molecules can be synthesized in the liver and are found in oil, butter, whole milk,
cheese, fried foods and also in some red meats.
Let us have a detailed look at the lipid structure, properties, types and classification of
lipids.

Properties of Lipids
• Lipids are a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils. These molecules
yield high energy and are responsible for different functions within the human body.
Listed below are some important characteristics of Lipids.
• Lipids are oily or greasy nonpolar molecules, stored in the adipose tissue of the body.
• Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds, mainly composed of hydrocarbon
chains.
• Lipids are energy-rich organic molecules, which provide energy for different life
processes.
• Lipids are a class of compounds characterised by their solubility in nonpolar solvents
and insolubility in water.
• Lipids are significant in biological systems as they form a mechanical barrier dividing
a cell from the external environment known as the cell membrane.
• Lipid Structure
• Lipids are the polymers of fatty acids that contain a long, non-polar hydrocarbon chain
with a small polar region containing oxygen. The lipid structure is explained in the
diagram below:

Lipid Structure – Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Classification of Lipids
Lipids can be classified into two main classes:
 • Nonsaponifiable lipids
• Saponifiable lipids

Nonsaponifiable Lipids
A no saponifiable lipid cannot be disintegrated into smaller molecules through
hydrolysis. Nonsaponifiable lipids include cholesterol, prostaglandins, etc.

Saponifiable Lipids
A saponifiable lipid comprises one or more ester groups, enabling it to undergo
hydrolysis in the presence of a base, acid, or enzymes including waxes,
triglycerides, sphingolipids and phospholipids.
Further, these categories can be divided into
Nonpolar: Nonpolar lipids, namely triglycerides, are utilized as fuel and to store
energy.

Polar lipids: Polar lipids, that could form a barrier with an external water
environment, are utilized in membranes. Polar lipids comprise sphingolipids and
glycerophospholipids.

Types of Lipids
Within these two major classes of lipids, there are numerous specific types of lipids,
which are important to life, including fatty acids, triglycerides, glycerophospholipids,
sphingolipids and steroids. These are broadly classified as simple lipids and complex
lipids.
Simple Lipids
Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.
Fats: Esters of fatty acids with glycerol. Oils are fats in the liquid state
Waxes: Esters of fatty acids with higher molecular weight monohydric alcohols
Complex Lipids
Esters of fatty acids containing groups in addition to alcohol and fatty acid.
Phospholipids: These are lipids containing, in addition to fatty acids and alcohol,
phosphate group. They frequently have nitrogen-containing bases and other
substituents, eg, in glycerophospholipids the alcohol is glycerol and in
sphingophospholipids the alcohol is sphingosine.
Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids): Lipids containing a fatty acid, sphingosine and
carbohydrate.
Other complex lipids: Lipids such as sulfolipids and amino lipids. Lipoproteins may
also be placed in this category.
Precursor and Derived Lipids
These include fatty acids, glycerol, steroids, other alcohols, fatty aldehydes, and
ketone bodies, hydrocarbons, lipid-soluble vitamins, and hormones. Because they are
uncharged, acylglycerols (glycerides), cholesterol, and cholesteryl esters are termed
neutral lipids. These compounds are produced by the hydrolysis of simple and
complex lipids.
Some of the different types of lipids are described below in detail.
Fatty Acids
Fatty acids are carboxylic acids (or organic acid), usually with long aliphatic tails
(long chains), either unsaturated or saturated.
Saturated fatty acids
Lack of carbon-carbon double bonds indicate that the fatty acid is saturated. The
saturated fatty acids have higher melting points compared to unsaturated acids of the
corresponding size due to their ability to pack their molecules together thus leading
to a straight rod-like shape.
Unsaturated fatty acids
Unsaturated fatty acid is indicated when a fatty acid has more than one double bond.
“Often, naturally occurring fatty acids possesses an even number of carbon atoms and
are unbranched.”
 On the other hand, unsaturated fatty acids contain a cis-double bond(s) which
create a structural kink that disables them to group their molecules in straight
rod-like shape.

