Introduction

Suggestions for studying Basic Science

Biology has always appeared to be the “dragon” in the studies for students. The amount of
work to be mastered is enormous and this generally puts many students off Biology as a
subject. Physics is seen as the scientific study of matter and energy and how they interact
with each other. This energy can be in the form of light, electricity, radiation, gravity and
much more. Physics also deals with matter that ranges from sub-atomic particles, which are
particles too small to be seen by the human eye, to stars and entire galaxies. We can even
see physics being applied in chemistry and biology. Chemistry focusses on the interaction
of matter in chemical systems, which makes use of the application of physics principles.
Biology is again the application of chemical properties in living things, which means we can
also see in biology the application of physics laws.
Science has a reputation for being a difficult subject. One reason is that it includes so many
different topics. Individually, they are not too difficult to understand, but collectively, they are
a lot to master. Another reason is that these topics must be learned in a cumulative fashion.
Topic A leads to topic B, which is important for understanding topic C, and so on. If you have
a bad week and do not study topic B very carefully, topic C will not make much sense to you.
Because basic science is time-consuming and cumulative, you need to be very organized
and diligent in studying it.
A study guide has therefore been designed to counteract these problems and it is hoped that
students will enjoy this approach to learning and studying the fascinating and interesting
subject: Basic Science.
There is no correct way to study Basic Science. Your study technique will be decided by
your current level of knowledge, the time you have available, your strengths as a student
and your attitude toward the subject. The following is a list of suggestions to help you take
special challenges in your stride.
Read the study guide every day. Before you start reading have a notebook and a pen ready
to write down notes. Obtain a calculator, which will be useful for doing calculations as well as
a dictionary, to look up words you do not understand. You may also want to make notes as
you study. If you want to, you can make these in the margin of your study guide as you read.
In this case, you might want to use a pencil so that you can rub out your notes later. It is a
good idea to study with a pen or pencil in your hand, making notes as you go along and
practicing drawing and labeling the diagrams.

Reread the unit, marking important sections and working the practice exercises.

In the second reading, mark key segments of the unit that you think you should reread
before the exam. Do not try to do this in the first reading, because you will not know what
parts are most important until you have an overview of the material the unit contains. It is a
good idea to stop after reading each section of text and ask yourself, “What have I just
read?” This will keep you focused and help you to remember longer. You should make a list
of all the difficult words and terminology. Write these words on small, hard cardboard cards.
Read through this list once a day and link each term with the studied work. In this way you
should master the work in short time.
It is important that you study a small section of the Basic Science work every day
and revise the work studied on the previous day. It is impossible to cram all this
information into one short period before exams!

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Use the internet
Review for the exam. Read the list of objectives, asking yourself whether you can meet
each one. Every time the answer is “No,” spend some time making it “Yes.” The objectives
also highlight the main points of the syllabus content.
Lastly, work out some more of the end of unit activities and quizes. This will sharpen your
skills and improve your speed in the [Link] questions included in a unit are intended to
test your understanding of the text you have just read. If you cannot answer the questions
straightaway, read that section of text again with the question in mind.
Point to be noted

• Be punctual for lectures. Late coming will not be tolerated as this disturbs the class.

• Attendance will be taken randomly so make sure before you leave the lecture hall you have
signed against your name as attendance will contribute towards your continuous
assessment mark.

• There won’t be any supplementary tests, assignments and quizzes so make sure that you
write all of them in scheduled times.

• Your assignment topic will be in the e-learning.

• No excuses will be entertained for late submission of assignments (even if it is 2 minutes

late, the assignment will not be accept).

• Cell phones must be turned off.

• Lack of respect to lecturers will not be condoned. Only those that respect others should
expect to be respected.

Continuous Assessment

Continues Assessment Final Mark

Assignment 1 15%
Assignment 2 15%
Test 1 25%
Test 2 25%
Quiz 1 10%
Quiz 2 10%
COURSE EVALUATION:

• This course will be based on continuous assessment and an end of semester examination.

• The continuous assessment consists of class tests, assignments and quizzes and contributes
60% to the final mark.

• Students have to obtain at least 40% to qualify to write the examination.

• The end of semester assessment consists of one three-hour paper in which students must
obtain a sub-minimum of 40%. The examination mark contributes 40% to the final mark.

2
3
Introduction

The aim of basic science is to engage students from a wide variety of majors in the wonders of
living world. Most of these students will not become scientists themselves, but their lives will be
touched by science every day. Today understanding the concepts of science and their connections
to our lives is more important than ever. Whether we’re concerned with our own health or the
health of our planet, a familiarity with science is essential.

It is important that you study and understand the study guide thoroughly before you start the
assignments. You will have two assignments to complete during this semester. Each assignment
has three parts. The first part is biology, the second part is chemistry and the third part is physics.
Since this is the basic science you have to study the entire three subjects every week. The contents
from the study guide for the completion of the assignments are as follows:

BASIC SCIENCE

Basic Science
Course Title

BCS410S
Course Code

Level 4
NQF Level

80
Notional Hours
Contact Hours: 45 Assessment: 10 Self Study: 25

8
NQF Credits

None
Prerequisites

Institutional Core (may be subsumed by the admission requirements

Options (compulsory or and/or core courses of a programme)
elective)

1/2
Semester Offered

This semester course forms part of the Institutional Core requirements

Course Aims and is designed to provide students with a basic understanding of the
fundamentals/principles of Biology, Chemistry and Physics. The course
will enable students to appreciate the relevance of natural sciences and
apply basic concepts/principles in their everyday lives.

4
 Learning Outcomes
Learning
Outcomes/Specific Upon completing the course students will, through assessment activities,
Outcomes show evidence of their ability to:

Biology

• Describe life and life processes of living organisms;

• Explain the major parts of the plant structures and their
function;
• Describe the life cycle of animals;
• Describe the basic importance of micro-organism used in food
production, industry and medicine;
• Explain the importance of food that humans consume every day;
Chemistry

• Describe and discuss the general properties of matter;

• Explain the phase changes that matter undergoes;
• Demonstrate understanding of the basic terminology of the
elements and their compounds;
• Explain some of the key elements in the periodic table (mainly
metal and non-metal);
• Discuss the importance of acid, base, buffer and the uses of pH
scale;
• Discuss the importance of water to the human body;
• Perform basic mathematical manipulations such as unit analysis
with proper attention to units and significant figures;
• Express numbers in scientific notation.

Physics
• Interpret graphs and use data to draw graphs;
• Discuss the major sources of energy and alternative sources of
energy;
• Discuss the basic concepts and uses of electricity for everyday
life;
• Give and discuss examples of practical applications of radioactive
isotopes;
• Recognise, discuss and calculate the effects of forces;
• Demonstrate understanding of the production and transmission
of sound;
• Explain the effect of noise on human hearing.
Critical Cross Field Outcomes

The Critical Cross Field Outcomes (CCFO’s) covered in this course include:

 Ability to process and evaluate scientific information and to

report on it;
 Working effectively with others as a member of a team, group,
organisation, and community;
 Organising and managing oneself and one’s activities responsibly
and effectively;

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  Communicating effectively using visual, mathematical and / or
language skills in the modes of oral and / or written
presentation.

Course Content
Biology
CHAPTER ONE: Living Things
• Characteristics and classification of living things
• Classifying living organisms as plants (dicotyledonous,
monocotyledons, gymnosperm and angiosperm), animals
(vertebrates/invertebrates)
• Identifying common plants and animals in Namibia
• Plant structure - structure and function of the main parts of a
typical flowering plant
• Observe and compare the life cycles of animals over a period of
time. E.g. butterfly, grasshopper, cockroach, frog
CHAPTER TWO: Microbiology and biotechnology
• Investigation of examples of micro-organisms such as bacteria,
fungi and viruses biotechnology in food production, industry and
medicine
CHAPTER THREE: Chemistry of Food

• Food as a necessary source of energy and as a growth material

for the body - constituents of a balanced diet
• Carbohydrate lipids, proteins, vitamin
• Where does it come from and their uses
CHAPTER FOUR: Ecosystem
• Trace the energy pathway from the sun through living things and
identify the roles of various organisms (producers, consumers,
decomposers; predators, preys) in a food chain and a food web

Chemistry

CHAPTER FIVE: The properties and structure of matter

• States of matter - characteristics of solids, liquids and gases

• Classification and properties of elements compounds and
mixtures, difference between a mixture, solution and a
compound
• Mixtures - separating substances using filtration, evaporation,
distillation and paper chromatography

CHAPTER SIX: The Periodic Table

• The basics of the periodic table

• The Periodic Table classification of elements into metals and
non-metals
• General properties of Metals and Non-metals, reactivity series,
corrosion and its prevention
CHAPTER SEVEN: Acids, bases and salts

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 • General properties, examples and uses
• Concept of pH scale
• Importance of pH in everyday life
• Preparation and uses of sodium hydroxide, Bleaching powder,
Baking soda, washing soda
CHAPTER EIGHT: Measurement in science
• S.I. units and temperature scales
• Accuracy and precision
• Qualitative and Semi-qualitative
• Significant figures
Physics
CHAPTER NINE: Graphs
• Scales and axes for graphs
• Plotting independent variables on both axis
• Labelling graphs and axis correctly
• Use data to draw line and column graphs
CHAPTER TEN: Energy sources
• Sources of energy and energy converting (hydroelectric energy,
waves, tides and nuclear)
• Application of principle of energy conversion
CHAPTER ELEVEN: Electricity
• Current related to the flow of charge
• Alternating current, direct current, electron and conventional
current
• Ammeter and voltmeter
• Simple circuit diagrams containing sources, switches, resistors,
ammeter and voltmeters
• Uses of electricity in heating and lighting
• Hazards of damaged insulation, overheating of cables and
overloading
• Wiring of an electrical plug
• Safety devices

CHAPTER TWELVE: Radioactivity

• Isotopes
• Radioactive materials
• Background radioactivity
• Application of isotopes

CHAPTER THIRTEEN: Effects of forces

• Effects of forces
• Extension-load graphs
CHAPTER FOURTEEN: Sound

• Production of sound
• Audible frequencies
• Frequency of vibration in relation to the pitch of sound
• Amplitude of vibration in relation to the loudness of sound
• Transmission of sound waves

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 • Effect of noise on human hearing

Methods of
This course will be facilitated through lectures, demonstrations, group
Facilitating
discussions, practical assignments, and self study.
Learning

The assessment for this course will be based on continuous assessment

Assessment and an end of semester examination. The continuous assessment
Strategies consists of class tests, assignments and quizzes and contributes 60% to
the final mark. Students have to obtain at least 50% to qualify to write
the examination. The end of semester assessment consists of one three-
hour paper in which students must obtain a sub-minimum of 40%. The
examination mark contributes 40% to the final mark.
Students have to obtain a minimum Final Mark of 50% to pass the
course.
Moderation of assessments will be done in accordance with the
Quality Assurance institution’s general rules and guidelines on moderation.
Arrangements

Prescribed Learning Resource:

Student Support
and Learning Study Guide
Resources
Recommended Learning Resources:

Arthur Beiser. (1986). Physics. (4th ed.). Benjamin/Cummings Publishing

Company, Inc.

Nelkon & Parker. (1987). Advanced Level Physics. (6th ed.). Heinemann
educational.

Michael Roberts, Michael Reiss, Grace Monger. (2000). Advanced

Biology. Nelson.

[Link], Dennis D. Lehman. (2009). Chemistry for the Health

Science, Eighth Edition, Pearson Education International.

[Link]. Modern Inorganic Chemistry. (4th ed.). Colline Educational.

Ntombenhle Dlamini, Hella Rust, Marithabile Khanyanu, Jame Webb and

Jenny-Lee. Biology for Southern Africa. Macmillian

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 CHAPTER – 1 LIVING THINGS
Introduction
Earth is the only planet in our solar system where life occurs. Scientists estimate that 40
million species of organisms exist on earth. Of these, only about a million have been named,
while a few have been studied in detail. Thus much of the world is without guideposts. In this
unit you will read about the unifying themes of biology that allow scientists to study the
diversity of life.
When you think about living things, you may tend to think only of plants and animals. In this
unit, however, you will learn about the great diversity of living things that are neither plants
nor animals – bacteria, algae and fungi. You will also learn about viruses, which stand at the
boundary between the living and the non living worlds.
In this unit we will cover the following:
 Characteristics and classification of living things
 Classifying living organisms as plants (dicotyledonous, monocotyledons, gymnosperm
and angiosperm), animals (vertebrates/invertebrates)
 Plant structure - structure and function of the main parts of a typical flowering plant
 Observe and compare the life cycles of animals over a period of time. E.g. butterfly,
grasshopper, cockroach, frog

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 define biology
 distinguish between living and non living things by describing the features that
characterise living organisms
 contrast the six kingdoms of living organisms and cite examples of each group
 explain the characteristics of plants and the separation of angiosperms and
gymnosperms
 contrast dicots and monocots, the two groups of flowering plants
 explain the characteristics of animals and the separation of vertebrates and invertebrates
 list the major characteristics of chordates and distinguishing features of the
classes
 describe the processes of incomplete and complete metamorphosis

1. Living Things and Non Living Things

As we study Biology we need to know the meaning of Biology.
The word biology comes from Greek, bios meaning ‘life’ and logos meaning ‘the
study of’ (knowledge). It is the study of life and living things (organisms).
1.1 Living things
How do we know something is ‘living’?
All living things are characterised as being able to do seven things. The 7 characteristics
of living things are:
• movement
• respiration

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 • sensitivity
• growth
• reproduction
• excretion
• nutrition
Let’s now look at each one in detail
1.1.1 Organisms are composed of cells
All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. Although they vary greatly in
size and appearance, all organisms are composed of these small building blocks.
Some of the simplest life forms, such as bacteria, are unicellular, meaning that each
consists of single cell. In contrast, the body of a lion and a Zambezi teak tree is made
of billions of cells (fig 1.1). In such complex multicellular organisms, life processes
depend on the coordinated functions of component cells that may be organized to
form tissues, organs, and organ systems.
Cells are the structural and functional units of all living organisms. These cells are
the building blocks of life.

a) b)
Fig 1.1 Unicellular and multicellular life forms. a) Bacteria (b) Lion
Sources: [Link] and [Link]

1.1.2 Growth
Biological growth is an increase in the size of individual cells of an organism or in the
number of cells, or both (fig 1.2). growth may be uniform in the various parts of an
organism, or it may be greater in some parts than in others, causing the body
proportions to change as growth occurs.

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Fig 1.2 Biological growth. The young African elephant eats and grows unit it reaches the
adult size of its parents.

Source: [Link]

1.1.3 Movement
Organisms move as they interact with the environment, and in fact the living material
within their cells is in continuous motion. In some organisms, locomotion results from the
slow oozing of the cell ( a process called amoeboid motion); in others, from the beating
of tiny hairlike extensions of the cell called cilia or longer structures called flagella
(fig1.1a). most animals move very obviously; they wiggle, crawl, swim, run or fly by
contracting muscles.
Animals move to find food and keep away from predators; plants move to face the light.

• Flagella ~ Tail like structure the whips around to propel the bacterium
• Cillia ~ Miniature flagella surround the cell that help to “swim”

1.1.4 Sensitivity
This is related to responding and reacting to the environment. Sensitivity is very
important. How would you know if something was fit to eat if you could not smell or taste
it? How would you escape danger?
All forms of life respond to stimuli, physical or chemical changes in their internal or external
environment. In humans certain cells of the body are highly specialized to respond to
specific types of stimuli. For example, cells in the retina of the respond to light (fig 1.3 b).

In plant the Venus flytrap remarkably sensitive to touch and can catch insects.

a) b)
Fig 1.3 plant responds to stimuli.
a) mimosa pudia which reacts to contact by closing its leaves (b) hairs on the leaf
surface of the Venus flytrap detect the touch of an insect, and the leaf responds by
folding.

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Sources: [Link] and [Link]
1.1.5 Nutrition
The molecules which living organism use as their source of energy are obtained from
food in the process of feeding (nutrition). Food also provides substances needed for
other puroses such as growth, maintenance and repair. Animals need food for
respiration, plants need minerals from the soil.
There are two fundamentally different methods of nutrition. Animals and certain other
organisms take in ready – made organic substances (heterotrophic nutrition). Other
organisms, plants, take in simple inorganic substances which they then build up into
complex organic substances (autotrophic nutrition).

1.1.6 Excretion
The chemical reactions that occur in organisms result in the formation of waste products,
often toxic, which must be disposed of in some way. These include nitrogenous
compounds such as ammonia or substances derived from it. The disposing of these
waste protucts is what is meant by excretion. Usually they are expelled from the
organism. However, plants generally retain much of their excretory waste, storing it in a
harmless form.
1.1.7 Respiration
This relates to turning food into energy. Respiration is the release of energy from
glucose or another organic chemical in our cells. Respiration happens in ALL living
things.
1.1.8 Reproduction
This is the ability to produce offspring to keep a species in existence OR make more of
ourselves. There are two types of reproduction.
(1) Asexual (or vegetative, in plants) = a new organism can develop from a part of the
original organism – it is therefore identical to the parent.
(2) Sexual - fusion of male sperm with female egg to form a zygote, which then develops
into the embryo – offspring has a mixture of characteristics of each parent.

Populations evolve and become adapted to their environment. Adaptations are traits that
increase an organism’s ability to survive in its environment.

1.2 Non living things

If an object does not have all 7 characteristics of living things, then it is non living. In
order for something to be living it must: move, grow, eat, reproduce, breathe or respire,
excrete waste and have senses.

2. Classification of living things

Do you think we should have a classification system? Imagine a grocery store
How is it organised?
What would happen if it were not organised?
How is your life organised?
For us to understand almost 2 million kinds of organisms on earth, we need to organise
them! That is why scientists use classification.

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Classification is the grouping of living things according to similar characteristics or the
process of grouping things based on their similarities or relationships. The science of
classifying organisms is known as taxonomy.
2.1 Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the scientific study of how living things are classified. This is useful
because once classified, scientists will know a lot about an organism.
Why?
Because as biologists we need to know exactly what type of thing we are examining or
talking about.
Biologists who specialize in classification are taxonomists.

2.2.1 Early classification systems

Aristotle grouped animals according to the way they moved. John Ray was the first to
use the term “species”.
2.2.2 Binomial Nomenclature
Developed by Carolus Linnaeus.
The Linnaean system of naming species is referred to as binomial system of
nomenclature because each species is assigned a two-part name. First name (genus);
second name (species).

2.2.3 What is a scientific name?

Every organism in the world has a unique name that is the same throughout the world. It
may be known by many different common names in different places, but only one
scientific name.
Combination of the genus and species name of an organism. Scientific names of
organisms are always italicized or underlined: (Genus is capitalized; species name is
lower-case).
Example – Homo sapiens

2.2.4 Classification today

Species with similar evolutionary histories are classified more closely together. When
organisms share a common ancestor, they share an evolutionary history.

2.2.5 Levels of classification

Based on contributions of both Aristotle and Linnaeus. Starting with the biggest group
(kingdom), which can then be sub-divided into smaller and smaller groups based on
more and more similar characteristics. There are 8 levels of classification. Remember
the first letter of this sentence:
1. Domain
2. Kingdom
3. Phylum
4. Class
5. Order

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 6. Family
7. Genus
8. Species

See figure 1.4 for an example:

An easy way to remember this classification is to use this mnemonic:

Dr. King Philip Came Over For Good Spaghetti (fig.1.4).

Figure 1.4: An example of classification in the animal kingdom.

Source: [Link]
2.3 Classification of living things
Everything that is living can be sorted into these 6 kingdoms:
1. Eubacteria
2. Archaebacteria
3. Protoctista/Protista
4. Fungi
5. Plants
6. Animals
Bacteria are unicellular and they differ from all other organisms in that they are
prokaryotes; their cells lack a discrete nucleus and other membrane-bounded
organelles. Among the prokaryotes two very distinct groups have been recognised, so in
the six-kingdom system, bacteria are assigned to two kingdoms, Archaebacteria and

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Eubacteria. (These two kingdoms were previously one kingdom – the Monera).
Evidence from comparisons of DNA and other molecules suggests that they represent
two very distinct branches of life.

Based on fundamental molecular differences among the Eubacteria, Archaebacteria,

and eukaryotes, many systematists now use a level of classification above the kingdom,
called domain. They classify organisms in three domains: Archaea (which corresponds
to kingdom Archaebacteria), Eubacteria (also called Bacteria) and Eukarya
(eukaryotes)

Eukaryotes - Having cells with true or membrane-bound nuclei

The characteristics of organisms which belong to this kingdom are the following:
Prokaryotes (lack distinct nuclei and other membranous organelles). Smallest and
simplest life [Link], single-celled organisms (Unicellular). The cell wall generally
composed of peptidoglycan.
2.3.1 Kingdom Archaebacteria – primitive bacteria that live in the harsh environments
that resemble the conditions of the early earth when life was first evolving. The cell walls
lacking peptidoglycan.
Three main groups (considered phyla by some microbiologists) are methanogens, extreme
halophiles, and extreme thermophiles.

Methanogens. Anaerobic that produces methane gas from simple carbon compounds

Extreme Halophiles. Inhabit saturated salt solutions.

Extreme Thermophiles. Grow at 700C or higher, some thrive above the boiling points

2.3.2 Kingdom Eubacteria – larger kingdom -- includes heterotrophic & autotrophic

organisms; some of the autotrophs are photosynthetic; others are chemosynthetic.
Harmful & beneficial forms.
Separated because of biochemical differences.
Bacterium Shapes: Some of the shapes bacteria can take are:
• Coccus – Sphere-shaped bacteria (ball-shaped)
• Bacillus – Rod-shaped bacteria
• Spirillium – Spiral-shaped bacteria
Some bacteria may have flagella to help them to move around (fig 1.5).

