Remote Sensing- Basic principles of remote sensing energy

sources and radiation principles, atmospheric absorption, interaction

of -photo interpretation, multispectral remote sensing in visible,
infrared, thermal IR and microwave regions, digital processing of
satellite images. GIS basic concepts, raster and vector mode
operations.

Basic Principles of Remote Sensing

Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information

about an object, area, or phenomenon without being in
direct contact with it.
It mainly involves recording and analyzing reflected
or emitted electromagnetic radiation (EMR).
Steps in Remote Sensing Process
1. Energy Source (Sun or Artificial Source):
Provides electromagnetic energy.
2. Radiation and Atmosphere Interaction: Energy
travels through the atmosphere, where some is
scattered or absorbed.
3. Interaction with Earth’s Surface: Energy
interacts with surface features (reflection,
absorption, transmission).
4. Recording by Sensor: Sensor (on satellite or
aircraft) detects and measures the radiation.
5. Transmission and Reception: Data transmitted to
ground stations.
6. Processing and Analysis: Data converted into
images, interpreted to extract useful information.
Energy Sources in Remote Sensing
1. Natural Source:
o Sun – major source for optical remote sensing (visible,
infrared, and reflected IR regions).
o Example: Landsat, Sentinel, IRS satellites.
2. Artificial Source:
o Man-made energy such as microwave radar signals.
o Used in active remote sensing systems (e.g., RADAR,
LiDAR).
o Advantage: Can operate day and night and through cloud
cover.

Type Energy Source Example Feature

Records reflected/emitted
Passive Sun (Natural) Landsat, IRS
energy
Own energy RADAR, Emits and measures its own
Active
(Artificial) LiDAR signal

Radiation Principles
Remote sensing depends on the behavior of electromagnetic
radiation (EMR).

1. Electromagnetic Spectrum

 Range of wavelengths/frequencies of EMR.

 Common regions used:
o Visible (0.4–0.7 µm) – True color imaging
o Infrared (0.7–14 µm) – Thermal and vegetation studies
o Microwave (1 mm – 1 m) – Radar imaging
 Law Expression Importance
( M_\lambda = c_1 / Defines EMR emitted
Planck’s Law (\lambda^5 by a blackbody at
[e^{(c_2/\lambda T)} - 1]) ) temperature T
Wien’s
( \lambda_{max} T = 2898 , Hotter bodies emit at
Displacement
\mu m·K ) shorter wavelengths
Law
Total emitted energy
Stefan–
( M = \sigma T^4 ) ∝ fourth power of
Boltzmann Law
temperature

Key Exam Points

 Remote sensing = measurement of EMR reflected/emitted from
Earth’s surface.
 Passive → uses solar radiation; Active → uses its own source.
 Atmospheric effects: scattering (Rayleigh, Mie, Non-selective)
and absorption influence signal.
  Reflection characteristics help in land use, vegetation, soil, and
water studies.
 Key radiation laws (Planck, Wien, Stefan–Boltzmann) describe
energy–temperature–wavelength relations.

RADAR → Radio Detection And Ranging

RADAR → uses radio waves
LiDAR → Light Detection And Ranging
LiDAR → uses laser light
Atmospheric Absorption (in Remote Sensing)
Definition

Atmospheric absorption is the process by which certain gases in the

atmosphere absorb specific wavelengths of electromagnetic
radiation (EMR) as it travels from the source (Sun or sensor) to the
Earth’s surface and back.

This absorption reduces the intensity of radiation reaching the

sensor and affects remote sensing data quality.
Gas Major Absorbed Wavelength Regions Remarks
Protects Earth from harmful
Ozone (O₃) Ultraviolet (UV) region (0.2 – 0.3 µm)
UV radiation
Water vapour Infrared region (0.94 µm, 1.14 µm, 1.38 Strong absorber of IR and
(H₂O) µm, 1.9 µm, >7 µm) microwave energy
Carbon dioxide
Around 4.3 µm and 15 µm Major absorber in thermal IR
(CO₂)
Oxygen (O₂) Around 0.76 µm Minor absorption band

Atmospheric Windows

 Definition:
Wavelength regions where the atmosphere transmits EMR
effectively (little absorption).
 These windows are crucial for remote sensing because sensors
are designed to operate in them.
  Important windows:
o Visible region: 0.4–0.7 µm
o Near-Infrared (NIR): 0.7–1.3 µm
o Thermal Infrared: 8–14 µm
o Microwave: 1 mm – 1 m

Effects of Absorption

 Reduces signal strength reaching the sensor.