Role of Fats
Fats play several major roles in our body. Some of the important roles of fats are
mentioned below:
Fats in the correct amounts are necessary for the proper functioning of our body.
Many fat-soluble vitamins need to be associated with fats in order to be effectively
absorbed by the body.
They also provide insulation to the body.
They are an efficient way to store energy for longer periods.

Examples of Lipids
There are different types of lipids. Some examples of lipids include butter, ghee,
vegetable oil, cheese, cholesterol and other steroids, waxes, phospholipids, and fat-
soluble vitamins. All these compounds have similar features, i.e. insoluble in water
and soluble in organic solvents, etc.
Waxes
Waxes are “esters” (an organic compound made by replacing the hydrogen with acid
by an alkyl or another organic group) formed from long-alcohols and long-chain
carboxylic acids.
Waxes are found almost everywhere. The fruits and leaves of many plants possess
waxy coatings, that can safeguard them from small predators and dehydration.
Fur of a few animals and the feathers of birds possess the same coatings serving as
water repellants.
Carnauba wax is known for its water resistance and toughness (significant for car
wax).
Phospholipids

• Membranes are primarily composed of phospholipids that are

Phosphoacylglycerols.
• Triacylglycerols and phosphoacylglycerols are the same, but, the terminal OH group
of the phosphoacylglycerol is esterified with phosphoric acid in place of fatty acid
which results in the formation of phosphatidic acid.
• The name phospholipid is derived from the fact that phosphoacylglycerols are lipids
containing a phosphate group.
• Steroids
• Our bodies possess chemical messengers known as hormones which are basically
organic compounds synthesized in glands and transported by the bloodstream to
various tissues in order to trigger or hinder the desired process.
• Steroids are a kind of hormone that is typically recognized by their tetracyclic
skeleton, composed of three fused six-membered and one five-membered ring, as
seen above. The four rings are assigned as A, B, C & D as observed in the shade
blue, while the numbers in red indicate the carbons.

Cholesterol
• Cholesterol is a wax-like substance, found only in animal source
foods. Triglycerides, LDL, HDL, VLDL are different types of cholesterol
 found in the blood cells.
• Cholesterol is an important lipid found in the cell membrane. It is a sterol, which
means that cholesterol is a combination of steroid and alcohol. In the human
body, cholesterol is synthesized in the liver.
• These compounds are biosynthesized by all living cells and are essential for the
structural component of the cell membrane.
• In the cell membrane, the steroid ring structure of cholesterol provides a rigid
hydrophobic structure that helps boost the rigidity of the cell membrane.
Without cholesterol, the cell membrane would be too fluid.
• It is an important component of cell membranes and is also the basis for the
synthesis of other steroids, including the sex hormones estradiol and
testosterone, as well as other steroids such as cortisone and vitamin D.

Importance of special biomolecules

Special biomolecules are the building blocks and functional workhorses of life itself.
They are essential for everything a living organism does, from growth and repair to
storing energy and carrying out complex chemical reactions. Here's why they are so
important:
1. Building Blocks of Life:
Carbohydrates: Provide energy and structure for cells, like glucose for cellular
respiration and cellulose for plant cell walls.
Proteins: Act as the workhorses of cells, with countless functions like enzymes
(catalysing reactions), antibodies (fighting infection), and structural components like
collagen in bones.
Lipids: Store energy (fats), form cell membranes, and act as hormones and signaling
molecules.
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA store and transmit genetic information, the blueprint
 for life.
2. Functional Roles:
Enzymes: Special proteins that speed up chemical reactions in cells, essential
for metabolism and all cellular processes.
Energy Storage and Transfer: Carbohydrates (sugars) and lipids (fats) provide
energy for cells and organisms.
Signaling and Communication: Hormones and other signaling molecules, often
proteins or lipids, coordinate functions between different parts of an organism.
Genetic Information Storage and Transfer: DNA stores genetic information and
RNA carries instructions for protein synthesis, vital for reproduction and
inheritance of traits.