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Figure 1.5: bacterium shapes and rod-shaped bacteria with flagella

2.3.3 Kingdom Protoctista/Protista

Eukaryotes; single-celled or simple multicellular. More complex than organisms in the
two previous kingdoms. Organisms with a nucleus. Usually move by cilia or flagella.
Live in damp places or in water
Some protists are autotrophic, producing their food by photosynthesis; these are called
algae. Others, informally called protozoans (from the Greek protos, first, and zoion,
animal), are heterotrophic, eating bacteria and other protists.
protozoan (animal-like), algae (plant-like) E.g. amoeba, protozoa
2.3.4 Kingdom Fungi
Eukaryotes; body is made up of a network of threads called hyphae. The hyphae help
to absorb nutrients through their very large surface area. A tangled mass of hyphae is
known as mycelium. Yeasts are unicellular fungi that do not grow as hyphae some are
multicellular. Fungi are heterotrophic (a group of organisms that lack chlorophyll
and obtain nutrients from dead or living organic matter). Fungi secrete powerful
enzymes that digest their food outside their bodies and then absorb the small nutrient
molecules into their cells. The cell wall made of chitin, organelles including a nucleus.
They have no mechanisms for locomotion. Reproduce by spores e.g. moulds,
mushrooms (fig.3).
First they were classified with the plants but now they are recognized as a separate
kingdom. This separation is based on the presence of the polysaccharide chitin found
in their cell walls, rather than the cellulose present in plant cell walls and lack of
chlorophyll.

Figure 2: Mushroom

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2.3.5 Kingdom Plantae
Eukaryotes; multicellular – made up of lots of cells. Cells have organelles including
nucleus, cell walls contain cellulose and chloroplasts (where photosynthesis takes
place). Make their own food by photosynthesis. Lots of examples: flowering
plants/non flowering plants. Non mobile (fixed to one spot). Respond to environment
and grow through the use of hormones.
Seed plants are divided into two groups based on whether or not their ovules are
protected – Gymnosperms and Angiosperms (fig.4). However, plants also include
mosses and ferns. They prefer moist places and are therefore not common in Namibia.
Plants that bear flowers and produce seeds are called flowering plants (angiosperms)
(fig 5 Right). There are two kinds of flowering plants: monocotyledons and
dicotyledons.
Gymnosperms protect their seeds within cones. Angiosperms protect their seeds within
woody or fleshy fruit.
Figure 3: Left: Gymnosperm with naked seeds (left) taken out of the cone.
(source:[Link] Right: Angiosperm flower and fruit
(Baikiaea plurijuga, Zambezi teak). Source; Left: M. Troh.

2.3.6 Kingdom Animalia

Eukaryotes; multicellular – made up of many specialised cells. Cannot make own food
(heterotrophic). Their cells have organelles including a nucleus, but no chloroplast
or cell walls. They mostly have nerves and muscles in their bodies. Most animals
swallow their food and digest it inside the body. They require oxygen for aerobic
respiration. Most are capable of locomotion during some time in their life cycle.
Most animals reproduce sexually with large nonmotile eggs and flagellated sperm. Can
be further classified into vertebrates (fig 5 right) and invertebrates (fig 5 left).
Figure 4: An example of an invertebrate (butterfly) and a vertebrate (lion cub)

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Source: Left: [Link] and
[Link] Right: Barbara Curtis – check
order
2.4 Viruses
What are Viruses?
Organisms that fall between living and non living.
Some of the characteristics of viruses are:
Very small and cannot be seen through a light microscope. They can only multiply
inside living cells of another organism (host cell). A host cell could be a plant,
an animal or bacterium cell. They do, however, contain nucleic acids such as DNA or
RNA and must therefore be considered as being on the border between living and non
living. When inside a host cell, they take over the activities of the cell and use the cell’s
energy and material to make copies of themselves. They kill host cells as they reproduce
within them.

3. Structure of higher plants

Plants are the producers of food. They form the base of the ecological food chain on
which animals, including humans ultimately depend for survival. People also need plants
for medicines, clothing and building materials. Our major food, fibre, wood and
ornamental plants belong to two main groups - the gymnosperms, represented mainly by
the narrow-leaved, evergreen trees and the angiosperms, usually broad-leaved,
flowering plants. In the temperate zone, angiosperms are by far the most common in
everyday life. Angiosperms are divided into two classes: the moncotyledons, which have
an embryo with one cotyledon and the dicotyledons, which have an embryo with two
cotyledons. These names are often shortened to monocot and dicot. We will start by
looking at Gymnosperms first.
3.1 Gymnosperms
These are cone-bearing plants which lack flowers and fruits. These plants bear
exposed seeds e.g. conifer trees. Their seeds grow inside hard, scaly cones that open
out to release the seeds when they are ripe. In biology, these plants that grow cones are
called gymnosperms. Gymnosperm “means” naked seeded. In other words, the ovules
of gymnosperms are unprotected. Pine, spruce, fir hemock are examples of
gymnosperms.
The best-known group of Gymnosperms is the conifers. They have leaves called
needles or scales that have a reduced surface area and a thick waxy coat on the
needle to reduce water loss and prevent freezing. This is a very common and important
group of plants in the northern hemisphere. They are not indigenous to Namibia, but
have been planted in South Africa for timber, which is used a lot in Namibia.
There are only a few indigenous gymnosperms in Africa. The well-known Welwitschia
mirabilis is the only gymnosperm in Namibia and is endemic to the Namib Desert. It is
unique in many ways, one of which is the fact that all its life it only has two, broad,
leathery leaves, which grow continually from the short, woody stem. These become
twisted and torn as the plant gets older.

3.1.1 Gymnosperm reproduction

1. Male cones produce pollen and the female cone produces ovules seeds.
2. Male cones are normally smaller than female cones.
3. Pollen is inefficiently transferred by the wind.

18
4. Once mature, the scales on the female cone dry out and open scattering the seeds
in the wind.
5. Most conifers are monoecious, which means that they have separate male and
female reproductive parts in different locations on the same plant.

3.1.2 Economic importance

 Ecologically, conifers contribute food and shelter to animals and other organisms,
and their roots hold the soil in place and help prevent soil erosion.
 Coniferous trees are economically important because they are the sources of
‘soft wood’ for the timber industry.
 Because of their attractive appearance, conifers are grown for landscape design;
certain conifers provide Christmas trees and pine nuts are increasingly used in
cooking.
 Resin from pine trees.
 In South Africa pines are planted for timber.
Now that you have been very briefly introduced to Gymnosperms, we will discuss
Angiosperms.

Resin is a hydrocarbon secretion of many plants, particularly coniferous trees. It is valued

for its chemical properties and associated uses, such as the production of varnishes,
adhesives, and food glazing agents; as an important source of raw materials for organic
synthesis; and as constituents of incense and perfume.

3.2 Angiosperms - Flowering plants

Angiosperms are plants that grow flowers and fruits and also form seeds inside an
ovary. They include nearly all the crop plants of orchards, gardens and fields. Hardwood
forests, shrublands, grasslands and deserts are composed of flowering plants. They
have adapted to almost every habitat and, with at least 235,000 species, are Earth’s
dominant plants.
Most of our foods come from a few hundred domesticated species of flowering plants.
Among these foods are roots, such as beets and carrots; the fruits of trees and vines,
such as apples, nuts, berries and squashes; the fruits and eeds of legumes, such as pes
and beans; and grins, the fruits of grasses such as wheat, rice and corn (maize). Woody
flowering plants such as Zambezi teak, kiaat and mopane (below) provide valuable
lumber. We also get fibre like cotton, and medicines.
Angiosperms are divided into two groups depending on the number of seed leaves
(cotyledons) which they have in their seeds. The names moncot and dicot refer to the
first leaves that appear on the plant embryo. These embryonic leaves are called seed
leaves, or cotyledons. A monocot embryo has one seed leaf; a dicot embryo has two
seed leaves.
3.2.1 Monocotyledonous plants
 Monocotyledons are mostly herbaceous plants with long, narrow leaves that have
parallel veins (the main leaf veins run parallel to one another). They contain one seed
leaf (called a cotyledon) inside their seeds, hence the name monocotyledon. ‘Mono’
means one and a ‘cotyledon’ is a structure inside the seed which stores food. The flower
parts of monocot flowers usually occur in three or multiples of three. You can also
identify monocotyledonous plants using their roots. They have an adventitious, fibrous
root system, which grows from the base of the stem.

19
 The most important family in this group (and in the flowering plants) is the grasses,
family Poaceae (Gramineae). These include all the true grains (Rice, Wheat, Maize,
Sorghum, Pearl millet (Mahangu), the pasture grasses and the bamboos.
3.2.2 Dicotyledonous plants
 A dicotyledonous plant contains two embryonic leaves or cotyledons. ‘Di’ means two,
hence the name dicotyledonous. Dicots may be herbaceous (tomato) or woody
(camelthorn). Their leaves vary in shape but usually are broader leaves, with net veins.
Their petals and sepals are clearly distinguishable and are arranged in groups of four or
five. The root system comprises a main root called the tap-root. Branching roots called
lateral roots develop from the tap-root.
 Most common garden plants, shrubs and trees are included as well as most wild
plants.
3.3 Differences between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
The table in figure 12 outlines the difference between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
Figure 12: Difference between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
Gymnosperms Angiosperms
Exposed seed Seeds protected by ovary, which develops
into fruit after fertilization.
Do not have flowers or fruits Produce flowers and fruits.
Trees, shrubs, no herbs. Trees, shrubs and herbs.

3.4 Differences between monocot and dicot plants

The table in figure 13 outlines the difference between monocot and dicot plants.
Figure 13: Difference between monocot and dicot plants
Monocot Dicot
 Embryo with single cotyledon Embryo with two cotyledons

 Flower parts in multiples of three  Flower parts in multiples of four or five

 Major leaf veins parallel e.g. grasses  Major leaf veins reticulated e.g. trees

 Roots are fibrous root  Roots are tap roots

Figure 14 below shows you a visual representation of the difference between the flowers
of the two types of plants.
Figure 14: Difference between monocot and dicot plants

20
Source: [Link]

4. Structure of Plants
The study of the structure of the plant body will focus on the external structure.
Parts of the plant that you see outside the plant are:
• Roots
• Stem
• Leaves
• Flowers
• Fruit
The plant body of flowering plants (and other vascular plants) is usually organized into
a root system and a shoot system.
The shoot System is found above ground and the root System is found below
ground.
The shoot system generally consists of a vertical stem that bears leaves, and in
flowering plants, flowers and fruits that contain seeds.
The root system anchors it in the soil, absorbs and transports minerals and water and
stores food.

4.1 Roots
4.1.1 Types of Roots
two types of root systems:
 a tap root system and a fibrous root system
[Link] Tap roots
The following are characteristics of tap roots:

 A taproot system consists of one main root with many smaller lateral roots coming out
of it (Fig 16 b). Lateral roots often initially occur in regular rows along the length of the
main root.
 Go deep in the soil to obtain water located deep underground (fig 16). Tap roots are
characteristic of many dicots and gymnosperms.
 Examples of plants:
Large trees e.g. Mango, avocado
Shrubs e.g. tomato, peppers
Figure 16: a, b Tap root

21
Source: [Link]
book/Dictionary/Dictionary_R/dictionary_root_system_apparatus.htm
[Link] Fibrous roots
The following are characteristics of fibrous roots:

 A fibrous root system has several too many roots of the same size developing from
the end of the stem, with smaller lateral roots branching off these roots (fig 17). They are
located relatively close to the surface of the soil and are adapted to obtain rainwater
from a larger area as it drains into the soil.
 Onions and other monocots have fibrous root systems. Looks like a tangled mass of
roots
 Examples of plants with this root system are
Banana, Rice, Corn/maize, Sugar Cane
Figure 17: a, Fibrous root

4.1.2 Root caps and root hairs

Because of the need to adapt to the soil environment instead of the atmospheric
environment, roots have several structures, such as root caps and root hairs that stems
lack. Although stems and leaves have various types of hairs, they are distinct from root
hairs in structure and function.
[Link] Root cap
Each root tip is covered by a root cap. The function of the root cap is to cover and
protect the delicate growing tip from injury and damage as the root pushes its way
through the soil.

22
[Link] Root hairs
Both monocots and dicots, a vast number of tiny projection called root hairs. Root hairs
are short-lived extensions of single epidermal cells located just behind the growing root
tip. It increase the surface area of the root in contact with the moist soil.
4.1.3 Functions of roots
The function of roots are to:
 Anchorage, absorption, conduction and storage are the main functions of roots.
 anchor plants firmly in the ground
 absorb water and minerals from the soil
 store starch in some plants
 grow a new plant in some plants
Roots form a passageway for water and dissolved substances from the root into the
stem and also for foods from the stem down into the root.
4.2 The shoot system above–ground portion
 The shoot system consists of stems, leaves, flowers and fruits that contain seeds.
The growth occurs at the apex.
Some stems grow underground –bulbs and rhizomes etc. They may be swollen to store
food e.g. potatoes.
4.2.1 Leaves
This is the main photosynthetic organ.
4.2.2 Stem
 The stems support the leaves and flowers. In the case of a tree, the stems are the
trunk and all the branches, including the smallest twigs. A stem has nodes, the points at
which leaves are attached, and internodes, the portions of the stem between nodes.

4.2.3 Woody stem structure

Although stems exhibit great variation in structure and growth, they all have buds, which
are undeveloped embryonic shoots. A terminal bud is the embryonic shoot located at
the tip of a stem. When a terminal bud is dormant (that is, not actively growing), its apical
meristems is covered and protected by an outer protective layer of bud scales, which
are modified leaves. Axillary buds, also called lateral buds, are located in the axils of a
plant’s leaves. An axil is the upper angle between a leaf and the stem to which it is
attached. When terminal and Axillary buds grow, they form stems that bear leaves
and/or flowers. The area on a stem where each leaf is attached is called a node, and the
region between two successive nodes is an internode.

 Herbaceous plants – non-woody plants whose aerial parts (stems and leaves) die
back to the ground at the end of the growing season.
 Woody plants – the aerial parts of woody plants persist, produce hard, lignified
secondary tissues (i.e. cell walls contain lignin), while herbaceous plants do not.
 Annual – are herbaceous plants (such as corn, geranium, marigold grains, legumes)
that grow, reproduce, and die in one year or less.

23
 Biennials – other herbaceous plants (such as carrot, cabbage) take two years to
complete their life cycles before dying. In the first season they produce extra
carbohydrates, which they store and use during their second year when they typically
form flowers and reproduce.
 Perennials – are the herbaceous and woody plants that live and reproduce for more
than two years. They include trees and shrubs, but herbs can also be perennial.
 All woody plants are perennials, and some of them live for hundreds or even
thousands of years. In temperate climates, the above –ground stems of woody plants
become dormant during winter. Most temperate woody perennials are deciduous, that
is, they shed their leaves before winter and produce new stems with new leaves the
following spring. Other woody perennials are evergreen and shed their leaves over a
long time period, so that some leaves are always present. Because they have
permanent woody stems that are the starting points for new growth the following season,
many trees attain massive size.
4.2.4 Functions of plant stems
 The main functions of stems are support, conduction, and production of new living
tissues.
 Transport of material throughout the plant - Water and minerals from root to shoot
 Fixed carbon (photosynthetic product) from leaf to rest of the plant

24
 [Link]

Fig 21 a and b External structure of a woody stem

5.5.6 Differences between roots and stems of herbaceous dicots
The table in figure 20 outlines the difference between the roots and stems of herbaceous
dicots.

Figure 20: difference between the roots and stems of herbaceous dicots.
Roots Stems
No nodes and internodes Nodes and internodes
No leaves or buds Leaves and buds
Non photosynthetic Photosynthetic
Root hairs Trichomes (many hair-like structures)

Let’s now look at leaves.

5. Leaves
5.1 External anatomy
The typical leaf is composed of two parts, a blade and a petiole(fig 21). The broad, flat
portion of a leaf is the blade; the stalk that attaches the blade to the stem is the petiole.
Some leaves also have stipules, which are leaflike ourgrowths usually present in pairs at
the base of the petiole. Some leaves do not have petioles or stipules. These are termed
sessile leaves. an edge called the margin of the leaf, the veins (vascular bundles).
Leaves may be round, needle-like, scale like, heart-shaped, fan-shaped, or thin and
narrow. They vary in size, colour, texture.
Leaves may be simple or compound.

Leaf arrangement on a stem may be alternate, opposite or whorled. Leaves may have
parallel or netted venation.

25
Figure 21: A typical leaf

Margin

5.2 Function of leaves

Leaves have the following functions:
 Leaf structure is adapted for its primary function of photosynthesis. Most leaves have
a broad, flatted blade that is quite efficient in collecting the sun’s radiant energy.
 Transpiration - 99% of water absorbed by plant is lost by transpiration. Exchange of
gases – oxygen and carbon dioxide.

6. Flowers
The flowers may be borne at the apex of a stem, as in the sunflower and rose or in the
axils of the leaves lower down on the stem, as in the tomato and many of the temperate
zone fruit trees.
Some flowers, like the tulip, are borne singly on a stalk and are called solitary, but most
others are arranged in multiples or in clusters known as inflorescences.
6.1 The parts of a flower
 Flowers are reproductive shoots usually composed of four kinds of organs – sepals,
petals, stamens, and carpels – arranged in whorls (circles) on the end of a flower stalk.
Sepals protect the bud until it opens. Petals attract insects and birds. Stamens make
pollen. Carpels grow into fruits which contain the seeds.
The tip of the stalk enlarges to form a receptacle on which some or all of the flower parts
are borne. All four floral parts are important in the reproductive process, but only the
stamens (the ‘male’ organs) and carpels (the ‘female’ organs) participate directly in
sexual reproduction; sepals and petals are sterile.

Figure 22: Cross section through a flower to show the parts.

26
6.1.1 Complete flowers
Complete flowers usually have four or five whorls of floral parts: sepals, petals, stamens
and pistil which are usually borne on a receptacle.
6.1.2 Incomplete flower
Incomplete flowers lack one or more of the four whorls: sepals, petals, stamens or
pistil.
6.1.3 Perfect and imperfect

A flower with both stamens and carpels is said to be perfect, whereas an imperfect flower
has stamens or carpels, but not both.

6.1.4 Sepals
Sepals, which constitute the lowest and outermost whorl on a floral shoot, cover and
protect the flower parts when the flower is a bud. The sepals are the leaf-like scales that
encircle the flower parts, as in the carnation and rose. Most often the sepals are green,
but sometimes they are the same colour as the petals, as in tulips and lilies. As the
blossom opens from a bud, the sepals fold back to reveal the more conspicuous petals.
The collectively term for all the sepal of a flower is calyx.
6.1.5 Petals
The whorl just above the sepals consists of petals, which are broad, flat, and thin but
tremendously varied in shape and frequently brightly coloured and they often contain
nectarines that secrete nectar to attract insects and birds, which pollinate the flowers.
The collective term for petals is corolla.
Collectively sepals and petals are called the perianth.
6.1.6 Stamen (male)
Just inside the petals are the stamens, the male reproductive organs. Each stamen is
composed of a thin stalk, called a filament, at the top of which is an anther, a saclike
structure in which pollen grains form.
Collectively a group or whorl of stamens is the androecium.
Anther: pollen grains develop in the anther. When the grains are fully mature, the
anther splits open.

27
6.1.7 Pistil (female)
In the center or top of most flowers are one or more carpels, the female reproductive
organs. Carpel bears ovules, which are structures with the potential to develop into
seeds. The female part of the flower, often referred to as a pistil, may consist of a single
carpel (a simple pistil) or a group of fused carpels (a compound pistil)
Each pistil has three sections: a stigma, on which the pollen grains land; a style, a
necklike structure through which the pollen tube grows; and an ovary, a juglike structure
that contains one or more ovules.
Collectively, the carpels are known as the gynoecium.

7.1 Pollination
Before fertilization can occur, pollen grains must travel from the anther (where they form)
to the stigma. The transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma is known as
pollination.
7.1.1 Self-pollination
Plants are self-pollinated if pollination occurs within the same flower or a different flower
on the same plant (fig 23).
Figure 23: Self-pollination

28
Source: [Link]/biology/plantstructure_files...
7.1.2 Cross pollination
When pollen grains are transferred to a flower on another plant of the same species (fig
24).
Figure 24: Cross pollination

Source: [Link]/biology/plantstructure_files...
Flowering plants accomplish pollination in a variety of ways. Some flowers are pollinated by
beetles, bees, flies, butterflies, moths, wasps, or other insects. Other animals such as birds,
bats, snails and small rodents also pollinate plants. Wind is the agent of pollination for
certain flowers, while a few aquatic flowers are pollinated by water.

7.2 Mode of pollination

There are different modes of pollination which we will look at now.
1. Insect-pollinated flowers may have:

 Biologists estimate that about 70% of all flowering plant species are pollinated by
insects. Bees are particularly important as pollinators of crop plants. About 30% of
human food comes from crops pollinated by bees. Plants pollinated by insects often
have blue or yellow petals. The insect eye does not perceive colour in the same way

29
that the human eye does. Most insects see well in the violet, blue, and yellow range of
visible light but do not perceive red as a distinct colour. Consequently, flowers pollinated
by insects are not usually red.
 Insects have a well developed sense of smell, and many insect-pollinated flowers
have a strong scent that may be pleasant or foul to humans.
 One of the rewards for the animal pollinator is food. Nectar is a sugary solution
produced by some flowers in special floral glands called nectarines and used as an
energy-rich food for many animals. As they move from flower to flower searching for
food, pollinators’ inadvertently carry pollen grains on their body parts, thus facilitating
sexual reproduction in plants.
 E.g. daisies
Figure 25: Insect-pollinated flower

2. Wind-pollinated flowers may have:

 Some flowering plants, such as grasses, mopane and oaks, are pollinated by wind
and produce many small, inconspicuous flowers (fig 26). Wind-pollinated plants do not
produce large, colorful petals, scent, or nectar. Some have large, feathery stigmas,
presumably to trap wind-borne pollen grains. Because wind pollination is a hit-or-miss
affair, the likelihood of a particular pollen grain landing on a stigma of the same species
of flower is slim. Wind-pollinated plants produce large quantities of pollen grains, which
increases the likelihood that some grains will land on the appropriate stigma.

Figure 26: Wind-pollinated grass flower

3. Bird-pollinated flowers may have:

 Birds such as hummingbirds are important pollinators. Flowers pollinated by birds are
usually long tube shaped flowers and bright red or yellow flowers because birds see well
in this range of visible light. Because birds do not have a strong sense of smell, bird-
pollinated flowers usually lack a scent. Eg. aloes

30
Figure 27: Bird-pollinated flower

4. Mammal-pollinated flowers may have:

 Bats, which feed at night and do not see well, are important pollinators, particularly in
the tropics where they are most abundant. Bat-pollinated flowers are night-blooming and
have dull white petals and a strong scent, usually of fermented fruit. Nectar-feeding bats
are attracted to the flowers by the scent; they lap up the nectar with their long, extendible
tongues. As they move from flower to flower, they transfer pollen grains.
 Eg; Baobab, Sausage tree pollinated by bats
Figure 28: Mammal-pollinated flower

6. Water-pollinated flowers may have:

 Pollen which floats on water

This form of pollination is rare

7.3 Fertilisation
 Pollen grains germinate on the stigma, growing down the style to reach an ovule.
Fertilised ovules develop into seeds. The carpel enlarges to form the flesh of the fruit
and to protect the ovary. The ovary and zygote (fertilized ovule) develop and ripen. The
ovule forms the seed and the ovary forms the fruit.