 Causes data distortion or energy loss in absorbed bands.
 Limits usable spectral regions for remote sensing.

�Minimizing Absorption Effects

 Select sensors that operate in atmospheric windows.

 Use radiometric corrections during image processing.
 Perform calibration using ground or atmospheric data.

Key Points for Exam

 Atmospheric absorption depends mainly on H₂O, CO₂, O₃, and

O₂.
 It is wavelength-specific — not all radiation is equally
absorbed.
 Atmospheric windows are vital for successful remote sensing.
 Most optical sensors work in visible, NIR, and thermal IR
windows.

Interaction of Radiation with Earth’s Surface

(and Photo Interpretation)
Remote sensing depends on how electromagnetic radiation (EMR)
interacts with various surface materials (soil, vegetation, water,
rocks, etc.).
This interaction determines the reflected, absorbed, or transmitted
energy, which is then recorded by sensors for photo interpretation.
Types of Interaction

When EMR strikes a surface, three things can happen:

ρ+α+τ=1\rho + \alpha + \tau = 1ρ+α+τ=1

where

 ρ (rho) → Reflectance
 α (alpha) → Absorptance
 τ (tau) → Transmittance

� The proportions depend on the surface properties and wavelength

of radiation.
Type of
Description Example
Reflection
Specular Calm water, polished
Mirror-like reflection; occurs on smooth surfaces
Reflection metal
Diffuse Scattered reflection in many directions; occurs on
Soil, vegetation
Reflection rough surfaces
Mixed Reflection Combination of both types Rough water surface

Spectral Signature

 Every object reflects and absorbs EMR in a unique way across

wavelengths.
 This unique pattern is called its spectral signature.
 Sensors use these signatures to identify and classify surface
features.

Examples:

 Vegetation: High reflectance in Near Infrared (NIR), low in

visible red (due to chlorophyll).
 Water: Absorbs most IR and NIR; appears dark.
 Soil: Moderate reflectance in all visible and NIR bands,
depending on moisture and texture.

Photo Interpretation
Definition

Photo interpretation is the process of visually examining aerial

photographs or satellite images to identify objects and assess their
significance
Element Meaning Example
Water appears dark; vegetation is
Tone / Color Brightness or color of features
green
Texture Smoothness or roughness of an area Forest = rough; farmland = smooth
Shape Geometric form of feature Circular tank, rectangular field
Size Relative or absolute dimension Large vs. small plots
Pattern Spatial arrangement Urban grids, crop rows
Shadow Helps determine height and shape Building, trees
Site / Location and relation with nearby
River–floodplain, road–settlement
Association features

Application in Remote Sensing

 Land use / land cover mapping

 Geomorphological and geological mapping
 Agricultural and forestry studies
 Urban planning and environmental monitoring

Key Exam Points

 Interaction of EMR with surface decides the reflectance

pattern (spectral signature).
 Specular vs. diffuse reflection determines image brightness.
 Photo interpretation elements help in identifying and
classifying features visually.
 Integration of spectral + visual analysis gives reliable remote
sensing results.

Multispectral Remote Sensing in Visible Region

�⃣ Definition

Multispectral remote sensing involves capturing data in multiple

specific wavelength bands of the electromagnetic spectrum
(commonly 3–10 bands).
In the visible region (0.4–0.7 µm), sensors record reflected sunlight
from Earth’s surface.