Properties and functions of enzymes, vitamins and hormones

Enzymes
An enzyme is a protein biomolecule that acts as a biocatalyst by regulating the
rate of various metabolic reactions without itself being altered in the process.
• The name ‘enzyme’ literally means ‘in yeast’, and this was referred to denote
one of the most important reactions involved in the production of ethyl alcohol
and carbon dioxide through the agency of an enzyme zymase, present in yeast.
• Enzymes are biological catalysts that catalyze more than 5000 different
biochemical reactions taking place in all living organisms.
• However, these are different from other catalysts which are chemical and can
last indefinitely. Enzymes are proteins that are prone to damage and
inactivation.
• Enzymes are also highly specific and usually act on a specific substrate of
specific reactions.

Properties of enzymes:
• Specificity: Enzymes are incredibly specific. Each enzyme has a unique shape
that fits only with a particular molecule called its substrate, like a lock and key.
This ensures only the intended reaction occurs.
• Catalysis: Enzymes speed up chemical reactions in cells by lowering the
activation energy, the energy required to get the reaction going. This allows
reactions to happen much faster than they would without enzymes, making life
processes efficient.
• Regulation: Enzyme activity is often regulated to meet the needs of the cell.
This can involve factors like substrate concentration, product concentration, and
the presence of regulatory molecules.

Functions of Enzymes:
• Metabolic Reactions: Enzymes are essential for all metabolic pathways in cells.
They break down large molecules into smaller ones for energy production
(cellular respiration) and build complex molecules from simpler ones
(biosynthesis).
• Cellular Processes: They play a role in various cellular processes like signal
transduction, replication, and transport by facilitating specific chemical
reactions at each step.
• Digestion: Enzymes break down food molecules in the digestive system into
components the body can absorb.
• Blood Clotting and Immunity: Enzymes are involved in blood clotting to
prevent excessive bleeding and in immune responses to fight pathogens.
• Additional Factors Affecting Enzymes:
• Temperature: Enzymes have an optimal temperature range for function. Very
high or low temperatures can denature (inactivate) them.
• pH: Enzymes also have a preferred pH level for activity. Large deviations from
this can alter their shape and hinder function.
 VITAMINS

Vitamins are essential organic compounds required in small quantities for various
biological functions.
They play a major role in growth, development, immune function, and overall health.
Our bodies cannot synthesize vitamins, so we must obtain them from our diet or
supplements.

Types of Vitamins:
Fat-Soluble Vitamins:
Stored in adipose tissues.
Includes vitamins A, D, E, and K.
Functions:
Vitamin A: Essential for vision and immune function.
Vitamin D: Regulates calcium metabolism and bone health.
Vitamin E: An antioxidant that protects cell membranes
 Vitamin K: Important for blood clotting.

Water-Soluble Vitamins:
Not stored in the body; excreted through urine.
Includes B-group vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B6, B12) and vitamin C.
Functions:
B Vitamins: Enzyme cofactors, energy production, and nervous system health.
Vitamin C: Antioxidant, collagen synthesis, and immune support.
HORMONES
Hormones are chemical messengers synthesized and produced by specialized glands in
the body.
These glands, known as endocrine glands, release hormones directly into the
bloodstream.
Hormones control and regulate the activity of certain cells and organs.
They play a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and coordinating various
physiological functions.

Types of Hormones:
• Peptide Hormones: Composed of amino acids and soluble in water.
• Examples: Insulin (produced by the pancreas). Cannot pass through cell membranes
due to the phospholipid bilayer.
• Steroid Hormones:
• Fat-soluble and can pass through cell membranes.
• Examples: Testosterone, estrogen, progesterone.
• Regulate various processes, including growth, metabolism, and sexual function.
• Functions of Hormones:
• Metabolism: Hormones influence energy use, storage, and metabolic rate.
• Homeostasis: Maintain internal balance (e.g., blood pressure, blood sugar,
electrolyte levels).
 • Growth and Development: Hormones play a role in growth, tissue repair, and
development.
• Reproduction: Control sexual function and reproductive processes.
• Mood and Sleep: Hormones affect mood and sleep-wake cycles.

Hormones other than Sex Hormones

The pituitary gland’s hormones stimulate the testes and ovaries to produce their own
hormones. The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland located near the brain. Other
endocrine glands in the body include the thyroid, pancreas, and adrenal glands.