7.3.1 Seed dispersal

Seeds are dispersed in many different ways:
 Wind
 Explosion
 Water
 Birds and animals

31
Birds and mammals help seed dispersal by doing the following:
 Some seeds are hidden in the ground as a winter store.
 Some fruits have hooks on them and cling to fur or clothes. Eg, Klitsgras, sticky grass
 Birds and mammals eat the fruits and excrete the seeds away from the parent plant.

7. Kingdom Animalia
Animals are split into two major groups:
Invertebrate: An animal that does not have a backbone. They belong to various phyla

Figure 31: Locusts are invertebrates

Source: B. Curtis
Vertebrate: An animal that has a backbone and large brain protected by a skull (fig 32).

Figure 32: a) Backbone of a human

b) a baboon’s backbone

Source: B. Curtis

32
7.1 Inverbrates
This group of animals consists of many different phyla. We will not go into details here.
The eight most important phylla of invertebrates are:
• Sponges
• Cnidarians
• Flatworms
• Roundworms
• Annelids
• Molluscs
• Arthropods
• Echinoderms
7.2 Vertebrates
• These belong to the phylum chordata and also include many different kinds of
animals. They can be found just about everywhere – in oceans, rivers, forests,
mountains and deserts.
• There are seven classes of vertebrates:
1. Agnatha
2. Chondrichthyes Fish
3. Osteichthyes)
4. Amphibians
5. Reptiles
6. Aves
7. Mammals

In this classification scheme, the classes of fishes includes class Agnatha, the jawless
fishes such as lampreys; class Chondrichthyes, the sharks and rays with cartilaginous
skeletons; and class Osteichthyes, the bony fishes. The four-legged land vertebrates are
grouped in class Amphibia, the frogs, toads and salamanders; class Reptilia, the
lizards, snakes, turtles, and alligators; class Aves, the birds; and class Mammalia, the
mammals.

7.3. Fish – general characteristic

 They are the largest group of vertebrates and live in water. They come in many sizes
and shapes. Many fish are covered with scales that protect them. They have fins that
help them to steer and balance in the water. Their body temperatures vary according to
the water temperature. They breathe through gills. Lay eggs in water.

Figure 33: Fish – Osteichyhyes. Top - Barbel. Below – tiger fish.

33
Source : B. Curtis
7.3.1 Agnatha
Agnatha includes jawless fish such as lampreys. They are parasites on other fish.

7.3.2 Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)

It includes sharks, rays and others. They have a skeleton which is made of cartilage
and two pairs of fleshy fins. The mouth is in a ventral position and the gill slits open
separately to the exterior.

7.3.3 Osteichyhyes (bony fish)

Most abundant class of all vertebrates 49,000 species. It includes cod, mackerel and
many others. Their skeleton is made of bone and the paired fins are supported by bony
rays. The mouth is terminal and the gills are covered by a bony flap called the
operculum.

34
7.3.4 Amphibians – means “living a double life”
 Includes semi-aquatic animals with moist skin. They must return to the water to
breed. The word amphibian means two lives. Most amphibians spend their lives in the
water and on land. Amphibians begin their life in water with gills and tails. As they grow,
they develop lungs and legs for their life on land. Lay jelly coated eggs in water.
 Not all amphibians live such a double life, however. Some species are strictly
terrestrial, and others are exclusively aquatic. Toad is a term generally used to refer to
frogs that have rough skin and live entirely in terrestrial habitats.
Figure 34: Bullfrog (left). Painted reed frog (right).

Source: B. Curtis
7.3.5 Reptiles
 Have dry scales skin that restricts water loss from their body. Lay leathery shelled
eggs. Reptilian kidneys are good at conserving water. Cold blooded. Includes snakes,
lizards, crocodile’s, terrapins, tortoises.
 Reptiles (including birds) and mammals are amniotes. The major derived character
of this class is the amniotic egg, inside of which the embryo develops within a
protective, fluid-filled sac called amnion.
Figure 35: Leopard tortoise (left). Snake (right).

Source: B. Curtis

35
7.3.6 Birds
 Have wings and feathers for flight and hollow bones. Lay hard shelled eggs. Scales
can be seen on the lower parts of their legs. Warm blooded. Birds range in size from as
small as your finger to as large as a human.
 Birds alone have feathers, which they use in flight, in heat conservation, and in
socially significant communication displays.

Figure 36: Birds.

Source: B. Curtis
7.3.7 Mammals
 They include a wide range of animals: apes, lions, kangaroos, bats and humans.
Give birth to live offspring (no eggs). Their young grow inside the mother. Have hair and
produce milk. Humans are mammals but most other mammals have more hair than
humans do. The hair keeps the animals warm. They feed milk to their young. Warm
blooded.

Figure 37: Spotted hyaena (left).

Source: B. Curtis

36
Warm blooded vs. Cold blooded

Warm blooded creatures, like mammals and birds, try to keep the inside of their bodies
at a constant temperature. They do this by generating their own heat when they are in a
cooler environment, and by cooling themselves when they are in a hotter environment.

Cold blooded creatures take on the temperature of their surroundings. They are hot
when their environment is hot and cold when their environment is cold.

8. Life cycles of animals

Most vertebrate animals reproduce sexually and the young hatch or are born looking
more or less like the adults. However, in many invertebrate groups, reproduction can be
sexual or asexual. In sexual reproduction, sometimes the embryos develop into young
that resemble their parents, but in many groups, metamorphosis occurs. The best
known examples are within the Insect.
During metamorphosis the animal takes on different body forms as it develops from larva
to adult. Only the adult insect is sexually mature and has wings.

8.1.1 Types of Metamorphosis

There are two types of metamorphosis
 Incomplete metamorphosis has THREE stages
Example: Grasshopper, cockroach, termites, aphids, scales
 Complete metamorphosis has FOUR stages,
Example - Butterflies, beetles, flies and bees

[Link] Incomplete metamorphosis

Figure 38: Incomplete metamorphosis

37
Source: [Link]/.../Metamorphosis+[Link]
Other insect species undergo incomplete metamorphosis, in which the transition from
larva to adult is achieved through multiple molts, but without forming pupa. In some
species, including grasshoppers and cockroaches, the juvenile forms resemble the
adults. In others, the body forms and lifestyles are very different. The larvae of
dragonflies, for example, are aquatic, but the adults live on land.
The three stages are:
 Egg: A female insect lays eggs. These eggs are often covered by an egg case
which protects the eggs and holds them together.
 Nymph:
The eggs hatch into nymphs. Nymphs look like small adults, but usually don't have
wings. Insect nymphs usually eat the same food that the adult insect eats. Nymphs shed
or molt their exoskeletons (outer casings made up of a hard substance called chitin) and
replace them with larger ones several times as they grow. Most nymphs molt 4-8 times.
 Adult: The insects stop molting when they reach their adult size. By this time,
they have also grown wings (fig 38).

[Link] Complete metamorphosis

 Egg: The female lays eggs.

 Larva: Larvae hatch from the eggs. They do not look like adult insects. They
usually have a worm-like shape. Larvae generally eat different food from that of the
adults. Caterpillars, maggots and grubs are all just the larval stages of insects. Larvae
moult their skin several times and they grow slightly larger (fig 39).
 Pupa: Larvae make cocoons around themselves. Pupae don't eat while they're inside
their cocoons. Their bodies develop into an adult shape with wings, legs, internal organs,
etc. This change takes anywhere from 4 days to many months.
 Adult: Inside the cocoon, the larvae change into adults. After a period of time, the
adult breaks out of the cocoon.
Do any vertebrates undergo metamorphosis? A few do. Frogs undergo a different type
of complete metamorphosis. Frogs have a life cycle with two parts, living in water as
tadpoles and on land as adults.

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Figure 40: Life cycle of the frog

Source:
[Link]
Egg
 The first stage in the life cycle of the frog is the egg. A frog lays many eggs at one
time. The eggs are covered with a jelly-like coating.

Figure 41: Egg of the frog

source: [Link]/.../AngelsPowerpoints/FROG/[Link]
Tadpole
 The second stage of the frog life cycle is the tadpole. Is a legless, aquatic algae-eater
with gills, a lateral line system resembling that of fishes, and a long, finned tail.
Figure 42: Tadpole

Source: [Link]/.../AngelsPowerpoints/FROG/[Link]

39
Froglet
 The next stage of the frog life cycle is the froglet. They start to grow legs. These legs
help the frog on land.

Figure 43: Froglet

Source: [Link]/.../AngelsPowerpoints/FROG/[Link]
Adult Frog: Once the lungs form and begin to work, the gills and tail disappear. When
a young frog crawls onto shore and continues life as a terrestrial insect-eater, it has four
legs and air – breathing lungs instead of gills.
Figure 44: Adult Frog

Source: [Link]/.../AngelsPowerpoints/FROG/[Link]

CHAPTER 2 - ECOLOGY
Introduction
Ecology is the study of the natural environment and organisms, how they interact and
how they change their environment. There is a dynamic relationship between every
organism in any environment, as well as between the organisms and the physical
environment.
For conservation to be successful in Namibia, it is essential that every inhabitant is
familiar with the basic principles of ecology.
The aim of this unit on ecology is not to teach you about conservation. The emphasis in
this unit will be to trace the energy pathway from the sun through living things and
identify the roles of various organisms (producers, consumers, decomposers, predators,
prey) in a food chain and a food web.

40
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
 explain the essentials of ecology, some ecological components, principles and
terminology;
 explain how all factors, living and non living, are dependent on each other and are in
constant interaction with one another;
 explain what an ecosystem is, and how we can study one;
 explain the application of ecological concepts in everyday living;
 summarise the concept of energy flow through a food web.

1.1 Origin of the word…”ecology”

The word ecology has a Greek origin.
 OIKOS = household
 LOGOS = study of
Study of the “house/environment” in which we live. The study of the interactions that take
place among organisms and their environment.
Ecologists describe the distribution and abundance of organisms-where they live and
how many live there. In order to explain these observations, ecologists investigate the
interactions between organisms and their environment. Because the environment is
complex, organisms can potentially be affected by many different variables. Ecologist
groups these variables into two major types, biotic factors and abiotic factors.
Biotic factors, which include all of the organisms in the area, are the living
component of the environment.
Abiotic factors are the environment’s nonliving component, the physical and chemical
factor such as temperature, forms of energy available, water and nutrients.

An organism’s habitat, the specific environment it lives in, includes the biotic and abiotic
factors present in it surroundings.
1.3 Animal and Plant Adaptations
All living things have to be suited to their environment if they are to survive. Fish have
streamlined bodies, fins and specially shaped tails to help them move quickly and easily
through the water. Ground squirrels have bushy tails to shade them from the hot
Namibian sun. Squirrels have sharp, strong claws for gripping tree trunks and branches
and strong teeth for eating nuts.
This means everything in the surroundings of an organism that could possibly influence
it. The environment of a tadpole consists of water. The temperature of the water will
influence the tadpole’s rate of growth and activity. The watery environment contains
plants and animals on which the tadpole will feed, but it also contains fish and insects
which may eat the tadpole. The water contains dissolved oxygen which the tadpole
breathes by means of its gills. The water, the oxygen, the food and the predators are all
part of the tadpole’s environment.
1.4 What is a habitat?
The place in which an organism lives and that provides the kinds of food and shelter, the
temperature and the amount of moisture the organism needs to survive and reproduces.

41
Alternatively, you can also say that a habitat is any place where organisms live together
naturally. It is like a neighbourhood in nature.
The habitat of the tapeworm is the intestine of a mammal. Its environment, however, is the
warm digested food and digestive juices of its host. The habitat of an aphid may be a bean
plant, but its environment will include sun, wind, rain, ladybird, ants and bacteria.

1.5 What does an organism need in a habitat?

In a habitat an organism needs shelter, water and food and plants need sunlight (Fig
45).
Figure 45: Habitat

Shelter
Water
water food

1.6 What about our habitat?

Just like other animals and plants, we need our own habitat. What are our needs? Food,
shelter and water (fig 46).

Figure 46:

Food Shelter Water

1.7 Biosphere
The part of Earth that supports life is the top portion of Earth's crust, all the water that
covers Earth's surface and the atmosphere that surrounds Earth.
1.8 Ecosystem
The biosphere’s systems are called Ecosystems.
Which consists of all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving,
physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air,
soil, water and sunlight.

42
1.9 What is a community?
All the species in a given area (or) all populations (different species) that live in a
particular area.
Example – all the living things in Goreangab dam or Avis dam.
In Goreangab dam we find terrapin, barbels, frogs, pelicans, etc.
Figure 48: The community of animals along the Chobe River consists of a population of
waterbuck and a population of baboons (as well as other animals and plants).

Source: B. Curtis

1.10 What is a Population?

All the members of a species living in one place at one time.
Example – All the terrapin in Avis Dam or all the barbel (catfish) in Avis dam or all the
sweethorn trees growing around Avis Dam.
In biology, this term always refers to a single species.

Figure 47: Terrapin (left). Pelicans (right)

Source: B. Curtis
Below the population level in the hierarchy is the organism, an individual living thing.
1.11 Abiotic factors
The non living things in an environment are called abiotic factors.
Examples of abiotic factors are topography, edaphic, climatic (fig 49).

43
Figure 49: Clouds are examples of abiotic factors.

Source: [Link] 2
1.11 The abiotic components
1.11.1 Topography
Topography is important since it includes such factors as the height above sea level and
the slope and degree of exposure by sunlight.
North-facing slopes receive more sunshine and the soil temperature is higher. The water
content of the soil is lower, while that of the south-facing slopes is higher. The soil is
cooler and there are also more plants on the south-facing slopes.
Slope is important because it reduces the chance of a soil becoming waterlogged. On very
steep slopes, soil cannot form, so plants cannot estblishedthemselves.

1.11.2 Edaphic or soil factors

Soil is obtained through the weathering of rocks by physical, chemical and biotic
processes.
Soil is classified on the basis of soil particle size:
Eg; sand, clay and loam.

1.11.3 Climatic factors

Climate refers to the predictable long-term patterns of rainfall, temperature and
light.

Light

Plants and animals are adapted to light in many ways, including the following: (i) Light is
essential for plants because it is needed for photosynthesis. (ii) it is also used by many
animals for vision. Animals such as earthworms, bats, and lions are active at night.

Temperature

Temperature influences the biological functioning of organisms and therefore their

distribution around the world.
Some animals are cold-blooded, for example fish, amphibians and reptiles. Their
temperature varies according to the environment’s temperature. When it is cold their
body metabolism activity decreases (hibernate).

44
Other animals are warm-blooded, for example mammals and birds. They maintain a
constant body temperature which is not affected by external temperature changes.
Some warm-blooded animals hibernate during the cold season (bats). Others migrate to
warmer areas and return in the spring (swallows, storks).
Temperature influences plant life activity.
E.g. fruit trees and plants such as grapes lose their leaves in winter and thereby limit
their metabolism.
Few organisms can grow if the ambient temperature falls outside the range 0-400C, though,
remarkably, some theromophilous (heat-loving) bacteria can complete their life cycles at
temperatures in excess of 1000C. Emperor penguins breed on the Antarctic ice during the
long midwinter darkness when the temperature can get as low as -800C. Most organisms,
wherever they live, have physiological or behavioral adaptations to avoid extremes of
temperature.

Water and the water cycle

a) Water is probably the most important ecological factor. It is responsible for all physical
processes which occur in plants and animals.
b) Once water has been used, it does not disappear. Instead, it is recycled.
c) The water cycle plays a very important role in plant and animal life:

The water cycle is the continuous movement of water in a

cycle between the soil and the atmosphere.
d) Referring to figure 50, the following occurs during the water cycle:

Figure 50: The water cycle

[Link]
i) Precipitation: frost, mist, hail, snow, and rain: this is the water moving from the
atmosphere to the soil, providing moisture, absorbing the heat and cooling the soil.
ii) The water that has fallen is absorbed by the upper layers of soil.
Infiltration: the water moves through the topsoil into the subsoil and into the water table
where it is stored and becomes available for plant roots.
Some of the water also flows away into dams and the sea.

45
iii) Evaporation: the water reaches the atmosphere again from the large water surfaces
that make up 70% of the earth’s surface and also by means of evaporation from the soil.
iv) Transpiration: plants lose water by means of transpiration and this reaches the
atmosphere.
1.11.4 Fires
Fire is a natural part of the sawannah ecosystems in many parts of the world e.g.
Namibia. It can be good for plants. In some plants the germination of seed is stimulated
by fire.
However, too much fire or fire at the wrong time of the year is extremely bad for the
environment.
Uncontrolled and unplanned fires cause a lot of damage ecologically and economically
and must be prevented.
1.11.5. Wind
Wind serves a useful function in the pollination and seed dispersal of many plants.
Migratory birds may use winds to minimise their transport costs.

1.12 Biotic factors

Biotic factors are all the living things or their materials that directly or indirectly affect
an organism in its environment. Factors such as parasitism, disease, and predation
(one animal eating another) would also be classified as biotic factors.
1.13 The biotic components
All the living factors in an ecosystem are known as the biotic components.
The biotic components of an ecosystem can be divided into two large groups:
• the autotrophic component (self feeding – make their own food)
• the heterotrophic component (various feeding)

1.13.1 The autotrophic components

Autotrophs obtain the required energy to create their own food directly from the sun.
Autotrophs absorb solar energy and convert it into glucose, or sugar, through a complex
process called photosynthesis.
Autotrophs are also called Producers because they produce all of the food that
heterotrophs use.
Without autotrophs, there would be no life on this planet
E.g. Plants and Algae

Figure 51: Photosynthesis

46
Source:

[Link]
2%20Notes%20-%20PowerPoint/Unit%202,%20Part%203%20Notes%20-
%20Food%[Link]#258,3,Autotrophs

Autotrophs that get their energy from inorganic substances, such as salt are called
Chemotrophs. They live deep down in the ocean where there is no sunlight.
E.g. Bacteria and Deep Sea Worms

1.13.2 The Heterotrophic components

Organisms that do not make their own food.
All the animals and majority of the microorganisms (the exceptions are the blue-green
bacteria and microscopic algae) are categorized as heterotrophs. Unlike the autotrophs,
heterotrophs need to ingest biomass to obtain nutrition and energy.

The heterotrophs are again classified into herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and saprobic
organisms based on the type of biomass they consume.
 Another term for heterotroph is consumer because they consume other organisms in
order to live. Heterotrophs live from the organic substances produced by the autotrophs
– the photosynthesizing green plants
E.g. Rabbits, antelope, mushrooms, lion.
Figure 52: Lion

47
Heterotrophs may be divided into the following groups:
1. The primary consumers
These are also known as the herbivores. They are plant-eaters and live on the
producers or the green plants
Examples: garden snails, grasshopper, caterpillars, locusts, mice, giraffe, cows,
elephants, hippos, rhinos, antelope.
Figure 53: Giraffe

Source: B. Curtis
2. The secondary consumers
Carnivores – eat ONLY meat. They include the predators. They prey on the herbivores
and other (smaller) carnivores
E.g. lions, lizards, spiders, leopard, cheetah, sharks

Figure 54: Cheetah (left). Leopard (right)

Source: B. Curtis

Predator
A predator eats other animals. For example:
 The cat is a predator, because it eats other animals. The bear is a predator, because
it eats other animals.

48
Figure 55: Cats (left) and bears (right) eat fish

 People are predators too!

Figure 56: People are predators

Prey

Any animal which is hunted and killed by another animal for food is prey.
Figure 57: Bear, an example of a predator
Predator

Prey

3. The omnivores

Omnivores – eat BOTH plants and animals. Omnivores are therefore also heterotrophs
and may be primary or secondary consumers.
Eg; human beings, pigs, crabs, baboons
Figure 58: Human being (left)

Source: [Link]

49
4. Scavengers/Detritivores – feed on the tissue of dead organisms (both plants and
animals) or they eat the remains of dead organisms left by the consumers
Eg. – Vultures, hyaenas, crows and shrimp.
Figure 59: Black-backed jackals (left) Vultures (right)

Source: B. Curtis

1.13.3. The decomposers

The last links in the chain are the decomposers. They are also known as the micro-
consumers. They are also heterotrophs which feed on decaying or dead matter. (They
break down all dead organic matterial to inorganic ones is called decomposition). In
cellular metabolism, they all break down organic material and release inorganic
products, such as carbon dioxide and ammonia, to the environment.
The producers can then use the nutrients and elements once they are in the soil. The
decomposers complete the system, returning essential molecules to the producers.
Decomposers are very important since they break down complex organic substances
into simpler substances which are released into the environment and absorbed by the
producers.
E.g. – Bacteria (prokaryotes), fungi.

Processes of Ecosystems
This figure with the plants, zebra, lion, and so forth illustrates the two main ideas about how
ecosystems function: ecosystems have energy flows and ecosystems cycle materials.
These two processes are linked, but they are not quite the same (see Figure 1).

Figure . Energy flows and material cycles.