Color Wavelength Range

Commonly Used For
Band (µm)
Water bodies, coastal studies, soil, vegetation in early
Blue 0.45 – 0.52
growth
Green 0.52 – 0.60 Vegetation vigor, forest health, turbidity of water
Vegetation discrimination (chlorophyll absorption), soil
Red 0.63 – 0.69
mapping

Principle

 Sunlight in visible bands is reflected by surface features and

recorded by satellite sensors.
 Each feature reflects differently → produces a distinct spectral
signature.
 This helps in visual color composite image formation (e.g.,
True Color Image using RGB).
Type Description Example Use
True Color Composite Uses Blue (B), Green (G), Red
Closest to human eye view
(Natural Color) (R) bands as-is
False Color Replaces RGB with other band Vegetation appears red; used for
Composite (FCC) combinations (e.g., NIR–R–G) vegetation and land use mapping

Applications in Visible Region

 Land use / land cover mapping

 Soil and barren land identification
 Water body detection and quality assessment
 Urban and infrastructure mapping
 Vegetation discrimination (using Red band)
Satellite Visible Bands Used
Landsat-8/9 (OLI) Bands 2 (Blue), 3 (Green), 4 (Red)
Sentinel-2 MSI Bands 2 (Blue), 3 (Green), 4 (Red)
IRS LISS-III Bands in 0.52–0.69 µm range
Key Exam Points

 Visible region → 0.4–0.7 µm.

 Sun is the primary energy source (passive remote sensing).
 Objects differ in reflectance → helps in classification.
 Red band is important for vegetation health detection.
 True and False Color Composites (FCC) enhance
interpretation ability

Multispectral Remote Sensing in Infrared (IR) Region

�⃣ Definition

Infrared (IR) remote sensing involves the detection and

measurement of infrared radiation reflected or emitted from the
Earth’s surface.
It covers the wavelength region beyond visible light —
approximately 0.7 µm to 14 µm.
Wavelength Range
IR Region Type of Energy Major Use
(µm)
Reflected solar Vegetation, soil, water
Near Infrared (NIR) 0.7 – 1.3
radiation mapping
Shortwave Infrared Reflected solar Soil and mineral studies,
1.3 – 3.0
(SWIR) radiation moisture content
Thermal Infrared Emitted radiation Surface temperature and heat
3.0 – 14.0
(TIR) (heat) mapping

Principle

 In NIR and SWIR, the Sun is the energy source (passive

reflected energy).
 In TIR, the Earth’s surface emits its own radiation according
to temperature (Stefan–Boltzmann Law).
 The sensor records differences in reflectance or temperature
→ converted into images for interpretation.
Feature NIR Response SWIR/TIR Response
High reflectance (healthy leaves Low reflectance in SWIR (absorbed
Vegetation
strongly reflect NIR) by water in leaves)
Water Strong absorber (appears dark) Emits depending on temperature
 Feature NIR Response SWIR/TIR Response
Reflectance varies with moisture
Soil/Rocks Moderate reflectance
and composition
IR Type Common Applications
NIR Vegetation health (NDVI), biomass estimation
SWIR Soil moisture, rock and mineral identification
Land surface temperature, thermal pollution,
TIR
geothermal and volcanic studies
Satellite Infrared Bands
Landsat-8/9 (OLI NIR (Band 5), SWIR (Bands 6–7), TIR (Bands 10–
& TIRS) 11)
Sentinel-2 MSI NIR (Band 8), SWIR (Bands 11–12)
NOAA AVHRR Thermal IR channels for temperature monitoring

Key Exam Points

 Infrared region = 0.7–14 µm (beyond visible).

 NIR → vegetation studies, SWIR → moisture & minerals,
TIR → temperature mapping.
 Sun is the source for reflected IR (NIR/SWIR); Earth emits
radiation in TIR.
 Healthy vegetation strongly reflects in NIR and absorbs in red
→ basis of NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index).
 Thermal IR follows Planck’s and Stefan–Boltzmann Laws.