Pituitary Glands – Growth Hormones

The master gland is the pituitary gland. Other glands in the body are controlled and
regulated by it. Growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, LH, FSH, and other
hormones are released by this gland.
Located at the base of our brain, the hypophysis, also known as the pituitary gland, is
a pea-sized endocrine gland. It is known as the “Master Gland” because it produces
 many important hormones in the body.
It is located in the Pituitary fossa, a bony structure just below the hypothalamus and
close to the optic nerve. The pituitary gland is divided into three sections, known as
lobes:
• Anterior pituitary gland
• Pituitary intermediate (Absent in adult human beings)
• Posterior pituitary gland
The anterior pituitary gland produces and secretes the following six hormones:
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH or corticotropin).
• FSH (follicle stimulating hormone).
• The hormone of growth (GH).
• Luteinizing hormone (LH).
• Prolactin.
• TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone).

Pancreas – Insulin
• The pancreas can be found in the abdomen. It is located between the stomach
and the spine in part. The other part is located in the duodenum, which is the
first section of the small intestine.
• The pancreas head is located on the right side of the abdomen and is connected
to the duodenum via the pancreatic duct. The pancreas’ tail protrudes to the
body’s left side.
• The pancreas is an abdominal organ that is located behind the stomach and is
surrounded by the spleen, liver, and small intestine. It is an essential
component of the digestive system that regulates blood sugar levels.
• Amylase, proteases, and lipases are a few of the digestive enzymes that
 the pancreas juices secret into the duodenum.
• These enzymes aid in the digestion of sugar, proteins, and fat. The Langerhans
Islets are located in the pancreas and secrete hormones such as insulin and
glucagon into the blood.
• Endocrine and exocrine glands together make up the pancreas. As a result, the
Pancreas is also referred to as a mixed gland.
• The pancreas secretes hormones such as glucagon and insulin, which balance
the body’s blood sugar levels. Somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide are
two other hormones secreted.

Adrenal Glands –
Adrenaline
• The adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla are two regions of the adrenal gland.
• Cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens are secreted by the cortex region of the
adrenal gland, while adrenaline and noradrenaline are secreted by the medulla
region. Adrenaline is the hormone that causes the body’s fight or flight
response in times of emergency.
• The inferior vena cava and the right lobe of the liver are located on the anterior
side of the right adrenal gland.
• The posterior side is flanked by the right diaphragm crus. The stomach,
pancreas, and spleen are located on the left adrenal gland’s anterior side. The
posterior side is flanked by the left diaphragm crus.
• The adrenal glands produce the following hormones:
• Cortisol.
• Aldosterone.
• Androgens and DHEA
• Adrenaline (epinephrine).
• Noradrenaline (norepinephrine).
Thyroid Glands
Thyroxine
An endocrine gland without ducts, the thyroid is situated at the front of the neck. It
roughly resembles a butterfly in shape.
It is also one of the largest endocrine glands, weighing between 25 and 30 g on average.
This gland has two lobes, one on each side of the trachea, each measuring 4 – 6 cm
long and 1.3 – 1.8 cm wide.
The thyroid gland is located between the C5 and T1 vertebrae in the anterior neck. It is
made up of two lobes with parathyroid glands on their posterior surfaces.
The thyroid gland’s primary function is to secrete two hormones: triiodothyronine (T3)
hormone and thyroxine hormone (T4). T3 and T4 hormones both play critical roles in
the body, affecting nearly every tissue.

Properties of Hormones
• Because of their low molecular weight, they can easily pass through
capillaries.
• Because they are water-soluble, they can be transported through the blood.
• Hormones always have a low concentration of action. Hormones are important
because they are non-antigenic.
• They function as organic catalysts. In the human body, hormones serve as
coenzymes for other enzymes.
• Hormones are notable for their ability to be destroyed, excreted, or inactivated
after their function has been completed.
• Hormones cause a limited number of reactions in their initial action and do not
 directly influence any metabolic activities of a cell.
• Hormonal activity is not inherited.