50
[Link]
Energy enters the biological system as light energy, or photons, is transformed into chemical
energy in organic molecules by cellular processes including photosynthesis and respiration,
and ultimately is converted to heat energy. This energy is dissipated, meaning it is lost to the
system as heat; once it is lost it cannot be recycled. Without the continued input of solar
energy, biological systems would quickly shut down. Thus the earth is an open system with
respect to energy.
Elements such as carbon, nitrogen, or phosphorus enter living organisms in a variety of
ways. Plants obtain elements from the surrounding atmosphere, water, or soils. Animals may
also obtain elements directly from the physical environment, but usually they obtain these
mainly as a consequence of consuming other organisms. These materials are transformed
biochemically within the bodies of organisms, but sooner or later, due to excretion or
decomposition, they are returned to an inorganic state. Often bacteria complete this process,
through the process called decomposition or mineralization.
During decomposition these materials are not destroyed or lost, so the earth is a closed
system with respect to elements (with the exception of a meteorite entering the system now
and then). The elements are cycled endlessly between their biotic and abiotic states within
ecosystems. Those elements whose supply tends to limit biological activity are called
nutrients.
1.14 Trophic levels
Energy moves from one organism to another when food containing the energy. Each
step in this transfer of energy is known as a trophic level. The main trophic levels are
producers, consumers and decomposers. There is a constant flow of energy between
these trophic levels and a constant loss from one level to the next.
The primary consumers obtain their energy from the producers; the secondary
consumers eat the primary consumers and/or other secondary consumers and in this
way obtain their energy.
The cycle ends when the producers and consumers are decomposed by the
decomposers to form abiotic components again. Decomposers – bacteria and fungi that
break down dead organisms and recycle the material back into the environment.
There is therefore a constant flow of energy from the sun through different organisms
and back to the soil and atmosphere.
1.15 Food chains
The energy flow from one trophic level to the other is known as a food chain (fig 60).
A food chain is simple and direct. It involves one organism at each trophic level.
Producers from the beginning of the food chain by capturing the sun’s energy through
photosynthesis. Herbivores (and omnivores) eat plants, obtaining the chemical energy of
the producers’ molecules as well as building materials from which they construct their
own tissues. Herbivores are in turn consumed by carnivores and omnivores, who reap
the energy stored in the herbivores’ molecules. Decomposers break down organic
molecules in the remains (carcasses and body wastes) of all members of the food chain
(fig 60).

Figure 60: a) Food Chain b) Food Chain

51
[Link]

1.16 Food chains interconnect, forming food web

Most organisms eat more than JUST one kind of organism. When more organisms are
involved it is known as a FOOD WEB. Food webs are more complex and involve lots of
organisms. Isolated single food chains as shown in figure 61 never occur in nature.
Usually a number of food chains are interwoven to form a large and complex food web.
Food webs show what eats what in order to gain the energy it needs to live. Food webs
use arrows to show what eats what. Nearly all food webs start with a green plant. Green
plants are called producers because they produce their own food. Animals are
consumers. Some consume plants to get the energy they need to live (primary
consumer). Others consume other animals (secondary consumers – they eat the
primary consumers). Animals that are eaten by other animals are called prey. Some
prey animals are herbivores. Some omnivores and carnivores are also prey to other
animals. Animals that eat other animals are called predators. Some animals are
predators and prey. This means they eat some animals but are eaten by others. The
top predator that is prey to no other animal is called an apex predator. Eg lion.
However, if a lion dies it is eaten by scavengers (Eg vultures and jackal) and
decomposed by bacteria.

Figure 61: Food Web

52
[Link]

1.18 Breaking the chain

Organisms living in an ecosystem depend on each other. If one part of a food chain dies
out or is greatly reduced, the consumers have to find alternative food, move away or
starve. This then affects the consumers further along the chain/web.

1.19 Endangered or extinct?

The number of people in the world is growing at an alarming rate. But this is not true for
all animals and plants. In some cases, there are only a few of one type of animal or plant
left in the wild. These organisms are endangered. If they die out completely, they
become extinct.

1.20 Why does this happen?

There are lots of reasons why organisms become endangered or extinct.
The most common are:
 Loss of habitat (woodlands cut down, rivers drying up, bush encroachment).
 Chemicals or pollution poison the animals.
 Overexploitation – too much use e.g. hunting (for sport, their fur, tusks or meat) or
collecting (for firewood etc.)
1.21 Caring for the environment
It is in our own best interests to look after the world we live in. If a habitat is lost or
damaged, it has an effect on everything else, even if we do not see or understand it
straight away. Remember - once something becomes extinct, it’s gone forever!
We can mismanage the environment and cause it to become unproductive e.g. too many
herbivores on a farm will kill the grass and lead to erosion.

1.22 The mutual interactions in an ecosystem

As you must have seen during walks through the bush and the veld, a number of
interesting interactions occur in nature, ensuring the survival of a particular species:
 shrubs provide twigs for spiders to spin their webs
 insects use leaves on which to lay their eggs
 plants depend on animals for the dispersal of seed
 large trees offer shade to plants and to animals
There is an endless list of these interactions occurring in nature. Let us study these
interactions, as well as the different forms of interactions, in some more detail.
1.23 Competition
Organisms within a community often have to share water, food and living space. When
there is enough of everything for everybody, then sharing is easy. However, if one factor
is limited (scarce), the organisms will compete with one another.

53
Example:
(i) competition between animals for a limited supply of food, water or shelter
(ii) Competition between plants to obtain enough sunlight or space to grow, example
seeds which have been sown too close together
 Intraspecific competition is competition between two or more individuals of the
same species, because their needs are similar. Eg lions fighting at a kill
 Interspecific competition is competition between organisms of different species
(eg between kudu and giraffe)

1.24 Symbiosis
A close and permanent association between organisms of different species.
1. Commensalism – a relationship in which one organism benefits and the other
one is neither harmed nor helped.
 Example: the relationship between a tropical tree and its epiphytes, which are smaller
plants attached to the bark of its branches. The epiphyte anchors itself to the tree but
does not obtain nutrients or water directly from it. Living on the tree enables it to obtain
adequate light, water (as rainfall dripping down the branches), and required minerals
(washed out of the tree’s leaves by rainfall). Thus, the epiphyte benefits from the
association, whereas the tree is apparently unaffected.
 Bird nest in the tree

2. Mutualism – a relationship in which both partners benefit from each other

 Example: the association between nitrogen-fixing bacteria of the genus Rhizobium

and legumes (plant such as peas, beans, and clover). Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which live
inside nodules on the roots of legumes, supply the plants with all the nitrogen they
require to manufacture such nitrogen-containing compounds as chlorophylls, proteins,
and nucleic acids. The legumes supply sugars and other energy-rich organic molecules
to their bacterial symbionts.
 Birds eating pests off a rhino’s back
 Bees visit a flower to obtain nectar; the flower need the bee for pollination

54
3. Parasitism – A relationship in which one member, the parasite, benefits, while the
other, the host, is adversely affected.
The parasite lives in or on its host, from which it obtains nourishment. A parasite rarely
kills its host directly but may weaken it, rendering it more vulnerable to predators,
competitors, or abiotic factors.
When a parasite causes disease and sometimes the death of a host, it is called a
pathogen.

 Example: Ticks on a dog

 Tapeworm (Taenia solium) lives in the intestine of man

The ectoparasite living outside the body of the host:

- ticks (parasite) on cattle (host)
– lice on fowls;
– fleas on dogs and cats
– Aphids on plants

Ectoparasites: Mosquito: Females ingest blood for the protein. Male mosquitos ingest
plant juices.

Aphids on plants
Source: [Link]

The endoparasites living inside the body of the host; in the digestive system, in
the blood vessels, the tissues, the air passages:

55
 • bilharzias (schistosoma) lives in the bladder or the intestine of
man
• the plant parasite: dodder, living on Lucerne, sunflowers and
mealies.

4. Predation - Predators are secondary consumers and eat other living animals

• Predators have a number of victims (parasites normally have only one). They
either eat their entire prey or leave the rest to scavengers
• Example: lions, hawks, snakes, parying mantis, spiders.

5. Herbivory – is consumption of plant parts or algae by an animal.

Both of these are interspecific interactions that clearly benefit one population and harm the
other (+/-).

A deer and two fawns feeding on some foliage

Sources: [Link], [Link]

CHAPTER 3 - CHEMISTRY OF FOOD

Introduction
We are what we eat. The food we eat has various chemicals with different functions:
some deliver “building blocks” for our body components (bones, muscles, hair, teeth,
nails) and repairing material. Others come with energy or eliminate toxins. That’s why a
diet must be balanced, a fact reflected in the body’s overall health.
In the simplest sense, food provides energy for all functions of the animal and human
body. Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Food is the ‘fuel’ which supplies
chemical energy to the body to support daily activity and synthesis of necessary vital
processes within the body. The essential substances used by the body can be divided
into two broad categories: macronutrients, those substances that we need to eat
regularly in fairly large quantities, and micronutrients, those substances that we need
only in small amounts. Three major classes of macronutrients are essential to living
organisms: carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. The lack of necessary substances in our
diet leads to a deficiency disease. In this unit, we will discuss carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, vitamins, minerals and water.

56
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
 define nutrition
 compare and distinguish between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition
 describe nutritional needs of all living organisms and explain how the ecosystem
provides naturally for them
 compare the functions and chemical compositions of the major groups of organic
compounds: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, as well as vitamins and minerals (not
organic)
 distinguish between monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides
 compare storage polysaccharides with structural polysaccharides
 list diseases as a result of deficiencies of important nutrients
 explain why a balanced diet is necessary and how it can be obtained with a variety of
foods
 distinguish between polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids

1. Nutrition
1.1 What is nutrition?
Essential substances that your body needs in order to grow and stay healthy.
The word 'nutrition’ comes from a Latin word which means to 'nourish’ or to "to feed".
The functions of nutrients are:
 Carbohydrates - our main source of energy.
 Proteins - essential to growth and repair of muscle and other body tissues.
 Fats - one source of energy and important in relation to fat soluble vitamins.
 Vitamins - water and fat soluble vitamins play important roles in many chemical
processes in the body.
 Minerals - those inorganic elements occurring in the body which are critical to its
normal functions.
 Water - essential to normal body function - as a vehicle for carrying other nutrients
and because 60% of the human body is water and other organisms.

1.2 Types of nutrition

Plants and animals obtain their food in different ways. The way in which plants obtain
their food is called autotrophic nutrition and the way in which animals obtain their
nutrients is called heterotrophic nutrition.
1.3 Ways of nutrition
1.3.1 Autotrophic nutrition
Auto (refers to self) and trophic (refers to feeding and nutrition) - “Self feeding.”
Organisms that make their own organic compounds through Photosynthesis and
Chemosynthesis.

57
Photosynthesis
Photo (refers to light) and synthesis (refers to creating, making). Light is the source of
energy for the production of food in plants.

Figure 67: Fern leaves

Source: [Link]
2. Chemosynthesis

Chemo (refers to chemical) and synthesis (refers to creating, making). Chemical

activity is the source of energy for the production of organic compounds.
Organisms that do not rely on the sun to make food. e.g. Deep sea organisms
3. Heterotrophic nutrition
Hetero (refers to different) and trophic (refers to feeding and nutrition). Heterotrophs are
organisms that eat organic compounds made by plants (fig 66a). e.g. Animals.
Animals cannot make their own food. They feed on organic substances that have
originally been made by plants.

Figure 68: a) ground squirrel b) Carbohydrates

Source: [Link]

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2. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates come from plants. They are the cheapest and most plentiful of all
nutrients. Foods which contain carbohydrates are called energy foods.
2.1 Definition
Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a ratio of approximately
one carbon atom to two hydrogens to one oxygen (CH2O)n. The term carbohydrate
means “hydrate (water- H20) of carbon”. Carbohydrates contain one sugar unit
(monsaccharides), two sugar units (disaccharides), or many sugar units
(polysaccharides). The basic units (building blocks) of carbohydrates are known as
sugars.
2.2 Classification of carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrates (monsaccharides & disaccharides)
 Glucose
 Fructose
 Sucrose
Complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides)
 Starch
 glycogen
 Fibre

2.2.1 Monosaccharides
These are sugars that cannot be hydrolyzed (broken down) to simpler units. (ref. next
page)
Examples of Monosaccharides
1. Glucose - Grape sugar.
Glucose is the most important carbohydrate in biology. The cell uses it as a source of
energy. Glucose is produced in the process of photosynthesis. Fasting blood glucose
level is 80-110 mg/100 m ml in humans.

2. Fructose - Fruit sugar

Found in honey and fruits. Fructose is produced from the digestion of sucrose (a
disaccharide consisting of glucose and fructose). Fructose is the sweetest naturally
occurring sugar, estimated to be twice as sweet as sucrose
Figure 69: Fructose - Fruit sugar

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3. Galactose

It is a sugar found in dairy products, in the form of Lactose. It forms part of glycolipids
and glycoproteins in several tissues of the body.
Figure 70: To show galactose is found in dairy product

2.2.2 Disaccharides
Disaccharides have two sugar units bonded together. Disaccharides are produced from
the condensation of 2 monosaccharide molecules.
Condensation reaction

A condensation reaction occurs when two monosaccharide subunits combine and a

bond is formed when a molecule of water is removed (fig 71 a). (It is given this name
because water is released as the reaction takes place).
If the reaction happens in reverse, that is when a disaccharide breaks into two
monosaccharide molecules, it is called a hydrolysis reaction (fig 71 b). ‘Hydro’ means
‘water’ and ‘lysis’ means ‘splitting’. Monosaccharide subunits are held together by a
special type of chemical bond known as a glycosidic bond.

Figure 71: a) Condensation

b) hydrolysis reaction

Example of disaccharides

1. Lactose [milk sugar] is formed in the mammal’s gland. It is composed of 2

molecules. These are galactose and glucose.

Figure 72: Milk in the bottle

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2. Maltose (Malt sugar) is composed of 2 molecules of glucose. (glucose +
glucose)
3. Sucrose (Table sugar, Cane sugar, Beet sugar) is composed of glucose and
fructose
Figure 73: Table sugar added to the cake

2.2.3 Oligosaccharides
Contain 3 to 10 monosaccharide units. They are normally present in foods in only small
amounts.

Can be found in
 Beans
 Lentils
 Chick peas
 Soybeans
 Artichokes

2.2.4 Complex carbohydrates

Complex carbohydrates are polymers of the simple sugars. In other words, the
complex carbohydrates are long chains of simple sugar units bonded together (for this
reason the complex carbohydrates are often referred to as polysaccharides).
Polysaccharide contains more than 10 monosaccharide units and can be hundreds of
sugar units in length and include starch, glycogen and cellulose.
2.2.5 Polysaccharides - Starch and Glycogen
Starch is formed by plants. It is a polymer consisting of glucose subunits (monomers).
Glycogen is a highly branched molecule made of glucose subunits in animals. The main
stores of glycogen in the body are found in skeletal muscle and liver.
Figure 74: a) To show glycogen found in skeletal muscle b) Structure of glcogen

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1. Starch
Starch is the principal polysaccharide used by plants to store glucose for later use as
energy. Plants often store starch in seeds or other specialised organs; for example,
common sources of starch include rice, beans, wheat, corn, potatoes and so on. When
an animal eats starch, an enzyme called amylase that occurs in saliva and in the
intestines breaks the bonds between the repeating glucose units (hydrolysis) and thus
allows the sugar to be absorbed into the bloodstream. Once absorbed into the
bloodstream, the animal body distributes glucose to the areas where it is needed for
energy.
1. Glycogen
Glycogen, another polymer of glucose, is the polysaccharide used by animals to store
energy. Excess glucose is bonded together to form glycogen molecules, which the
animal stores in the liver and muscle tissue as an "instant" source of energy. Both starch
and glycogen are polymers of glucose; however, starch is a long, straight chain of
glucose units, whereas glycogen is a branched chain of glucose units, as seen in the
illustrations below:

Figure 75: Structure of Polysaccharides

3. Cellulose:

Another important polysaccharide is cellulose. Cellulose, also known as plant fibre,

cannot be digested by human beings; therefore cellulose passes through the digestive
tract without being absorbed into the body. Some animals, such as cows and termites,
contain bacteria in their digestive tract that help them to digest cellulose. Cellulose is a

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relatively stiff material, and in plants it is used as a structural molecule to add support to
the leaves, stem and other plant parts. Despite the fact that it cannot be used as an
energy source in most animals, cellulose fibre is essential in the diet because it helps
exercise the digestive track and keep it clean and healthy. We cannot digest it but its
presence in our food gives the food a solid property. This allows the muscles of the gut
to push the food along, aiding digestion and preventing constipation. Cellulose in food is
known as dietary fiber.

1.3 Dietary fibre (roughage)

Food rich in fibre is usually bulky and makes you feel ‘full up’ so that you are unlikely
overeat.

When we eat vegetables and other fresh plant material, we take in a large quantity
of plant cells. The cell walls of plants consist mainly of cellulose, but we do not
have enzymes for digesting this substance. The result is that the plant cell walls
reach the large intestine (colon) without being digested. This undigested part of the
diet is called fibre or roughage. The colon contains many bacteria which can digest
some of the substances in the plant cell walls to form fatty acids. Vegetable fibre,
therefore, may supply some useful food material, but it has other important
functions.
The fibre itself and the bacteria which multiply from feeding on it add bulk to the
contents of the colon and help it to retain water. This softens the faeces and
reduces the time needed for the undigested residues to pass out of the body. Both
effects help to prevent constipation and keep the colon healthy.

Here's a list of simple carbohydrates foods.

Table sugar, Corn syrup, Fruit juice, Sweets, Cake, Bread made with white flour, Pasta
made with white flour, most packaged cereals, Honey, Milk, Yoghurt, Jam, Chocolate,
Biscuits.

Here's a list of complex carbohydrate foods:

Barley, Beans, Bran, Brown Bread, Brown Rice, Buckwheat, Cornmeal, High Fibre
Breakfast Cereals, Lentils, Macaroni, Maize, Muesli, Oatmeal, Peas, Porridge Oats,
Potatoes, Spaghetti, Whole Meal bread, Wholegrain Cereals.
2.4 Functions of carbohydrates
 They function as primary sources of the body’s energy. The central nervous system
and red blood cells rely almost exclusively on glucose. Glucose is stored in liver and
muscles as glycogen.
 Cellulose is the main material that makes up cell walls of plant cells. It supports the
walls and keeps them rigid.
 Fibre helps the movement of food through the intestine. Fibre-rich and starchy foods
provide a "full feeling".

2. Fats
Many people think that fats are bad for you.
It is true that if you eat too many fats they can damage your health. But everyone needs
some fat in his diet. Fats are vitally important in your body because they are used as
energy storage for future use. During periods of low food consumption, fat reserves in
the body can be mobilized and broken down to release energy. Fat also provides
insulation for the body. Fats provide twice as much as energy as carbohydrates. The

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hard layers of fat in the body protect delicate organs such as your kidneys and heart.
Fats are also used in the manufacture of some steroids and hormones that help regulate
proper growth and maintenance of tissue in the body. These deposits defend against
cold and trauma. A healthy organism contains a certain amount of fatty tissue.
In cold climates, the requirements of fat in the diet increase. They must make up about
15-30 % of the diet. Too much fat in the diet leads to weight gain.

Except fruits and vegetables, most foods contain fats. Meat, lard and dairy products
contain saturated fats, while nuts, fish, plant oils and some margarine contain
unsaturated fats.
Figure 76: Fats

Unsaturated fats are healthier. Saturated fats favour the synthesis of cholesterol.
Fats are a subgroup of compounds known as lipids that are found in the body and have
the general property of being hydrophobic (meaning they are insoluble in water). Fats
are made of glycerol and fatty acids. The word lipids includes fats and oils. They are
very similar chemically but different in appearance. Fats are usually solids (usually
produced by animals), and oils are liquids (usually produced by plants). Both fats and
oils are insoluble in water. Fats and oils contain only three kinds of molecules: oxygen,
hydrogen and carbon attached to one glycerol molecule.
Fats can be classified as either saturated or unsaturated depending on the structure
of the long carbon-carbon chains in the fatty acids (the diagram below). Fats that contain
no double bonds in their fatty acid chains are referred to as saturated fats. These fats
tend to be solid at room temperature, such as butter or animal fat. The consumption of
saturated fats carries some health risks in that they have been linked to arteriosclerosis
(hardening of the arteries) and heart disease. Unsaturated fats contain a number of
double bonds in their structure. These fats are generally liquid at room temperature
(fats that are liquid at room temperature are referred to as oils). Unsaturated fats can be
either poly-unsaturated (many double bonds) or mono-unsaturated fats (one or few
double bonds). Recent research suggests that the healthiest of the fats in the human
diet are the monounsaturated fats, such as olive oil and canola oil, because they appear
to be beneficial in the fight against heart disease.

Figure 77: To show the bonds of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated

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• Polyunsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and in the refrigerator. They
easily combine with oxygen in the air to become rancid. Common sources of
polyunsaturated fats are listed in the table below.

 Monounsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature but start to solidify at refrigerator
temperatures. See the table below for sources.
Polyunsaturated fats tend to help your body get rid of newly formed cholesterol. Thus,
they keep the blood cholesterol level down and reduce cholesterol deposits in artery
walls. Recent research has shown that monounsaturated fats may also help reduce
blood cholesterol as long as the diet is very low in saturated fat.
Both types of unsaturated fats may help lower your blood cholesterol level when used in
place of saturated fats in your diet. But you should be moderate in eating all types of fat,
because fats contain more than twice the calories of either proteins or carbohydrates.
Figure 78: Table showing the different types of food

Polyunsaturated fats Monounsaturated Saturated fats

fats
safflower, sesame, soy, corn olive, canola and Beef, bacon, cheese,
and sunflower-seed oils, nuts peanut oils, butter, biscuits, crisps
and seeds avocados

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When you see “hydrogenated vegetable oils” on a margarine label, it means that
unsaturated fats have been converted to saturated fats by adding hydrogen. Unfortunately,
hydrogenation also creates trans fats, a form of fat that recent research associates with
heart disease.

Most plant fats are unsaturated oils, whereas most animal fats are saturated. Their fatty
acid chains pack closely together, which is why butter and beef fat are solid at room
temperature.
3.1 Side Effects
Eating too much saturated fat is one of the major risk factors for heart disease. A diet
high in saturated fat causes a soft, waxy substance called cholesterol to build up in the
arteries. Too much fat also increases the risk of heart disease because of its high calorie
content, which increases the chance of becoming obese (another risk factor for heart
disease and some types of cancer).
A large intake of polyunsaturated fat may increase the risk for some types of cancer.
Reducing daily fat intake is not a guarantee against developing cancer or heart disease,
but it does help reduce the risk factors.

Figure 79: Eating too much saturated fat increases your body weight

Source: [Link]
Proteins
The mammals’ body is made up of 17 % proteins. Only water is more abundant in our
body. They are found in all tissues. The word protein is derived from the Greek word
proteios, which means “of first importance”. They form the functioning, building cells
and tissues and repairing materials for the body. From food, they are broken down to
amino acids and from amino acids the body builds its own proteins.
One part is used for growth and repair; the rest for synthesizing enzymes, antibodies
and hormones. Foods rich in proteins are meat, fish, eggs, milk and dairy products, nuts,
beans, peas and cereals.