Multispectral Remote Sensing in the Thermal Infrared

(TIR) and Microwave Regions
Thermal Infrared (TIR) Region
a) Wavelength Range

 Thermal IR: 3 µm – 14 µm
(Main atmospheric window used: 8–14 µm)

b) Nature of Energy

 Unlike visible or NIR regions, TIR sensing detects emitted

radiation (not reflected sunlight).
  Every object with temperature above 0 K emits electromagnetic
radiation according to its temperature (Stefan–Boltzmann
Law).

c) Principle

 Emitted energy (M) ∝ T⁴ (Stefan–Boltzmann Law).

 Wien’s Law: λmaxT=2898 μm⋅K\lambda_{max} T = 2898 \,
\mu m·KλmaxT=2898μm⋅K → Hotter objects emit at shorter
wavelengths.
 Sensors measure this emitted radiation to determine surface
temperature and thermal properties.

d) Applications of Thermal IR Remote Sensing

 Land Surface Temperature (LST) mapping

 Volcanic activity and geothermal studies
 Urban heat island detection
 Forest fire detection and monitoring
 Thermal pollution assessment
 Soil moisture and evapotranspiration studies
Satellite Thermal Bands
Landsat-8/9 (TIRS) Bands 10 & 11 (10.6–12 µm)
NOAA AVHRR 10.3–11.3 µm and 11.5–12.5 µm
ASTER (Terra) 5 Thermal bands (8.125–11.65 µm)

Key Points for Exam

 Thermal IR = emitted radiation, not reflected.

 Energy–temperature relation governed by Stefan–Boltzmann
& Wien’s Laws.
 Used for temperature and heat anomaly studies.
 Atmospheric window for TIR = 8–14 µm.

Microwave Region
a) Wavelength Range
  Microwave region: 1 mm – 1 m (0.001–100 cm)
Corresponds to frequency range 300 MHz – 300 GHz.

Nature of Remote Sensing

Microwave remote sensing is mainly of two types:

Type Energy Source Example
Passive Natural microwave emission from objects Microwave Radiometers
Sensor transmits its own microwave pulses and RADAR (Radio Detection and
Active
records the backscatter Ranging)

Advantages

 Can penetrate clouds, haze, and rain.

 Works day and night (independent of sunlight).
 Can even penetrate soil and vegetation to some depth.

d) Interaction with Surface

Microwave backscatter depends on:

 Surface roughness (rough surfaces → strong return).

 Moisture content (wet soil → strong reflection).
 Incidence angle and polarization.
Applications

 Weather and rainfall estimation (e.g., TRMM, GPM satellites).

 Soil moisture mapping.
 Flood and glacier monitoring.
 Sea ice and ocean surface studies.
 Topographic mapping (SAR – Synthetic Aperture Radar).

Key Points for Exam

 Microwave region: 1 mm – 1 m.
 Active system (RADAR) → emits and measures backscatter.
 Passive system → measures natural emission.
 Works in all weather, day or night.
  Used for soil moisture, floods, glaciers, and rainfall studies.

Summary table

Type of
Region Wavelength Source Major Applications
Radiation
Thermal Temperature, fire, geothermal,
3 – 14 µm Emitted Earth surface
IR urban heat
Artificial or Soil moisture, floods, weather,
Microwave 1 mm – 1 m Reflected/Emitted
natural radar imaging

Digital Processing of Satellite Images

�⃣ Definition

Digital Image Processing is the computer-based manipulation and

analysis of satellite images to enhance their quality and extract
useful information.
Each satellite image is composed of pixels, and each pixel carries a
digital number (DN) that represents the intensity of reflected or
emitted radiation

Objectives

 Improve image visual quality for interpretation.

 Extract quantitative and thematic information.
 Perform classification and mapping of different surface
features.

Major Steps in Digital Image Processing

A. Image Pre-processing

Purpose: To correct distortions and prepare raw data for analysis.

Type Description Example

Radiometric Removes sensor and atmospheric
Corrects haze, noise, and sensor errors
Correction effects; adjusts pixel brightness
Geometric Aligns image to real-world Removes geometric distortions due to
Correction coordinates (latitude–longitude) satellite motion or Earth’s curvature
 Type Description Example
Atmospheric Minimizes effects of scattering Dark Object Subtraction (DOS)
Correction and absorption technique
Filters out unwanted random
Noise Removal Mean/Median filtering
variations

B. Image Enhancement

Purpose: To make image features more interpretable visually.