Figure 80: Proteins

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Animal proteins are more complete and easier to absorb than plant proteins. Higher
quality plant proteins are found in soy beans, nuts, wheat flour and cotton seeds.

A balanced diet for a human must be made up of 15-20 % proteins. An adult man
requires about 70 grams per day, a woman 30 g while a (growing) teenager requires 70-
100 g.

4. Proteins
Protein molecules usually contain:
 carbon (C)
 hydrogen (H)
 oxygen (O)
 nitrogen (N)
Protein molecules sometimes contain:
 phosphorous (P)
 sulphur (S).
The basic building blocks (monomers) of proteins are the amino acids. Proteins are
polymers of amino acids. Though there are hundreds of thousands of different
proteins that exist in nature, they are all made up of different combinations of amino
acids. There are about 20 different amino acids and they can be joined in any sequence
to make different protein molecules. Amino acids all have the same general structure.
There are two main types of protein: fibrous and globular.
4.1 Fibrous proteins
Fibrous proteins are the main structural and supporting materials of the body. Fibrous
proteins are very strong, water insoluble, long, narrow proteins and spirally coiled chains
of amino acids (fig 81). It is this molecular arrangement which makes fibrous proteins
extremely tough.
Three examples of fibrous proteins are:
 keratin, in hair, nails, wool, claws, beak and horn
 fibrin, in blood plasma, where its fibres trap red blood cells during the process of
clotting
 collagen, in connective tissue in the skin, in the tendons that attach muscle to bone,
in the ligaments that attach bone to bone, and in the bones themselves where it provides
tensile strength.

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Figure 81: Fibrous proteins

Source: [Link]
4.2 Globular proteins
Globular proteins are soluble in water. They have more compact and rounded shapes
(fig 82). Their amino acid chains are folded in on themselves to form a spherical shape,
with forces of attraction of different kinds helping to keep the shape. The polypeptides
coil into a globular sheet.
Haemoglobin is a functional protein that occurs in the red blood cells and helps to
transport oxygen in the body. Myosin is a protein that occurs in muscle tissue and is
responsible for the ability of muscles to contract. Insulin is a functional protein that helps
regulate the storage of the sugar glucose in the human body. Enzymes help to carry out
specific chemical reactions in the body. For example, amylase is an enzyme that occurs
both in human saliva and in the intestines that helps to break apart the glucose-glucose
bonds in the carbohydrate starch, thus allowing your body to absorb the glucose and use
it for energy.
Figure 82: Globular proteins

Source: [Link]

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When we eat protein-containing foods (such as meat, fish, beans, eggs, cheese, etc.)
the polypeptide chains are generally broken down in the digestive tract and the individual
amino acids are absorbed into our bodies. These amino acids are then recombined into
proteins specific to each individual person in a process called protein synthesis.
Recommendations
 Choose lean, protein-rich foods such as soy, fish, skinless chicken, very lean meat,
game meat and fat-free or 1% dairy products.
 Eat foods that are naturally low in fat such as whole grains, fruits and vegetables.
 Get plenty of soluble fibre such as oats, bran, dry peas, beans, cereal and rice.
 Limit fried foods, processed foods and commercially prepared baked goods
(doughnuts, biscuits, crackers).
 Limit animal products such as egg yolks, cheeses, full cream milk, cream, ice cream
and fatty meats (and large portions of meats).
 Look at food labels, especially the level of saturated fat. Avoid or limit foods high in
saturated fat.
 Look on food labels for words like "hydrogenated" or "partially hydrogenated" -- these
foods are loaded with bad fats and should be avoided.
 Liquid vegetable oil, soft margarine, and trans fatty acid-free margarine are preferable
to butter, stick margarine, or shortening.
Children under age 2 should NOT be on a fat-restricted diet because cholesterol and fat
are thought to be important nutrients for brain development.
It is important to read the nutrition labels and be aware of the amount of different types
of fat contained in food. If you are 20, ask your health care provider about checking your
cholesterol levels.

5. Vitamins and Minerals

• Minerals and vitamins are called micronutrients since they are needed by your body
in SMALL amounts. The minerals and most of the vitamins your body needs must be
obtained from the FOODS you eat since your body cannot make them.

5.1 Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts for many biochemical
processes. Vitamins are substances that are found in foods we eat. Your body needs
them to work properly, so you grow and develop just like you should. Your body is one
powerful machine, capable of doing all sorts of things by itself. But one thing it can't do is
make vitamins. That's where food comes in. Your body is able to get the vitamins it
needs from the foods you eat because different foods contain different vitamins. The key
is to eat different foods to get an assortment of vitamins. Though some kids take a daily
vitamin, most kids don't need one if they're eating a variety of healthy foods.
They are essential for our normal health and growth. If a vitamin is absent from our diet
or is not properly absorbed, a deficiency disease specific to that vitamin may ensue.
There are two types of vitamins: fat soluble and water soluble.
5.2.1 What are Fat Soluble Vitamins?
When you eat foods that contain fat-soluble vitamins, the vitamins are stored in the fat
tissues in your body and in your liver. They wait around in your body fat until your body
needs them. Fat-soluble vitamins are happy to stay stored in your body for awhile —

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some stay for a few days, some for up to 6 months! Then, when it's time for them to be
used, special carriers in your body take them to where they're needed.
Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Vitamin K are the names of the Fat Soluble Vitamins.
Their importance, foods they are rich in and deficiencies are explained below.
Vitamin A

Why is Vitamin A Important?

Vitamin A is required for night vision, and for a healthy skin. It assists the immune
system, and because of its antioxidant properties is great to protect against pollution and
cancer formation and other diseases.
Which foods are rich in vitamin A?
Milk fortified with vitamin A and cheese, butter, egg yolk, liver oil, orange fruits and
vegetables (like spanspek, carrots and sweet potatoes) and dark green leafy vegetables
(spinach), broccoli.
Deficiency
Diseases like infection of the cells in the lining of the respiratory system and night
blindness.
Vitamin D
Why is Vitamin D Important?
No bones about it . . . vitamin D is the vitamin you need for strong bones! It's also great
for forming strong teeth. Vitamin D even lends a hand to an important mineral — it helps
your body absorb the amount of calcium it needs
It also helps regulate the amount of phosphorus in the body as well as assisting in a
healthy heart and nervous system.
Which foods are rich in vitamin D?
Milk fortified with vitamin D, fish, egg yolks, liver, fortified cereal. Ultraviolet rays from the
sun change lipids in your skin into vitamin D – that is why it is called the “sunshine
vitamin”. Because of this, vitamin D deficiency is rare except in climates where there is
very little sunlight.

Deficiency
If there is a lack of vitamin D in the diet, your body cannot absorb calcium. Calcium
hardens bones. Children without enough vitamin D cannot absorb calcium, and will
develop rickets.
Vitamin E
Why is Vitamin E Important?
Everybody needs vitamin E. This hard-working vitamin maintains a lot of your body's
tissues, like the ones in your eyes, skin and liver. It protects your lungs from becoming
damaged by polluted air. And it is important for the formation of red blood cells.
While Vitamin E performs its antioxidant functions, it also protects the other antioxidants
from being oxidized. This antioxidant capability is also great in helping to prevent
degenerative diseases - including heart disease, strokes, arthritis, diabetes and cancer.
It also assists in fighting heart disease and cancers and is essential for red blood cells,
helps with cellular respiration and protects the body from pollution - especially the lungs.
Vitamin E is also useful in preventing blood clots from forming and promotes fertility,
reduces and/or prevents hot flushes in menopause. An increase in stamina and
endurance is also attributed to Vitamin E. Vitamin E is also used topically to great effect

70
for skin treatments - in helping the skin look younger, promoting healing and cutting
down the risk of scar tissue forming. Used on the skin it is also reported to help with
eczema, skin ulcers cold sores and shingles.
Which foods are rich in vitamin E?
Whole grains, such as wheat and oats, wheat germ, leafy green vegetables, sardines,
egg yolks, nuts and seeds.
Deficiency
It causes neurological problems due to poor nerve conduction. Deficiency can also
cause anemia, due to oxidative damage to red blood cells.

Vitamin K
Why is Vitamin K Important?

Vitamin K is the clot master! Remember the last time you got a cut? Your blood did
something special called clotting. This is when certain cells in your blood act like glue
and stick together at the surface of the cut to help stop the bleeding.
It is also involved in bone formation and repair. In the intestines it also assists in
converting glucose to glycogen, which can then be stored in the liver. There are some
indications that vitamin K may decrease the incidence or severity of osteoporosis and
slow bone loss.
Interestingly, intestinal bacteria will synthesis the vitamin for us. Because of this, the only
way deficiency can occur is if we lose most of our intestinal bacteria, for example by
taking antibiotics for months on end.
Which foods are rich in vitamin K?
Leafy green vegetables, dairy products like milk and yogurt, broccoli and soybean oil
Deficiency
Excessive bleeding. Slow clotting of blood after injury.

5.2.3 What are Water Soluble Vitamins?

Water-soluble vitamins are different. When you eat foods that have water-soluble vitamins,
the vitamins don't get stored as much in your body. Instead, they travel through your
bloodstream. Whatever your body doesn't use comes out when you urinate. Must eat foods
with these vitamins everyday

Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid), Vitamin B1 (Thiamin), B2 (Riboflavin), Niacin B6 (Pyridoxine),

Folic Acid, B12 (Cobalamine), Biotin, Pantothenic Acid are the names of the Water
Soluble Vitamins.
We will now look at the Vitamins C and B.
Vitamin C

Why is Vitamin C Important?

This vitamin is important for keeping body tissues, such as gums and muscles in good
shape. C is also a key if you get a cut or wound because it helps you heal. This vitamin
also helps your body resist infection. This means that even though you can't always
avoid getting sick, vitamin C makes it a little harder for your body to become infected
with an illness. It also helps to reduce cholesterol levels, high blood pressure and
preventing arteriosclerosis.

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Which foods are rich in vitamin C?
Citrus fruits, like oranges, cantaloupe, strawberries, tomatoes, broccoli, cabbage, kiwi
fruit, sweet red peppers and potatoes are rich in vitamin C.
Deficiency
Lack of vitamin C in your diet causes a deficiency disease called scurvy, which causes
pain in the joints and muscles and bleeding from the nose, gums and internal organs.
Vitamin B

Why are the B Vitamins Important?

The B vitamins are important in metabolic activity — this means that they help make
energy and set it free when your body needs it. This group of vitamins is also involved in
making red blood cells, which carry oxygen throughout your body. Every part of your
body needs oxygen to work properly, so these B vitamins have a really important job.
Vitamin B Complex/Folic acid: Helps prevent birth defects, and is needed in the
formation of red blood cells and nucleic acids
Which foods are rich in B Vitamins?
Whole grains, such as wheat and oats, fish and seafood, poultry and meats, eggs, dairy
products, like milk and yogurt, leafy green vegetables, beans and peas
6 Minerals
• Minerals are INORGANIC substances that are required by your body in order to
develop and grow properly.

• Minerals, also needed only in small amounts, have many different functions.
Minerals are important for energy transfer and as an integral part of vitamins,
hormones and amino acids.
• Minerals occur naturally in rocks and soil. Plants absorb these minerals through the
soil and animals obtain these nutrients by eating these plants or eating an animal that
has eaten these plants, then we eat these plants and animals.

• Depending on the amount in the body, minerals in the diet are classified as
macrominerals or microminerals (sometimes called trace minerals).
The seven macrominerals are:
 Calcium (Ca)
 Phosphorus (P)
 Potassium (K)
 Sodium (Na)
 Chloride (Cl)
 Magnesium (Mg)
 Sulphur (S)

1. Calcium
Why is calcium important?
Calcium, in the form of calcium phosphate, is deposited in the bones and the teeth
and makes them hard. It is present in blood plasma and plays an essential part in

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normal blood clotting. Calcium is also needed for the chemical changes which
make muscles contract and for the transmission of nerve impulses.
Deficiency
A disease called rickets; a child suffering from rickets has soft bones which tend to
bend. In older people, a lack of calcium in the diet can cause brittle bones as the
bones become thinner. This is known as osteoporosis.

Source
Milk and cheese, green leafy vegetables and also present in most foods in small
quantities and also in “hard” water.
Many calcium salts are not soluble in water and may pass through the alimentary
canal without being absorbed. Simply increasing the calcium in the diet may not
have much effect unless the calcium is in the right form, the diet is balanced and
the intestine is healthy. Vitamin D is needed for efficient adsorption.
2. Phosphorous
Why is phosphorous important?
Second most abundant mineral in the body. Critical role in bone formation. Gives bones
and teeth strength and rigidity. It is important for the biosynthesis of phospholipids
present in cell membranes.
Source
 Milk and milk products, Proteins as meat and fish products.
 Microminerals important in nutrition include:
Chromium (Cr) , Cobalt (Co) , Copper (Cu), Fluorine (F) , Iodine (I), Iron (Fe),
Manganese (Mn), Molybdenum (Mo), Nickel (Ni), Selenium (Se), Silicon (Si), Tin
(Sn), Vanadium (V), Zinc (Zn)

3. Iodine
Why is Iodine important?
Iodine is essential for the production of the molecule thyroxine, which is a hormone
produced by the thyroid gland in the neck. These hormones regulate basal
metabolism.
Sources
Sea fish and shellfish but it is also present in most vegetables, provided that the soil
in which they grow is not deficient in the mineral. In some parts of the world, where
soils have little iodine, potassium iodide may be added to table salt to bring the
iodine in the diet to a satisfactory level.
Deficiency
A lack of iodine in your diet causes the thyroid gland in the neck to swell up,
because thyroxin cannot be produced. This swelling in the neck is called goiter.
Lack of thyroxin slows down the rate of metabolic reactions in the body.
4. Iron
Why is Iron important?
The red blood cells contain the pigment haemoglobin. Parts of the haemoglobin
molecule contain iron and this plays an important part in carrying oxygen round the
body. Millions of red cells break down each day and their iron is stored by the liver and

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used to make more haemoglobin. However, some iron is lost and adults need to take in
about 15mg each day. Iron is needed also in the muscles and for enzyme systems in all
the body cells.
Sources
Red meat, especially liver and kidney, is the richest source of iron in the diet, but eggs,
groundnuts, bread, spinach and other green vegetables are also important sources.
Figure 84: Eggs

Source: [Link]
Deficiency
If the diet is deficient in iron, a person may suffer from some form of anaemia.
Insufficient haemoglobin is made and the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood is
reduced. A person suffering from anaemia looks pale, becomes tired easily, feels
breathless and is often depressed.
5. Potassium

• Function: Helps regulate fluid balance in the body, assists with the normal
functioning of muscles and nerves

• Food sources: bananas, carrots, milk

Potassium and Sodium work together to maintain water balance in the body

People who consume enough potassium each day generally have lower blood pressure than
people who do not

7. Water
Fifty to 60 percent of human body weight consists of water. In the body, water
performs these important functions:
 Carries nutrients and wastes
 Participates in chemical reactions
 Acts as a solvent for nutrients
 Lubricates and cushions joints, spinal cord, and foetus (during pregnancy)
 Helps regulate body temperature
 Maintains blood volume

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We lose water by evaporation, sweating, urinating and breathing. Dehydration
occurs when water output exceeds intake. Signs of dehydration include dry skin,
dry mucous membranes, rapid heartbeat, low blood pressure and weakness.
Humans require 7 to 11 cups (56 to 88 ounces) per day. We have to counteract
this loss by taking in water with the diet.
Water sources for the body include:
 Water (100%)
 Fruits and vegetables (90% to 99%)
 Fruit juices (80% to 89%)
 Pasta, legumes, beef and dairy (10% to 60%) • Crackers and cereals (1% to 9%)

Water is also an integral part of the transport and cooling mechanisms in plants. Plant
needs water for photosynthesis. Plants lose water through the stomata of their leaves
during transpiration. This helps the plants, especially the leaves, to remain cool on a hot
day.

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 CHAPTER 4 - MICROBIOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
Introduction
Biotechnology is the application of scientific and engineering principles to the production
of materials by biological agents. Food for human consumption has always been
vulnerable to spoilage by micro-organisms. Ancient civilizations probably found that
normally detrimental microbial contamination occasionally conferred some benefit:
improved flavour or better preservation for instance. In this way beers would have been
developed from ‘spoilt’ grain and wine from ‘spoilt’ fruit. Contamination of the alcohol by
a different agent led to the production of vinegar which was then used to preserve food,
while cheese, butter and yoghurt resulted from various microbial contaminations of milk.
Biotechnology has a long history of use in food production and processing. For ten
thousand years fermentation, a form of biotechnology, has been used to produce wine,
beer and bread. Antibiotics, such as penicillin are produced by mould fungi or bacteria.
Sewage disposal depends on bacteria in the filter beds to form the basis of the food
chain which purifies the effluent.
In this unit we will study biotechnology using examples of micro-organisms such as
bacteria, fungi and viruses in food production, industry and medicine.
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
 define biotechnology
 explain the role of biotechnology in the food industry
 list uses of biotechnology in fuel production
 explain historical uses of biotechnology
explain the areas of modern biotechnology

1. What are Microbiology and Biotechnology?

1.1 What is microbiology?
It is the study of micro-organisms, those organisms which are so small that they can only
be seen clearly, if at all, with the use of a microscope. They include bacteria, viruses and
fungi.
1.2 What is biotechnology?
Biotechnology = bios (life) + tech (tool) + logos (study of or essence).
Literally ‘the study of tools from living things’.
Definitions: “The technology involved in utilisation of biological entities (micro-organisms,
cells of higher organisms - either living or dead), and their components or constituents
(enzymes), in generating some products which are useful to enhance the quality of
human life”.
Biotechnology is not new.
For many centuries the process of fermentation has used micro-organisms (yeasts and
bacteria) to make beer, yoghurt and cheese. Bread-making, beer-brewing and pickling
all use naturally occurring micro-organisms in the production of food and drink.
 The basis of the fermentation process is the conversion of glucose (sugar) to alcohol
or to lactic acid by enzymes in the micro-organisms.

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 It can be used for preservation, converting a perishable food into one that has a
longer shelf-life.
 It can be used to change the nutritional value of food products, e.g. converting milk to
cheese.
 It can create or improve sensory characteristics of foods (flavour, aroma and texture).
1.3 Increased use of biotechnology
Increases in the use of biotechnology by the food industry are due to:
 Competition between food companies for an increased market share;
 Attempts to increase efficiency and reduce the environmental impact of production;
 Consumer demand for convenient, high quality products at reasonable cost.
2.1. Biotechnology and food production
Until Louis Pasteur showed in 1857 that wine fermentation was the consequence of
microbial activity, no-one had been aware of the role that micro-organisms played in the
manufacture of some foods. With Pasteur’s discovery came further development of the
use of micro-organisms in food production, an expansion which continues today.
2.1.1. Beer
Beers are of two basic types – top-fermenting varieties of yeast such as
Saccharomyces cerevisiae produce ales while S. carlsbergensis, a bottom-
fermenting variety, is used to make lager.
– Ale yeast--favor temperatures between 17 -22˚C(higher
temperature), usually top fermenting with a greater O 2
requirement. This is usually Saccharomyces
cerevisiae.
– Lager yeasts--favor temperatures 1.6-10˚C
(loweremperature), usually bottom fermenting, with a
lesser O2 requirement. This is usually Saccharomyces
uvarum (formerly known as Saccharomyces
carlsbergensis).
Beer production
 Beer is made from barley. The barley grains are soaked in water for 2 days at 15-20oC
and then allowed to germinate for 4 days (fig 85). During germination, the starch-
digesting enzymes in the seeds are activated. The germinating seeds are then dried at
temperatures which kill the seeds but do not denature the enzymes. This process is
called ‘malting’ and the product is ‘barley malt’.
 The dried grains are crushed (milled) and mixed with water at about 65oC and extra
starch from wheat or rice is added. The barley enzymes now digest the starch to maltose
and glucose. The sugary solution (called ‘wort’) is filtered and boiled with hops which
suppress the growth of bacteria and give the beer its bitter flavor(fig 86). Yeast is added
to the wort. The commonly used species of yeast are Saccharomyces cerevisiae and S.
carlsbergensis. Enzymes in the yeast convert maltose to glucose. In the early stages of
fermentation, yeast respires aerobically, oxidized the glucose to carbon dioxide and water
and dividing rapidly. As the oxygen supply diminishes, anaerobic respiration takes over
and the glucose is oxidized only as far as alcohol and carbon dioxide.
 Fermentation takes 5-14 days, depending on the type of beer, and results in the
conversion of all the sugar to alcohol, giving a 3-5 per cent solution. After this, the dead
yeast, proteins and hop resins are allowed to settle out, helped by ‘clarification agents’.
Beer for kegs, bottles or cans is pasteurized and its carbon dioxide level is adjusted to

77
 give the necessary ‘sparkle’ and fizzy taste. ‘Real ale’ is not pasteurized; the residual
living yeast continues fermenting and producing carbon dioxide in the barrel. The flavour
of the final product depends on a multitude of substances, as well as alcohol and carbon
dioxide, produced in the course of fermentation.
 In the fermentation tank
Top-fermenting yeasts produce ales
Bottom-fermenting yeasts produce lagers

Figure 85: Malted barley before roasting

Source: [Link]

Hops
Hops are plants, the flowers of which contain resins and
essential oils that contribute a characteristic bitter flavour and
pleasant aroma to beer. Hops also contain tannins, which add
to beer colour. Hops are added during brewing and after the
enzymes of the malt have converted the starch to sugar
maltose. Hops also have mild preservative properties and add
foam-holding capacity to the beer. All of these functions,
however, are secondary to the role of hops in flavour and
aroma.
Figure 86: Hop cone in a Hallertau, Germany, hop yard

Source: [Link]
[Link]

78
2.1.2. Wine production
Figure 87: Grapes used for wine making.