Method Description Example

Contrast Expands range of pixel values for better Linear or histogram
Stretching contrast equalization
Edge detection, smoothing
Spatial Filtering Enhances edges or smoothens areas
filters
Divides one band by another to highlight NDVI = (NIR – Red) / (NIR
Band Ratioing
specific features + Red)

C. Image Transformation

Purpose: To combine or convert spectral bands for information extraction.

Transformation Use
Principal Component Analysis
Reduces data redundancy
(PCA)
Vegetation Indices (NDVI, SAVI) Vegetation health and cover
Highlights brightness, greenness, and wetness
Tasseled Cap Transformation
components

D. Image Classification

Purpose: To categorize image pixels into land cover classes (e.g., water, vegetation, urban).

Type Description Example

Maximum Likelihood
Supervised Classification Analyst defines training samples
Classifier
Unsupervised Computer groups pixels
ISODATA, K-means
Classification automatically

Output → Thematic Map showing different surface types.

Common Software Used

 ERDAS Imagine
 ENVI
 QGIS / SNAP
  ArcGIS

Key Exam Points

 Image is stored as digital numbers (DNs) per pixel.

 Pre-processing → Enhancement → Classification → Output.
 Radiometric & Geometric corrections are essential before analysis.
 NDVI used for vegetation monitoring.
 Supervised classification uses training data; unsupervised doesn’t.
 Final product = Thematic Map.

Geographic Information System (GIS)

�⃣ Definition

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based system used for capturing,

storing, analyzing, and displaying spatial (geographic) data.
It links spatial (location) data with attribute (descriptive) data to solve geographical and
environmental problems.

Components of GIS
Component Function
Hardware Computers, scanners, GPS, plotters
Software GIS programs (ArcGIS, QGIS, ERDAS, GRASS GIS)
Data Spatial and non-spatial data (maps, tables, satellite images)
People GIS analysts, engineers, planners
Methods/Procedures Rules for data analysis and management

Types of GIS Data

Type Description Example
Represents the location and shape of geographic
Spatial Data Rivers, roads, boundaries
features
Attribute River length, soil type,
Descriptive information about features
Data population

Data Models in GIS

GIS data are represented in two main formats:
A. Raster Data Model

 Area is divided into regular grid cells (pixels).

 Each cell has a value representing a feature or attribute.
 Suitable for continuous data.

Feature Description
Structure Matrix of rows and columns
Data Type Continuous (e.g., temperature, elevation, rainfall)
Advantages Simple structure, easy overlay and analysis
Disadvantages Large data size, less accurate boundaries

Examples:
Satellite images, DEM (Digital Elevation Model), land cover maps.

B. Vector Data Model

 Represents geographic features using points, lines, and polygons.

Feature Example
Point Wells, towers, trees
Line Roads, rivers, railways
Polygon Lakes, fields, administrative boundaries

Raster and Vector Mode Operations

Operation Type Raster Operations Vector Operations
Overlay Combines multiple raster layers (e.g., land
Union, Intersect of polygons
Analysis use + slope)
Expands distance zones around features
Buffering Creates buffer polygons
(e.g., 1 km around roads)
Assigns new values to cells based on
Reclassification Attribute updates
criteria
―Select by Location‖ or
Spatial Query Selects features based on location/value
―Select by Attribute‖
Mathematical operations between raster
Map Algebra —
layers

GIS Applications

 Land use/land cover mapping

 Urban and regional planning
 Environmental management
 Natural hazard and disaster management
 Water resource and soil analysis
 Transportation and network analysis
Key Exam Points

 GIS integrates spatial + attribute data.

 Raster → grid cells (continuous data), Vector → points/lines/polygons (discrete
data).
 Overlay, buffer, and query are common GIS operations.
 Raster = easy computation; Vector = high precision.
 Widely used in planning, environment, geology, and remote sensing studies.