Source: [Link]
 Grape juice is the basis for wine-making, and yeast is the micro-organism that causes
the fermentation (fig 87).
 The grapes are crushed.
For white wines, white grapes are usually used, and the skins are removed from the
must (“pressing”) before fermentation
For red wines, red or black grapes are used, and the skin is allowed to remain during
fermentation
For rosé wines, red grapes are used and the juice is allowed to remain in contact with
the skins just long enough for a rose or pink colour to develop
 The liquid undergoes primary fermentation.
The extracted juice is treated with sulphur dioxide to kill bacteria and naturally occurring
yeasts. The sugar content and pH are adjusted before adding a starter culture of yeast,
usually a variety of Saccharomyces cerevisia. Natural yeasts on the skins of the grapes
may be used, but in commercial production cultured yeast is often used to give more
predictable results (fig 88). The amount of sugar in the liquid during fermentation is
measured with a saccharometer (a calibrated hydrometer).
The juice is aerated at first; the yeast respires aerobically and its population increases
rapidly. When aeration stops, the yeast ferments the grape sugar (glucose)
anaerobically to alcohol and carbon dioxide. The alcohol content rises to 10-15 per cent,
a concentration which eventually kills the yeast. Low temperatures prolong the
fermentation and increase the alcohol content. After primary fermentation, the must is
pressed (red wines) and transferred to different containers for secondary fermentation.
 Secondary fermentation and aging
Takes 3 – 6 months. Done in either stainless steel vessels or in oaken barrels. The
vessel is kept airtight to prevent oxidation. Proteins are broken down, and particles
settle.

79
 This may be repeated several times until the wine is clear, then it is bottled. The taste
and flavour (‘bouquet’) of wine depends on the organic acids and many aromatic organic
compounds present in the grape juice and produced during fermentation.

Figure 88: A cap of grape skins forms on the surface of fermenting red wine

Source: [Link]
2.1.3. Dairy products
A large number of different products is manufactured, which fall into three main
categories: cheese, yoghurt and butter (fig 89).
Figure 89: Cheese, Yoghurt and Butter

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

2.1.4. Yoghurt
3. Yoghurt and cheese have been made by herdsman for thousand of years. Both products
result from the fermentation of milk by bacteria. Initially these bacteria came from natural
resources, e.g. from the animals themselves but, since there would be a mixture of
different bacteria in different conditions, the products were often unpredictable. Today,
the micro-organisms and the conditions are carefully controlled so that the wanted
product is assured.
 Milk from cows, sheep or goats may be used to prepare yoghurt. On a commercial
scale the fat and protein content of the milk is adjusted and the milk is homogenized.
This is a mechanical process which breaks up fat droplets and prevents them from
separating out. The milk is then pasteurized.
Pasteurization destroys pathogenic (potentially harmful) bacteria and other micro-organisms
that may cause unwanted changes.

80
 The pasteurized milk is then fermented by adding a ‘starter culture’ of bacteria,
usually a mixture of Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus burgaricus. These
bacteria act on the milk sugar, lactose and convert it to lactic acid which, in turn
coagulates the milk protein, casein to produce the thick creamy consistency of yoghurt.
The fermentation works best at a temperature of 46oC and, when complete, the yoghurt
is cooled to 5oC to stop the bacterial processes. The lactic acid gives the yoghurt its
slightly sour taste. Throughout the process, the materials and containers must be kept in
a sterile condition, i.e. free from any micro-organisms that might compete with the
Streptococcus and Lactobacillus and produce unwanted substances.

Home Preparation

Yoghurt can be easily prepared at home. To produce a quart of yoghurt, a quart of milk is
heated (generally to 80 °C) and then cooled to approximately 43 °C. An inexact test for the
temperature is to test it with a finger: if the finger can be left in the milk for ten seconds, the
milk is at about the correct temperature. This does risk contaminating the yoghurt with
bacteria under the fingernails, though.

Once the milk has cooled, a tablespoon of yoghurt containing live active cultures is added to
the scalded milk and mixed well. The yoghurt is poured into a container and incubated for
the desired length of time. The fermentation time depends on the desired texture and tang in
the final product. A shorter period yields a slightly runnier product with a mildly sour flavor,
while a longer period yields thicker and tarter yoghurt.

To store plain yoghurt for the purpose of culturing future batches, it can be frozen in one
tablespoon portions and then stored in the freezer. The culture can be thawed in the
refrigerator or at room temperature and then used.

Health Benefits of Yogurt

 Yogurt helps in boosting one's immune system.
 Yogurt helps in fighting Candida yeast infections.
 Yogurt is rich in calcium and thus, keeps the bones strong and reduces the risk of
osteoporosis.
 Eating yogurt aids in improving the health.
 Yogurt is well known for its anti-inflammatory properties.
 Yogurt heals skin disorders faster.
 Yogurt aids in keeping eating disorders in check.

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3.1.1. Cheese manufacture
 The milk is homogenized and pasteurized and then cooled to around 300C before a
starter culture of the required lactic acid bacteria is added. The resultant fall in pH due to
the bacterial activity causes the milk to separate into a solid curd and a liquid whey in a
process called curdling. The addition of rennet at this stage encourages the casein in
the milk to coagulate, aiding curd formation (fig 90a). Rennet contains the enzyme
chymosin which coagulates milk casein and forms the semi-solid ‘curds’.
Chymosin can be obtained from calves’ stomachs but is now mainly produced from
genetically engineered yeast which carries the chymosin gene.

 Once the rennet is added, the mixture must be allowed to set and form curds. The
mixture is kept at around 29 to 31 °C. The whey is drained off (fig 90 b) and may be
used to feed animals. The curd is heated in the range of 32-42ºC and some salt added
before being pressed into moulds for a period of time, which varies according to cheese
type. The ripening of the cheese allows flavour to develop as a result of the action of
other milk enzymes or deliberately introduced micro-organisms. In blue cheese, for
example, Penicillium spp. is added. The duration of ripening varies, with Caerphilly
taking just a fortnight in contrast to a year required for mature cheddar. Whereas hard
cheeses ripen owing to the activity of lactic acid bacteria throughout the cheese, in soft
cheeses it is fungi growing on the surface, which are responsible. Some cheeses, such
as cottage cheese and cream cheese, are unripened i.e. they are ready immediately.

Figure 90: a. Testing of curd setting

b. Draining of the whey

Source: [Link]

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Source: [Link]

3.1.2. Butter manufacture

Not essentially a process requiring micro-organisms. Butter is made from the cream of
fresh milk and must contain at least 80% fat. The cream is first pasteurized and later it is
churned. Churning of this butterfat produces the final product.

3.1.3. Baking
Figure 91: Bread

Source: [Link]
Yeast is the micro-organism used in bread-making but the only fermentation product needed
is carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide makes bubbles in the bread dough. These bubbles
make the bread ‘light’ in texture. Flour, water, salt, oil and yeast are mixed to make dough.
Yeast has no enzymes for digesting the starch in flour but the addition of water activates the
amylases already present in flour and these digest some of the starch to sugar. With highly
refined white flour, it may be necessary to add sugar to the dough. The yeast then ferments
the sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide.

In bread-making, cereal grain is crushed to form flour, thus exposing the stored starch.
Water is added (making a dough) to activate the natural enzymes, e.g. amylases, in the
flour, which then hydrolyse the starch via maltose into glucose. Yeast, Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, is added which uses the glucose as a respiratory substrate, producing
carbon dioxide. This carbon dioxide forms small bubbles which become trapped in the
dough; upon baking in an oven these expand giving the bread a light texture. A protein
called gluten gives the dough a sticky, plastic texture which holds the bubbles of gas.
Dough is often kneaded – a process which traps air within it. This not only helps to
lighten the bread directly but also provides a source of oxygen so that the yeast can
respire aerobically, producing a greater quantity of carbon dioxide. Some anaerobic
respiration nevertheless takes place and the alcohol produced is evaporated during
baking.

83
3. Biotechnology and pharmaceuticals
Since the antibiotic penicillin was first produced on a large scale in the 1940s, there
has been a considerable expansion in the use of biotechnology to produce a range of
antibiotics, hormones and other pharmaceuticals. Antibiotics are chemical substances
produced by micro-organisms which are effective in dilute solution in preventing the
spread of other micro-organisms. Antibiotics produced by microbes are regarded as one
of the most significant discoveries of the 20th century and have greatly contributed
towards the welfare of human society.
3.1 Antibiotics
Anti is a Greek word that means ‘against’, and bio means ‘life’, thus together they mean
‘against life’ (in the context of disease-causing organisms); whereas with reference to
human beings, they are ‘pro life’ and not against. Antibiotics are chemical substances,
which are produced by some microbes and can kill or retard the growth of other
(disease-causing) microbes.
Alexander Fleming, while working on Staphylococci bacteria, once observed a mould
growing in one of his unwashed culture plates around which Staphylococci could not
grow. He found out that it was due to a chemical produced by the mould and he named it
Penicillin after the mould Penicillium notatum. Its full potential as an effective antibiotic
was established much later by Ernest Chain and Howard Florey. This antibiotic was
extensively used to treat American soldiers wounded in World War II. Fleming, Chain
and Florey were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1945, for this discovery.
One of the most prolific sources of antibiotics is the Actinomycetes. These are
filamentous bacteria which resemble microscopic mould fungi. The actinomycete
Stretomyces produces the antibiotic streptomycin.
Antibiotics have greatly improved our capacity to treat deadly diseases such as plague,
whooping cough, diphtheria and leprosy, which used to kill millions all over the globe.
Today, we cannot imagine a world without antibiotics.
Antibiotics attack bacteria in a variety of ways. Some of them disrupt the production of
the cell wall and so prevent the bacteria from reproducing or even cause them to burst
open; some interfere with protein synthesis and thus arrest bacterial growth. Those that
stop bacteria from reproducing are said to be bacteriostatic, those that kill the bacteria
are bacteriocidal. Animal cells do not have cell walls and the cell structures involved in
protein production are different. Consequently, antibiotics do not damage human cells
although they may produce some side effects such as allergic reactions.
Commercial production
In penicillin manufacture, a stirred-tank fermenter is inoculated with a culture of
Penicillium notatum or Penicillium chrysogenum and the fungus is grown under
optimum conditions: 24ºC, good oxygen supply, slightly alkaline pH. Penicillin production
typically commences after about 30 hours, reaching a maximum at around 4 days;
production ceases after about 6 days, at which point the contents of the fermenter are
drained off.
As the antibiotic is an extracellular product, the fungal mycelium is filtered off, washed
and discarded. The liquid filtrate containing penicillin is chemically extracted and purified
using solvents to leave a crystalline salt. After sterilization the fermenter is available for
the next batch.
The development of resistance to antibiotics by pathogens means there is a continuing
need to find new types. The emphasis has moved from searching for new natural
antibiotics to the development of new strains using genetic engineering. However, this is
not easy. Being secondary metabolites, antibiotics are the product of a long metabolic
pathway involving numerous genes. Manipulation of these is complex and difficult.

84
Programmes for enhancing the production rate of existing strains and using random
mutation and selection methods to develop new ones, are continually developed.
4. Gasohol production
The 1970s rises in the oil price hit oil-importing developing countries, such as Brazil,
especially hard and prompted the initiation of the Brazilian National Alcohol (or
Gasohol) Programme. The concept was simple - namely to use yeasts to ferment
Brazil’s plentiful supply of sugar cane into alcohol and so create a relatively cheap,
renewable home-produced fuel.
The actual process entails a number of stages:
1. Growing and cropping sugar cane.
2. Extraction of sugars by crushing and washing the cane.
3. The crystallizing out of the sucrose (for sale) leaving syrup of glucose and
fructose called molasses.
4. Fermentation of the molasses by Saccharomyces cerevisiae to yield dilute
alcohol.
5. Distillation of the dilute alcohol to give pure ethanol, using the waste bagasse as
a power source.
Brazilian cars have been converted to using the fuel, either entirely or mixed with petrol.
(Some petrol is added to all alcohol fuels to stop people drinking them.). What makes the
programme so successful in Brazil is that the sugar cane is not only a source of the
fermentation substrate, but also a fuel for the distilleries. Once the sugar is extracted
from the sugar cane, the fibrous waste called bagasse, can be dried and burnt as a
power source for the distillery.

• Molasses- the thick brown uncrystallized syrup obtained from sugar

during refining
• Bagasse - The dry, fibrous residue remaining after the extraction of
juice from the crushed stalks of sugar cane, used as a source of
cellulose for some paper products.

4.1. Biogas production

The capacity of naturally occurring microorganisms to decompose wastes can be
exploited to produce another useful fuel, methane (biogas). It has the advantage over
alcohol (gasohol) production of not requiring complex distillation equipment – indeed, the
process is very simple. A container known as a digester is filled with appropriate waste
(domestic rubbish, sewage or agricultural waste can be used) to which is added a
mixture of many bacterial species, e.g. Methanobacterium spp. The anaerobic
fermentation of these wastes yields methane, which is collected ready for use for
cooking, lighting or heating.
These bacteria are collectively called methanogens, and one such common bacterium
is Methanobacterium.
A typical biogas plant
 The biogas plant consists of a concrete tank (10-15 feet deep) in which bio-wastes
are collected and slurry of dung is fed into it. A floating cover is placed over the slurry,
which keeps on rising as the gas is produced in the tank due to the microbial activity.

85
 The biogas plant has an outlet, which is connected to a pipe to supply biogas to
nearby houses. The spent slurry is removed through another outlet and may be used as
fertiliser.
 Cattle dung is available in large quantities in rural areas where cattle are used for a
variety of purposes.
 So biogas plants are more often built in rural areas. The biogas thus produced is used
for cooking and lighting.

5. Microbes in sewage treatment

A major component of waste water is human excreta. This waste water is also called
sewage. It contains large amounts of organic matter and microbes, many of which are
pathogenic. This cannot be discharged into natural water bodies like rivers and streams
directly. Before disposal, hence, sewage is treated in sewage treatment plants (STPs) to
make it less polluting. Treatment of waste water is done by the heterotrophic microbes
naturally present in the sewage. This treatment is carried out in three stages:

Primary treatment: These treatment steps basically involve physical removal of

particles – large and small – from the sewage through filtration and sedimentation.
These are removed in stages; initially, floating debris is removed by sequential filtration
this process is called screening. Then the grit (soil and small pebbles) are removed by
sedimentation. All solids that settle form the primary sludge and the clear fluid forms the
effluent. The effluent from the primary settling tank is taken for secondary treatment.

Secondary treatment or biological treatment: The primary effluent is passed into large
aeration tanks, where it is constantly stirred mechanically and air is pumped into it. This
allows vigorous growth of useful aerobic microbes into flocs (masses of bacteria
associated with fungal filaments to form mesh-like structures). While growing, these
microbes consume the major part of the organic matter in the effluent. The effluent is
then passed into a settling tank where the bacterial ‘flocs’ are allowed to sediment. This
sediment is called activated sludge. A small part of the activated sludge is pumped
back into the aeration tank to serve as the inoculum.

The remaining major part of the sludge is pumped into large tanks called anaerobic
sludge digesters. Here, other kinds of bacteria, which grow anaerobically, digest the
bacteria and the fungi in the sludge. During this digestion, bacteria produce a mixture of
gases such as methane, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide. These gases form
biogas and can be used as source of energy as it is inflammable.

The advantages of the anaerobic bio-digester are:

1. The bulk of the sludge is greatly reduced.
2. The high temperatures of anaerobic fermentation destroy potential pathogens so
that the residue can be safely used as a soil conditioner or compost and the remaining
liquid can be used or sold as a liquid fertilizer.
3. The odours are greatly lessened (particularly valuable in intensive cow or pig
farms).
4. Dumping of sludge is reduced and the potential for water pollution with farmyard
slurry is avoided.
5. The methane (‘biogas’) is a valuable, relatively non-polluting source of energy.

Tertiary or chemical
This is a complete treatment, but it is very expensive and not used much.

86
6. Microbes as biofertilisers
The use of chemical fertilisers to meet the ever-increasing demand of agricultural
produce has contributed significantly to pollution. We have now realised that there are
problems associated with the overuse of chemical fertilisers and there is considerable
pressure to switch to organic farming – to use of biofertilisers.
What are Biofertilisers?
 Biofertilisers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of the soil. The main
sources of biofertilisers are bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria.
 There are nodules on the roots of leguminous plants such as peas, beans and acacia
trees formed by the symbiotic association of Rhizobium. These bacteria fix
atmospheric nitrogen into organic forms, which are used by the plant as nutrients.
Other bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen while free-living in the soil (examples
Azospirillum and Azotobacter), thus enriching the nitrogen content of the soil.
 Fungi are also known to form symbiotic associations with plants (mycorrhiza). Many
members of the genus Glomus form mycorrhiza. The fungal symbiont in these
associations absorbs phosphorus from soil and passes it to the plant. Plants having such
associations show other benefits also, such as resistance to root-borne pathogens,
tolerance to salinity and drought and an overall increase in plant growth and
development.
 Cyanobacteria are autotrophic microbes widely distributed in aquatic and terrestrial
environments, many of which can fix atmospheric nitrogen, e.g. Anabaena, Nostoc,
Oscillatoria, etc. In rice fields, cyanobacteria serve as an important biofertiliser. Blue
green algae also add organic matter to the soil and increase its fertility.

7. Microbes as biocontrol agents

Biocontrol refers to the use of biological methods for controlling plant diseases and
pests. In modern society, these problems have been tackled increasingly by the use of
chemicals – by use of insecticides and pesticides.
These chemicals are toxic and extremely harmful to human beings and animals alike
and have been polluting our environment (soil, ground water), fruits, vegetables and crop
plants. Our soil is also polluted through our use of weedicides to remove weeds.
Figure 93:a aphids , b mosquito

a b

Source:
[Link]/images/aphids

87
http:/[Link]/pics/mosquito_bite.

7.1 Biological control of pests and diseases

 In agriculture, there is a method of controlling pests that relies on natural predation
rather than introduced chemicals. A key belief of the organic farmer is that biodiversity
furthers health.
 The use of biocontrol measures will greatly reduce our dependence on toxic
chemicals and pesticides.
 The very familiar beetle with red and black markings – the Ladybird, and
Dragonflies are useful to get rid of aphids and mosquitoes fig 92.
 An example of microbial biocontrol agents that can be introduced in order to control
butterfly caterpillars is the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis. These are available in
sachets as dried spores which are mixed with water and sprayed onto vulnerable plants
such as brassicas and fruit trees, where these are eaten by the insect larvae. In the
gut of the larvae, the toxin is released and the larvae are killed.
 The bacterial disease will kill the caterpillars, but leave other insects unharmed.
Because of the development of methods of genetic engineering in the last decade or so,
scientists have introduced B. thuringiensis toxin genes into plants. Such plants are
resistant to attack by insect pests.
 A biological control method being developed for use in the treatment of plant disease
is the fungus Trichoderma. Trichoderma species are free-living fungi that are very
common in root ecosystems. They are effective biocontrol agents of several plant
pathogens.

88
CHAPTER 5 - THE PROPERTIES AND STRUCTURE OF MATTER
Introduction
Practically everything we use has been changed from its natural state of little or no utility
to one of very different appearance and much greater utility. Some of these changes are
mechanical, such as turning trees into the lumber used to build houses. Many others are
chemical, such as baking clay to make pottery. Exploring, understanding and managing
the processes by which natural materials can be changed are basic to the science of
chemistry. These activities require close examination of the composition and structure of
matter, which we will do in this unit. These are
 States of matter - characteristics of solids, liquids and gases
 Classification and properties of elements, compounds and mixtures, difference
between a mixture, solution and a compound
 Mixtures - separating substances using filtration, evaporation, distillation and paper
chromatography
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
 explain the states of matter
 distinguish between gases, liquids and solids and explain how these states differ at
the molecular level
 classify samples of matter as homogeneous mixtures, heterogeneous mixtures,
compounds and elements
 classify material properties as chemical properties and physical properties and give
examples of each
 describe the different techniques for separating mixtures

1. What is Matter?
Matter is anything that has a mass and volume and takes up space (fig.94). Anything
around us and in the entire universe can be classified as either matter or energy.

Figure 94

89
2. Kinetic Theory of Matter
The word ‘kinetic’ is derived from the Greek word kineo which means ‘I move’.The
kinetic particle theory is a model used to explain the properties of matter which are
numbering below
1. All matter is composed of extremely tiny, moving particles which are not visible to
the naked eye.
2. Different substances have different types of particles (atoms, molecules or ions)
which have different sizes.
3. The particle move all the time.
4. The higher the temperature the higher the average kinetic energy of the particles.
5. Kinetic energy of the molecules is more in gases than in liquids and the least in
solids.
6. Heavier particle move more slowly than lighter ones at a given temperature.
7. The spaces in-between the molecules are called intermolecular spaces.
These spaces are more in gases, least in solids and intermediate in liquids.
8. The molecules attract each other by a force called intermolecular force. This
force increases on increasing the molecular weight. Thus solids have more
intermolecular forces and are more compact while gases have the least
intermolecular forces and are least compact.
9. The intermolecular forces decrease with the increase in intermolecular spaces
and vice versa.
Kinetic theory can be used to explain how solids, liquids and gases differ in movement
and arrangement.

3. State of Matter
The three States of Matter
 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas
They are classified based upon:
 particle arrangement
 energy of particles
 distance between particles

Figure 95: The three States of Matter

[Link]

90
3.1 Properties of the state of matter
3.1.1 Solids
In a solid the particles attract one another. There are bonds between the particles that
hold them close together. The particles have little freedom of movement and are only
able to vibrate about a fixed poistion. They cannot be compressed.
Examples: iron, ice, chalk
Or
In a solid, atoms or molecules are in close contact, sometimes in a highly organized
arrangement called a crystal. A solid have a definite shape.
Figure 96: The arrangement of particles in solids
The image part with relationship ID rId205 was not found in the file.

3.1.2 Liquids
Particles of liquids are still quite close together but they are moving around in a random
way and collide with one another quite often (fig 98). Liquids have one free surface. The
forces that hold them together are weaker than in a solid.
Examples: alcohol, gasoline, oil, water

Figure 98: The arrangement of particles in liquid.

The image part with relationship ID rId205 was not found in the file.

Or
In a liquid, the atoms or molecules are usually separated by somewhat greater distances
than in a solid. Movement of these atoms or molecules gives a liquid its most distinctive
property-the ability to flow, covering the bottom and assuming the shape of its container.
3.1.3 Gaseous
Particles of gases are very far apart and move freely. There are almost no forces holding
them together (fig 100). They collide with each other and bounce off in all directions.
Gases have no free surfaces. Molecules are moving in random patterns with varying
amounts of distance between the particles.
Examples: air, natural gas, Carbon Dioxide, steam, Nitrogen

Figure 100: The arrangement of particles in gas.

91
In a gas, distances between atoms or molecules are much greater than in a liquid. A gas
always expands to fill its container.

Figure 102: The arrangement of particles in solids of the three States of Matter

Source: [Link] 2

There is a lot of space between the particles in a gas. To compress gas you can force
the particles closer by pushing in the plunger. The gas gets squeezed or compressed
into a smaller volume (fig 103). We say gases are compressible. If enough force is
applied to the plunger, the particles get so close together that the gas turns into a liquid.
But liquids and solids cannot be compressed because their particles are already close
together.

Figure 53: Compressing a gas

Source: Gallagher, Ingram and Whitehead (1996), page 11.

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It must be understood that the size of the size of the particles is not changed during
expansion or compression of gases, liquids, or solids. The particles are merely moving
farther apart or closer together, and the space between them is changed.

Now that you have studied the different properties of the state of matter, read on to find
out about the changes that matter undergoes.

4. What Kind of Changes does Matter Undergo?

All matter undergoes physical and chemical changes. These changes can be
microscopic or macroscopic.

4.1 What is a physical change?

A physical change occurs when the substance changes its state but does not change its
chemical composition. For example: water freezing into ice, cutting a piece of wood into
smaller pieces, etc. The form or appearance has changed, but the properties of that
substance are the same (i.e. it has the same melting point, boiling point, chemical
composition, etc.)
Example - When you step on a can and crush it, you have forced a physical change.
The shape of the object has changed. It wasn't a change in the state of matter, but
something changed.

4.2 What are chemical changes?

A chemical change occurs when a substance changes into something new. This occurs
due to heating, chemical reaction, etc. You can tell a chemical change has occurred if
the density, melting point or freezing point of the original substance changes. Many
common signs of a chemical change can be seen (like effervescence, change in mass
etc).
Example - If the formula of water were to change, that would be a chemical change. If
you added another oxygen atom, you would make hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Its
molecules would not be water anymore.
Some experiments show obvious chemical changes such as a color change, while most
chemical changes happen between molecules and are unseen. When iron (Fe) rusts you
can see it happen over a long period of time. The actual molecules have changed their
structure (the iron oxidized). Fe has changed to Fe2O3.
Melting a sugar cube is a physical change because the substance is still sugar. Burning
a sugar cube is a chemical change. The energy of the fire has broken down the chemical
bonds.
Burning of wood produces new kinds of matter with properties quite different from those
of the initial sample.
Example –

1. Classify each of the following changes as physical or chemical: (a) a match is burned (b)
iron is melted; (c) limestone is crushed; (d) limestone is heated, producing lime and carbon
dioxide; (e) an antacid seltzer tablet is dissolved in water; and (f) a rubber band is stretched

b, c and f are physical

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a match is burned-combustion gases are given off, and matchstick wood is convert to ashes.
Limestone is heated-lime and carbon dioxide is the new substances. A seltzer tablet is
dissolved in water-the fizzing that results is evidence that at least one new material 9a gas)
is produced.

2. Classify each of the following as a physical or chemical change, and give at least one
observation, fact or reason to support your answer

 a. A stick is broken into two pieces

 b. A candle burns
 c. Rock salt is crushed by a hammer
 d. Tree leaves change color in autumn
4.3 Changes of states of matter
The kinetic theory can be used to explain how a substance changes from one state to
another (fig 104).
Figure 104: Changes of states of matter

The image part with relationship ID rId205 was not found in the file.

source: [Link]
Matter can be changed from one state into another by processes such as heating,
cooling or changing the pressure. Heating and cooling are the processes most often
used, and a change in state that requires an input of heat is called endothermic,
whereas one in which heat is given up (or removed) is called exothermic. (These terms
come from the Greek endo = in and exo = out). Endothermic changes are those in which
particles are moved farther apart as cohesive forces are being overcome, such as the
change of a solid to a liquid or gas. Exothermic changes are those in the opposite
direction.

4.3.1 Melting
If a solid is heated the particles vibrate faster as they gain kinetic energy. This makes
them ‘push’ their neighbouring particles further away from themselves. This causes an
increase in the volume of the solid and the solid expands. Expansion has taken place.
The particles vibrate so much that they break away from their positions. The solid
becomes a liquid (fig 105).

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Figure 105: Changes of state

[Link]

4.3.2 Evaporation/Boiling
When a liquid is heated, its particles gain more energy and move faster. They bump into
each other more often and bounce further apart (fig 106). This makes the liquid expand.
At the boiling point, the particles obtain enough energy to overcome the forces holding
them together. They break away from the liquid and form a gas.
Figure 106: Evaporation

4.3.3 Condensation
When a gas is cooled, the particles lose energy. They move more and more slowly.
When they bump into each other, they do not have enough energy to bounce away
again. They stay close together and a liquid forms.
4.3.4 Freezing
When the liquid is cooled, the particles slow down even more. Eventually they stop
moving, except for tiny vibrations and a solid form.
4.3.5 Sublimation
Dry ice is called “dry” because when it heats up, it does not change to a liquid state.
Instead the particles jump very energetically so that a gas is formed without a liquid.
This is called sublimation (fig 104). The reverse process is necessary to make dry ice
from carbon dioxide gas. When a gas changes directly to a solid, the process is also
called reverse sublimation.
Examples of substances which behave in this way are iodine and carbon dioxide.

In the case of carbon dioxide, at room temperatures below -780C it is a white solid called ‘dry
ice’. When heated just above -780C it changes into carbon dioxide gas.

95
The changes of state shown in figure 104 are examples of physical changes. Whenever a
physical change of state occurs the temperature remains constant during the change. During
a physical change no new substance is formed.

4.3.6 Melting and boiling points

No two substances have the same melting and boiling points. The melting and boiling
point of a substance will change if you mix even a tiny amount of another substance with
it.
Thus you can find out quite a lot from melting and boiling points:
You can use them to identify a substance. You can use them to say whether it is a pure
substance or whether it has something else mixed with it.
Example
You need some pure water for an experiment. This water freezes at about -20C and boils
at about 1010C. Is it pure?

Figure 107: Water in the beaker

[Link]
.gif&imgrefurl
The water in the beaker is obviously not pure. It has other things mixed with it. These are
called impurities. And this is what happens:
1. An impurity lowers the freezing point of a substance and raises its boiling point.
2. The more impurity there is in a substance, the more its freezing and boiling points
change.

Classification Scheme for Matter

Figure 108: Shows the classification scheme for matter

96
In 1803, John Dalton suggested that each element was composed of its own kind of
particles, which he called atoms. Atoms are really tiny. They’re too small to see,
even with a microscope. Robert Boyle used the name element for any substance that
cannot be broken down further, into a simpler substance. This definition can be
extended to include the fact that each element is made up of only one kind of atom.
The word atom comes from the Greek word atomos meaning “unsplittable.”
5.1 Elements
An element is a substance which cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical reactions. Mercury (Hg), silver (Ag), and sulphur (S) are
examples of elements. What are some other elements you can think of?
Some of the characteristics of elements are:
 Substance that contains only one kind of atom.
 Most occur naturally and some are made in a laboratory.
 Currently there are about 115 known elements. Of these, 92 have been obtained from
the Earth’s crust and atmosphere and 23 have been artificially made by scientists.
 Every element has a name and a symbol e.g S – Sulphur.
 The symbol consists of one, two or three letters, the first of which must be a capital
e.g. He – Helium.
 It is easy to remember that the symbol for aluminium is Al, and for carbon is C, but
some symbols are harder to remember, because they are taken from the Latin names
for the elements. For example: potassium has the symbol K, from its Latin name kalium.
Sodium has the symbol Na, from its Latin name natrium E.g. Na – Sodium.
 Where several elements have the same initial letter, a second letter of the name or
subsequent letter is added. For example, C is used for carbon, Ca for calcium and Cl
for chlorine.
 Elements are the building blocks for other substances. By joining these building
blocks together, millions of different compounds can be made. For example, water is a
compound made from the elements hydrogen and oxygen.
5.2 Compounds
Compounds are made when elements combine together. ‘Combining’ means the
elements have taken part in a chemical reaction. They have formed a new substance.
The compound has different properties from the elements it is formed from. Whenever a

97
chemical change takes place, new substances re formed. Although there are only 115
elements, there are millions of compounds.
For example, sodium and chlorine are elements. They combine together to form a
compound, sodium chloride (salt). Sodium, chlorine and sodium chloride have very different
properties (table 1)

Table – 1

Elements Compound
Sodium - Na Chlorine - Cl Sodium chloride (salt) - NaCl
Soft, grey metal Green, poisonous gas White crystalline solid – safe
Very reactive Very reactive and not very reactive

Compounds are made of two or more elements. Mercury sulphide (HgS) and silver
sulphide (Ag2S) are examples of compounds. Elements and compounds are pure
substances. The symbol for a compound is called a formula. It is made up from the
symbols of the elements. The formula shows which elements are present in the
compound, and in what proportions.
Examples:
 H2O - Water
 NaCl - Sodium Chloride
Synthesis and decomposition
When elements combine together to form compounds, the reaction is called synthesis.
Synthesis is the building up of substnces by combining simpler substances.
Unlike elements, compounds can be split up into simpler substances. For example,
sodium chloride can be split up into the elements sodium and chloride. This is done by
passing electricity through molten sodium chloride.
When compounds are split up to give simpler substances, the process is called
decomposition. The commonest wys of decomposing compounds are either by heating
them or by passing electricity through them (electrolysis)
Example
Write formulas for the following compounds:
a. Nitrogen dioxide: one nitrogen (N) atom and two oxygen (O) atoms
b. Sulphuric acid: two hydrogen (H) atoms, one sulphur (S) atom, and four
oxygen (O) atoms
Solution

a) The single N atom will not have a subscript because ones are understood and never
written. The two O atoms will be represented by writing a subscript 2. The molecular
formula is NO2.
b) The H atom will have a subscript 2, the S atom will have no subscript, and the O
atom will have a subscript 4. Therefore, the molecular formula is H2SO4

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5.3 Mixtures
A mixture is made of two or more types of atoms that are NOT chemically combined
and that can be separated by physical means. Mixtures can take many forms: Any
combinations of solids, liquids and gases.
There are two kinds of mixtures
 Homogeneous mixture - means “the same”
 Heterogeneous mixtures - means “different”
5.3.1 Homogeneous mixture
A homogeneous mixture has two substances where the particles are blended
completely. To the eye, the mixture appears to be pure substance. When the particles
stay intermixed and don’t settle into layers we call the homogeneous mixture a solution.
When a substance dissolves in another substance, a solution is formed. The substance
that is present in a smaller quantity is called a solute, the substance that is present in a
larger quantity is called a solvent and the resulting mixture is called a solution.

Solute +solvent ---->

solution

Both the solute and solvent can be in any phase.

 Solute - The solid part that gets dissolved. E.g. salt, sugar
 Solvent - The liquid part that does the dissolving. E.g. water
 Homogeneous mixtures such as sugar water are called solutions

NOTE: in a suspension the solid has not dissolved but in a solution it has.

5.3.2 Heterogeneous mixture

A heterogeneous mixture has large clumps of particles that don’t fully separate and get
intermixed with the other substance.
Chalk in water. There are white specks in the water because the chalk has not dissolved
– it is insoluble in water. A mixture like this is called a suspension.
5.4 Difference between mixtures and compounds
There are differences between mixtures and compounds. This can be shown by
considering the reaction between iron filings (dark grey powder) and sulphur (yellow
powder). A mixture of iron filings and sulphur looks different from the individual
elements (dirty yellow powder). This mixture has properties of both iron and sulphur; for
example, a magnet can be used to separate the iron filings from the sulphur.
Substances in a mixture have not undergone a chemical reaction and it is possible to
separate them provided that there is a suitable difference in their physical properties.
If the mixture of iron and sulphur is heated a chemical reaction occurs and a new
substance is formed called iron (ll) sulphide (dark grey solid).
iron + sulphur  iron (11) sulphide

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 The table in figure 109 outlines the difference between mixtures and compounds.
Figure 109: Difference between mixtures and compounds

Mixture Compound

Physical change Chemical changes

Consits of two or more substances Consists of single substances
Retains original properties Produces new properties
Separated physically Separated chemically
No definite composition Definite composition
Homogenous or heterogeneous Only homogeneous

Mixtures can be separated into their constituents by using physical methods (i.e. no
chemical reaction involved). Separation techniques are physical methods.
Pure substances

When people use the word ‘pure’ they usually mean ‘not mixed with anything else’. Pure
orange juice’ contains only the juice of oranges, with no additives.

In chemistry the word ‘pure’ means more than this. A pure substance is a single substance
on its own. Elements and compounds are pure substances, but mixtures are not. To a
chemist, orange juice is not really pure because it is a mixture of many different substances
like water, sugars, vitamins and acids.

Some important words relating to solution

Solvent The liquid in which the solution is made

Solute The substance dissolved in the solvent,
usually a solid, but may be a liquid or a gas
Soluble If a solute dissolves in a solvent, it is soluble
in that solvent
Solution The mixture of solute and solvent
Dilute solution A solution containing only a little solute in a
given amount of solvent
Concentrated solution A solution containing a lot of solute in a given
amount of solvent
Saturated solution A solution that contains as much solute as
can be dissolved at a particular temperature

5.5 Separating Mixtures

The different substances, or components of a mixture are not combined together.
Separating mechanical mixtures is usually quite simple. Most of us can usually pick out
the cashews from a bowl of mixed nuts.
Figure 110: Mixed sweets

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 The image part with relationship ID rId205 was not found in the file.

Source: [Link]
A magnet can be used to separate iron from sand (fig 111). How does it work, you
may ask? The iron sticks to the magnet but not the sand.

Figure 111: A magnet will separate iron from sand

The image part with relationship ID rId205 was not found in the file.

Source: [Link]
Below are some separation techniques we can use to separate mixtures.
5.5.1 Filtration
 The process that separates an insoluble solid from a liquid is called filtration.
 A colander is used to separate pasta from the water in which it was cooked (fig 112).
This process is a type of filtration.

Figure 112: A colander is used to separate pasta from the water

Source: [Link]
 A two-state mixture, like gravel chippings in water, can easily be separated by
filtering. The gravel pieces are too big to go through the hole in the filter funnel.

101
 For a fine suspension, like clay or mud in water, the same idea can be used but this
time a filter paper is put in the funnel (fig 113).
 The solid left behind on the filter paper is called the residue. The liquid that passes
through the filter paper is called the filtrate.

Figure 113: Filtration

Source: [Link]

5.5.4 By Centrifuging
 This is sometimes used instead of filtration. The suspension is put in a tube, and then
spun round very fast in a centrifuge (fig 114). This forces the solid to the bottom of the
tube. After the solid has been forced to the bottom of the tube, the pure liquid can easily
be decanted off. Centrifugation is used to separate milk from cream. This is possible
because milk is denser than cream.

Figure 114: An open centrifuge

Source: [Link]
5.5.5 Evaporation

If a solid is dissolved in the liquid it cannot be separated by filtering or centrifuging. This

is because it is spread all through the solvent in tiny particles. Instead, the solution is
heated so that the solvent evaporates, leaving the solid behind. Salt is obtained from this
method.
Separating liquids

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When you put oil in water, the two liquids do not mix. The oil floats on the water fig 115.
The liquids are said to be immiscible. But if you put oil in petrol, the two liquids do mix.
They are miscible.
5.5.6 How to separate two liquids
a) Immiscible liquids like oil and water can be separated with a separating funnel.

When a mixture of oil and water is poured into the separating funnel, the oil floats to the
top. When the tap is opened, the water runs out (fig 115). The tap is closed again when
all the water has gone.

Figure 115: The bottom liquid is denser than the clear oil and so sinks to the bottom of
the separating funnel. When the tap is opened the bottom liquid can be run off

b) Miscible liquids
i) Simple distillation – method used to separate a pure solvent from a solution.
Eg. pure water from salt water

One of the most basic techniques of purifying water from dissolved solutes is called
distillation (fig 116). During this process, a homogeneous mixture is heated, vaporizing
some of the solvent. The vapour rises and is then condensed in a special tube called a
condenser. The solvent becomes liquid again and is recollected. The result is a pure
substance.

Figure 116: Simple distillation apparatus

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Source: [Link]/doc/7893493/Separating-Mixtures
5.5. 7 Fractional distillation

 An alcohol and water solution is more difficult to separate. This is because their
boiling-points are close together.
 If we heat an alcohol and water solution, both parts of the mixture will evaporate at
the same time. The alcohol will evaporate faster but there will be a lot of water
evaporating as well. A special sort of distillation is used to solve this problem. It is called
fractional distillation.
 The mixture is heated. At about 780C, the ethanol begins to boil. Some water
evaporates too, so a mixture of ethanol vapour and water vapour rises up the column.
 The vapours condense on the glass beads in the column, making them hot.
 When the beads reach about 780C, ethanol vapour no longer condenses on them.
Only the water vapour does. The water drips back into the flask, while the ethanol
vapour is forced into the condenser (fig 117).
 There it condenses. Liquid ethanol drips into the beaker.
 Eventually, the thermometer reading rises above 780C. This is a sign that all the
ethanol has been separated, so heating can be stopped.

Figure 117: Fractional distillation

[Link]

5.5.8 Chromatography

This is to separate different coloured dyes. The dyes travel up the chromatography
paper to different distances. The more soluble dyes move further up than the less
soluble ones, hence separating from each other.

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Figure 118: Chromatography

Source: [Link]
Suppose you have brought a green food colouring to make coloured icing for a cake.
The green colouring might be made of a single green dye, or a mixture of a blue dye and
a yellow dye. You could use chromatography to find out which it ws.
Fig 118 shows the simplest kind of chromatography – paper chromatoraphy. The dyes
separate because some dyes prefer to stick to the paper, but others prefer to dissolve in
the solvent. The dyes that prefer the solvent travel further up the paper.
Chromatography is very useful for separating small amounts of substances in a mixture.
Chemists use it to investigate the substances in a mixture. Chromatography is often
used in hospitals. For example, it might be used to find out whether sugar is present in a
person’s urine. This would help the doctor to know if the person had diabetes.
The substances being separated by chromatography do not have to be coloured. Colourless
substances can be made to how up by spraying the paper with a locating agent. The locating
agent reacts with the colourless substance to form coloured substances.

Some of the example mixtures that can be separated using the above mentioned
techniques:
 separating dyes in inks or chlorophyll in plants (ethanol as solvent) - chromatography;
 separating sand from water - filtration;
 separating ethanol and water - fractional distillation;
 separating water from ink - simple distillation;
 separating salt from water – evaporation.

A summary of the different techniques for separating mixtures can be found in the table
in figure 119.

Figure 119: Different techniques of separating mixtures

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Process What it is used for Examples
Filtration Used for separating a Eg. separating SAND
solid or suspension from from water.
a liquid
Evaporation Used to obtain the Eg. for obtaining SALT
solute from a solution from salt water
Simple distillation Used to obtain the Eg. for obtaining pure
solvent from a solution water from sea water
Fractional distillation Used to separate one Eg. i. obtaining
liquid from a mixture of ALCOHOL (bp78C)
different liquids that from wine.
have different boiling
points. ii. Oxygen or nitrogen is
obtained from air (a
mixture of different
gasses) by the
fractional distillation of
liquid air.
Chromatography Used to separate out Eg. for separating out
one colour from a the colours in black ink
mixture of colours

Let’s do the following activity to find out whether you have understood what you
have studied so far.

Testing the purity of a substance

Chemists often need to know if a substance is pure. For example, medicines must be
tested for purity before they are sold. Impurities might harm the patient.
Chromatography can be used to see if a substance is pure. Another way of testing purity is
to measure the substance’s melting point or boiling point. The melting points and boiling
points of most elements and compounds are known accurately. They can be found in
reference books. If a substance is not pure, its melting point or boiling point will be different
from the known, accurate value. For example, pure water boils at 1000C under normal
atmospheric pressure. But if the water contains impurities, such as salt, its boiling point is
higher.

QUESTION

Classify each of the following changes as physical or chemical: (a) a match is burned (b) iron
is melted; (c) limestone is crushed; (d) limestone is heated, producing lime and carbon
dioxide; (e) an antacid seltzer tablet is dissolved in water; and (f) a rubber band is stretched

Classify each of the following changes as physical or chemical, and, in the cases of chemical
change, describe one observation or test that indicates new substances have been formed;
(a)milk sours, (b) a wet handkerchief dries, (c) fruit ripens, (d) a stick of dynamite explodes,
(e) air is compressed into steel container, and (f) water boils.

What is the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous matter? Classify each of
the following as homogeneous or heterogeneous.

106
a) A door
b) The air you breathe
c) A cup of coffee(black)
d) The water you drink
e) Salsa
f) Your lab partner

107
 CHAPTER 6 - PERIODIC TABLE
Introduction
We have already seen in the last unit that everything you see around you is made out of
tiny particles called atoms. Scientists believed that atoms were solid particles like tiny
snooker balls. Since then, experiments have shown that all atoms are made up of three
particles - protons, neutrons and electrons. We will learn about the structure of atoms
before we proceed to the periodic table.
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
explain the three basic subatomic particles of the atom
describe isotopes
explain where electrons are in atoms, and how are they arranged
describe the periodic table and name the major groups and regions on the periodic table,
and identify elements belonging to these groups
identify the elements in the same group of the periodic table that have similar properties
explain how the properties of elements change gradually from the top to the bottom of a
group
distinguish between metals, non-metals and metalloids using the periodic table

HISTORY OF THE ATOM

Earliest: Democritus, Greek philosopher (460-370 B.C.).Proposed world was made

of empty space and tiny particles called atoms. This was really the atomic theory
beginning. The word atom was first suggested by Democritus. ATOMA - (Greek for
indivisible)

First Atomic Theory

John Dalton was the first to develop atomic theory in 1803.

J.J. Thomson (1897)

• His experiments revealed that an atom is composed of charged particles and more
importantly are experiments done by Thomson in 1897 which led to the discovery
negatively charged particles called electrons.

• Similar experiments done by Goldstein led to the discovery of protons- particles

with opposite charge to electrons.

108
Ernest Rutherford (1909)

• He used the “gold foil experiment” and discovered most of the atom was empty
space and few particles were deflected. Those few particles – deflected by dense
core – called [Link]’s new evidence allowed him to propose a more
detailed model with a central nucleus. He suggested that the positive charge was
all in a central nucleus. With this holding the electrons in place by electrical attraction

• However, this was not the end of the story.

Bohr 1913

• Studied under Rutherford at the Victoria University in Manchester. Bohr refined

Rutherford's idea by adding that the electrons were in orbits. Rather like planets
orbiting the sun. With each orbit only able to contain a set number of electrons.

Borh’s Theory

• Neil Bohr hypothesized that surrounding each atomic nucleus were certain energy
level that could be occupied by electrons.

• Each level was defined by a spherical orbit around the nucleus located at specific
distance from the nucleus. The concept of certain fixed energy levels is referred to as
quantization of energy.

Aston -1918

• Aston invented a machine that was able to compare the masses of atoms. The
machine is called a mass spectrometer. He made an important discovery about the
atoms of a pure element. They did not all weigh the same! Not for the first time,
scientists were faced with two ideas that did not agree with one another:

• All the atoms of a pure element are neutral and have equal numbers of protons and
electrons. A sample of a pure element contains atoms of different masses. There is
more in an atom than just protons and electrons; there are also neutral particles.

Modern View of Atoms

The Universe is made up of a very large number of substances. If this vast array of
substances is examined more closely, it is found that they are made up of some
fundamental subatances; in 1661 these were given the name ‘elements’ by Robert
Boyle. In 1830, John Dalton suggested that each element was composed of its own kind
of particle, which is called ‘atoms’. Atoms are much too small to be seen. It has been
calculated that 2x107 of them would cover a length of only 1 cm.
In the last 100 years or so great scientists such as Niels Bohr, Albert Einstein, J.J.
Thomson, Lord Rutherford and James Chadwick have shown that atoms are in fact
made up of even smaller ‘sub-atomic particles. The most important of these are
electron, protons and neutrons.
It is useful to think of an atom as a spherical object. At the centre of this sphere is the
nucleus of the atom. This is the densest part of the atom and is where you will find the large
sub-atomic particles – the protons and neutrons. The electrons occupy the space around
the nucleus and are arranged in ‘electron shells’. The nucleus is relatively small compared

109
 with the overall size of the atom and the volume of space occupied by the electrons is very
large by comparison. Most of the atom is empty space.

SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES

Protons, which are found in the nucleus, have a positive charge. Neutrons, which are
also found in the nucleus, have no charge. These particles have almost exactly the
same mass. Electrons have a negative charge. They are held within the atom by an
electrostatic force of attraction between themselves and the positive charge of the
protons in the nucleus. Electrons have a very small mass compared with protons and
neutrons – about 1837 electrons are equal in mass to one proton or one neutron. A
summary of the properties of each type of particle is given in Fig 120

Figure 120: Characteristics of a proton, a neutron and an electron

Particle Relative Mass (amu) Relative Charge

Proton (p) 1 +1
Neutron (n) 1 0
Electron (e) 1/1840 -1

In fig 120 you will notice that the masses of all these particles are measured in atomic
mass units (amu). This is because they are so light that their masses in grams would be
so small that they would not be easy to use. The charge is measured relative to that of a
proton.
Although atoms contain electrically charged particles, the atoms themselves are electrically
neutral (they have no overall electrical charge). This is because atoms contain equal
numbers of protons and electrons.

1.1 Characteristics of a proton, a neutron and an electron

1.1.1 The nucleus
 It’s in the middle of the atom
 It contains protons and neutrons
 It has a positive charge because of the protons
 Almost the whole mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus
 But size-wise it’s tiny compared to the atom as a whole
1.1.2 Proton
 A proton has a positive charge (fig 121).
 It is located in the nucleus.

Figure 121: Proton

110
1.1.3 Neutrons
 Neutrons have no charge (fig 122).
 Located inside the nucleus.
 Add mass to atom.

Figure 122: Neutrons

1.1.4 Electrons
 Move around the nucleus in shells.
 They’re negatively charged (fig 123).
 They’re tiny, but they cover a lot of space.
 The volume of their shells determines how big the atom is.
 They have virtually no mass.
 They occupy shells around the nucleus. These shells explain the whole of
chemistry.

Figure 123: Electrons

 Number of protons equals number of electrons

 Neutral atoms have no charge overall
 The charge on the electrons is the same size as the charge on the protons but
opposite which cancels out the charges. Thus atom has no charge.
 If some electrons are added or removed, the atom becomes charged and is then an
ion.
 The number of neutrons isn’t fixed but is usually just a bit higher than the number of
protons.

Protons are heavy and positively charged.

Neutrons are heavy and neutral.

Electrons are tiny and negatively charged.

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 1.2 Building up atoms from protons, neutrons and electrons
Protons, neutrons and electrons are the building blocks for atoms. Different atoms have
different numbers of the three particles. Hydrogen atoms are the simplest. They have
one proton, no neutrons and one electron. The next simplest are helium atoms with two
protons, two neutrons and two electrons. Next comes lithium atoms with three protons,
four neutrons and three electrons.
1.2.1 Atomic number

 The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called the proton number (or
atomic number) and is given the symbol Z.
 Each element has its own, unique number of protons and no two different elements
have the same proton number. Because of this, scientists have a special name for the
number of protons in the nucleus of an atom; they call it the atomic number.

Atomic number = number of protons.

1H, 2He, 6C, 8O, 17CL

1.2.2 Mass number

Neutrons and protons have a similar mass. Electrons possess very little mass, so the
mass of any atom depends on the number of neutrons and protons in its nucleus. The
total number of protons and neutrons found in the nucleus of an atom is called the
nucleon number (or mass number) and is given the symbol A.

Mass number = number of protons + number of

neutrons.

The proton number and nucleon number of an element are usually written in the
following shorthand way:

Mass number (A) (nucleon number)

23
11Na symbol of the element
Proton number (Z)
The number of neutrons present can be calculated by rearranging the relationship
between the proton number, nucleon number and number of neutrons to give:

Number of neutrons = mass number – proton number

For example, the number of neutrons in one atom of 2412Mg is:

24 - 12=12

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Atomic number and mass number
23
The mass number 11NA

(Total of protons and neutrons)

The atomic number
(Number of protons)

Points to note

1. The atomic number tells you how many protons there are. This also tells you many
electrons there are.

2. To get the number of neutrons just subtract the atomic number from the mass
number.

3. The mass number is always roughly double the atomic number.

4. This means there’s about the same number of protons as neutrons in any nucleus.

Example
1. Determine the number of electrons and protons contained in an atom of the following
elements:
a) Potassium-
b) Cd -
c) Element number 51 –

a) 19 electron, 19 proton
b) 48 e, 48 p
c) 51 e, 51 –p

2. Determine the mass number and atomic number for atoms containing the nuclei.
Write the symbols for each atom like this (ZAE)
a) 19 protons and 20 neutrons –
b) 4 protons and 5 neutrons –
c) 9 protons and 10 neutrons–
d) 20 protons and 23 neutrons–
e) 47 protons and 60 neutrons–

a) 19 protons and 20 neutrons - atomic number – 19, mass number – 39; 1939K
b) 4 protons and 5 neutrons – atomic number – 4, mass number – 9; 49Be
c) 9 protons and 10 neutrons– atomic number – 9, mass number – 19; 919F
d) 20 protons and 23 neutrons– atomic number – 20, mass number – 43; 2043Ca
e) 47 protons and 60 neutrons– atomic number – 47, mass number –107; 47107Ag

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 3. Name each of the following atoms and write down how many protons, electron and
neutrons they have:
12
a) 6 C -
16
b) 8 O –

a) Proton -6,electron -6,neurton - 6

b) Proton -8,electron -8,neutron - 8

1.3 Isotopes
In 1919, [Link] built the first mass spectrometer. This enabled scientists to
compare the relative masses of atoms much more accurately than before. Using his
mass spectrometer, Aston discovered that some elements contained atoms with
different masses. When atoms of these elements were ionised and passed through
a mass spectrometer, the beam of ions separated into two or more paths. This
showed that one element could have atoms with different masses. These atoms of
the asme element with different masses are called isotopes.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons.
For example carbon has three:
12 13 14
6C, 6C, 6C

The upshot is: isotopes must have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
if they had different atomic numbers, they’d be different elements altogether. A very
popular pair of isotopes are carbon -12 and carbon -1

Carbon -12 Carbon -14

12 14
6C, 6C

6 protons 6 protons

6 electrons 6 electrons

6 neutrons 8 neutrons

The number of electrons decides the chemistry of the element. If the atomic number is
the same, then the number of protons is the same, so the number of electrons is the
same, so the chemistry is the same. The different number of neutrons in the nucleus
doesn’t affect the chemical behaviour at all.
1.4 Ions
An ion is an electrically charged particle. When an atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a positively charged ion. For example, during the chemical reactions of
potassium, each atom loses an electron to form a positive ion, K+
19 protons =19+
+
19K 18 electrons = 18-
Overall charge =1+

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When an atom gains one or more electrons it becomes a negatively charged ion.
For example, during some of the chemical reactions of oxygen it gains two electrons to
form a negative ion, O2-.
8 protons = 8+
2-
8O 10 electron = 10-
Overall charge = 2-.

Many atoms have a tendency to gain or shed electrons from their outer shells, to make it
complete. When this happens, their number of protons and electrons no longer
balances, so they end up with an overall electrical charge. An atom in this state is called
an ion.
Example

1. Write the symbol for an ion with 8 protons, 8 neutron and 10 electrons
16 2-
8 O

2. Write the symbol for an ion with 34 protons, 45 neutron and 36 electrons
79 2-
34 Se

After studying this chapter you should know and understand the following terms.

Element: a substance composed of its

1. The Periodic Table

The Periodic Table of Elements has developed into a very important tool for the chemist
and non chemists. It can provide much-needed information about the atoms, such as
atomic mass, atomic number and electron configuration. It is set up in such a way as to
also allow us an idea of activity. The arrangement of the elements on the Periodic Table
allows us to better understand how a substance will react with another substance. In this
section we will be learning:
 The basics of the periodic table
 The Periodic Table classification of elements into metals and non metals
 General properties of metals and non metals, reactivity series, corrosion and its
prevention

2.1 Why is the Periodic Table important to us?

The periodic table is the chemist’s most useful tool. You get to use it on every test. It
organizes lots of information about all the known elements.

Figure 124: To show that the periodic table is the most useful tool to a chemist like we
use our tools

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 Source: [Link]
12/[Link]#257,2,Why is the Periodic Table important to me?
2.2. Pre-Periodic Table Chemistry
This was a mess!!! No organization of elements. Imagine going to a grocery store with
no organization!! It was difficult to find information. Chemistry didn’t make sense.
Dmitri Mendeleev is the Father of the Periodic Table. He arranged the elements in
rows by increasing atomic weight. And he put elements in columns by the way they
reacted.
But he faced some problems. He left blank spaces for what he said were undiscovered
elements. (Turned out he was right!). He broke the pattern of increasing atomic weight to
keep similar reacting elements together.
2.3 The Modern Periodic Table
Modern periodic tables have elements arranged with increasing atomic number. The
horizontal rows are called periods and are labelled from 1 to 7 going from the top down.
The vertical columns are called groups or families and are labelled from 1 to 8.

Groups…Here’s where the Periodic Table Gets Useful!!

Elements in the same group have similar chemical
properties!!
(Mendeleev did that on purpose.) Why?

 They have the same number of valence electrons.

 They will form the same kinds of ions.

The first group is called the alkali metals; the second group is called the alkaline
earth metals. The 7th group is called the halogens; the 8th group is called the noble
gases (fig 125). All other group are called after the name of the first element in that
group - for example, the carbon group, the chromium group, and so on.

116
Figure 125: Groups

Source: [Link]
2.3.1 Hydrogen
Hydrogen belongs to a family of its own. Hydrogen is a diatomic, reactive gas.
Important properties of hydrogen
Colourless gas
Odourless
Much dense than air
Burns in air, forming water
Explodes with a squeaky pop when ignited in a test tube
Reducing agent

Hydrogen was involved in the explosion. Hydrogen is promising as an alternative fuel

source for automobiles.
Figure 126: Hydrogen gas involved in the explosion

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2.3.2 Alkali Metals
1st column on the periodic table (Group 1) not including hydrogen. Very reactive metals
always combine with something else in nature (like in salt). Soft enough to cut with a
butter knife, shiny and white (fig 127). They have only one valence electron. This
accounts for their high reactivity. The alkali metals are so reactive that they must be
stored under oil. This prevents them from reacting with oxygen and water vapour in the
air. Alkali metals also have some other unusual properties:
• They float on water because their densities are less than 1g/cm3;
• They melt and boil at very low temperatures compared with other metals.

Figure 127: Alkali Metals

Source: [Link]
1 – The alkali metals
The uses

The most common of these elements are lithium, sodium and potassium. Both sodium
and potassium ions are essential for our good health. Sodium ions help to control our
blood pressure.

2.3.3 Alkaline Earth Metals

Second column on the periodic table (Group 2) (fig 128). Metals having 2 electrons in
their outer shell. Reactive metals that are always combined with non metals in nature.
Several of these elements are important mineral nutrients (such as Mg and Ca). They
are harder than those in Group 1. They are silvery-grey coloured when pure and clean.
They tarnish quickly, however, when left in air, due to the formation of a metal oxide.

Figure 128: Alkaline Earth Metals

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Source:
[Link]
1 & 2 – The alkali metals and the alkaline earth metals
2.3.4 Transition Metals
Elements between group 2 and group 3 in the periodic table. Less reactive, harder
metals. Includes metals used in jewellery and construction.
Figure 129: Transition Metals

The Iron Triad

• Three elements in period 4—iron, cobalt, and nickel—have such similar properties
that they are known as the iron triad. These elements, among others, have magnetic
properties.

Industrial magnets are made from an alloy of nickel, cobalt, and aluminum

• Nickel is used in batteries along with cadmium.

• Iron is a necessary part of hemoglobin, the substance that transports oxygen in the
blood.

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 • Iron also is mixed with other metals and with carbon to create a variety of steels with
different properties.

• The most important transition metals are iron and copper. Iron is the most widely
used metal. It is hard, strong, malleable and by far the cheapest metal to
manufacture. It is used to make steel for cutlery, tools, machines, vehicles and
grinders. Copper is the third most used metal after iron and aluminum. Copper is
malleable, ductile (can be made into wires) and a good conductor of heat and
electricity. Because of these properties copper is used in electrical wires and cables
and in hot-water pipes and radiators.

Uses of Transition Elements

• Most transition metals have higher melting points than the representative elements.
The filaments of light bulbs are made of tungsten, element 74. Tungsten has the
highest melting point of any metal (3,410°C) and will not melt when a current passes
through it.

• Mercury, which has the lowest melting point of any metal (–39°C), is used in
thermometers and in barometers. Mercury is the only metal that is a liquid at room
temperatures. Like many of the heavy metals, mercury is poisonous to living beings.

• Chromium’s name comes from the Greek word for color, chrome. Many other
transition elements combine to form substances with brilliant colors.

• Ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum are sometimes called
the platinum group because they have similar properties. They do not combine as
easily with other elements. As a result, they can be used as catalysts.

• A catalyst is a substance that can make something happen faster but is not changed
itself. Other transition elements, such as nickel, zinc, and cobalt, can be used as
catalysts.

Inner Transition Elements

• The first series, from cerium to lutetium, is called the lanthanides.

• The second series of elements, from thorium to lawrencium, is called the actinides.

• The lanthanides are soft metals that can be cut with a knife. The elements are so
similar that they are hard to separate when they occur in the same ore, which they
often do.

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 The Actinides

• All the actinides are radioactive. The nuclei of atoms of radioactive elements are
unstable and decay to form other elements. Thorium, protactinium, and uranium are
the only actinides that now are found naturally on Earth.

• All other actinides are synthetic elements. Synthetic elements are made in
laboratories and nuclear reactors.

• Plutonium is used as a fuel in nuclear power plants.

• Americium is used in some home smoke detectors.

• Californium-252 is used to kill cancer cells.

Groups 3 through 8

• The elements in Groups 3-8 are not all solid metals like the elements of Groups 1
and 2. In fact, a single group can contain metals, nonmetals, and metalloids and
have members that are solids, liquids, and gases.

Boron Family

• Elements in group 3
• 3 valance electrons
• Both metals and metalloids
• Aluminum metal was once rare and expensive, not a “disposable metal.”

• Aluminum is used to make soft-drink cans, cookware, siding for homes, and baseball
bats.

• Gallium is a solid metal, but its melting point is so low that it will melt in your hand. It
is used to make computer chips.

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Carbon Family

• Elements in group 4
• Contains elements important to life and computers.
• Carbon is the basis for an entire branch of chemistry.
• non-metal, metals and metalloids
• Silicon and Germanium are important semiconductors.

• Carbon also is found in all living things. Carbon is followed by the metalloid silicon,
an abundant element contained in sand. Sand contains ground up particles of
minerals such as quartz, which is composed of silicon and oxygen. Glass is an
important product made from sand.

• Silicon and its Group 4 neighbor, germanium, are metalloids. They are used in
electronics as semiconductors.

• Tin and lead are the two heaviest elements in Group 4. Lead is used to protect your
torso during dental X rays. It also is used in car batteries, low-melting alloys,
protective shielding around nuclear reactors, and containers used for storing and
transporting radioactive materials. Tin is used in pewter, toothpaste, and the coating
on steel cans used for food.

Nitrogen Family

• Elements in group 5
• Nitrogen makes up over ¾ of the atmosphere.
• Nitrogen and phosphorus are both important in living things.
• Most of the world’s nitrogen is not available to living things.
• The red stuff on the tip of matches is phosphorus.

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 • The element phosphorus comes in two forms—white and red. White phosphorus is
so active it can’t be exposed to oxygen in the air or it will burst into flames. The
heads of matches contain the less active red phosphorus, which ignites from the heat
produced by friction when the match is struck.

• Phosphorous compounds are essential ingredients for healthy teeth and bones.
Plants also need phosphorus, so it is one of the nutrients in most fertilizers.

Oxygen Family

• Elements in group 6
• Oxygen is necessary for respiration.
• Many things that stink contain sulfur (rotten eggs, garlic, skunks, etc.)

• The first two members of Group 6, oxygen and sulfur, are essential for life.

• The heavier members of the group, tellurium and polonium, are both metalloids.

• Sulfur is a solid, yellow nonmetal. Large amounts of sulfur are used to manufacture
sulfuric acid; one of the most commonly used chemicals in the world. Sulfuric acid is

123
 a combination of sulfur, hydrogen, and oxygen. It is used in the manufacture of
paints, fertilizers, detergents, synthetic fibers, and rubber.

• Selenium conducts electricity when exposed to light, so it is used in solar cells, light
meters, and photographic materials. Its most important use is as the light-sensitive
component in photocopy machines. Traces of selenium are also necessary for good
health.

2.3.5 Halogens
Elements in group 7, have 7 electrons in their outer shell (fig 130). Need only one
electron to fill outermost electron shell. Very reactive with Alkali metals. Volatile,
diatomic, non metals. Always found combined with other elements in nature. Used as
disinfectants and to strengthen teeth. It is the only group on the periodic table that has a
solid, liquid and gas state. Example F2 and Cl2  gases, Br2  liquid, I2  Solid
Figure 130: Halogens

Uses of the halogens

The halogens are reactive elements. They react with a wide variety of elements and
compounds. In particular, they react with the substances in living things such as proteins and
other compounds in our lungs, our eyes and our skin. Chlorine, for example, is very
poisonous and has a choking smell. In fact it was used as a poison gas in the First World
War.

The halogens can kill bacteria and viruses as well as human tissue. This makes them useful
as antiseptics and disinfectants. Chlorine is added to drinking water and the water in
swimming pools to prevent infection by bacteria. A solution of iodine is sometimes used as
an antiseptic. Chlorine also reacts with many coloured compounds, turning them colourless,
so it is used as bleach.

Chlorine will bleach indicators like litmus or universal indicator. This provides a useful test
for chlorine gas. A damp piece of indicator paper is held in the gas. If the indicator is
bleached, the gas is probably chlorine.

Because of their reactivity, the halogens form many compounds. These compounds are
usually unreactive and stable. For example, sodium chloride (salt) is an essential part of the
human diet.

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Many of the things we use everyday are manufactured from halogens, particularly from
chlorine. PVC (polychloroethene), pesticides such as BHC and DDT, photographic film,
aerosol propellants and dry-cleaning liquids are all made from halogens.

2.3.6 The Noble Gases

Elements in group 8. Noble gases are also called inert gases as they are VERY
unreactive, monatomic gases (He, Ne) and colourless gases. The noble gaes helium,
neon, argon, krypton, xenon and the radioactive element randon make up a most
unusual group of non-metals. They were all discovered at the end of the nineteenth
century, after Mendeleev had published his periodic table in 1869. Used in lighted
“neon” signs. Have a full valence shell of eight electrons

Diatomic Elements – all group V11 elements (halogens),

oxygen (O2), Nitrogen (N2) and Hydrogen (H2)exist only in
diatomic states.

Figure 131: The Noble Gases

• Helium is less dense than air, so it’s great for all kinds of balloons. Helium balloons
lift instruments into the upper atmosphere to measure atmospheric conditions. Even
though hydrogen is lighter than helium, helium is preferred for these purposes
because helium will not burn. It is also used with oxygen for breathing in deep-sea
diving apparatus.

• The “neon” lights you see in advertising signs can contain any of the noble gases, not
just neon. Electricity is passed through the glass tubes that make up the sign. The
electricity causes the gas to glow. Each noble gas produces a unique color.

• Helium glows yellow, neon glows red-orange, and argon produces a bluish-violet
color.

2. Metals and Non-metals

The Periodic table is also divided into two parts shown by a bold line. Left of the line are
all metals and right are all non metals. Elements lying on the line are called
metalloids, which behave as both metals and non metals.

125
Figure 132: Metals and non metals

Source: [Link]

The metals are further divided into three groups. The elements in the block beginning
with the scandium family and ending with the zinc family are called transition metals.
The two rows at the bottom are the inner transition metals. All the rest of the metals
are called main group metals (fig 133).
Figure 133: To show the differences between transition metals and inner transition
metals.

Source: [Link]
3.1 Metals
Metals make up the largest number of elements and are found on the left side of the
table. These metals will form positive ions. They form positive ions because as atoms
they have one, two or three electrons in their outer shell. When they form ions they will
lose these electrons to gain electron configurations that make them stable. The number
of protons do not change therefore when a metal atom loses an electron (negatively
charged particle) it becomes positively charged because it now has less negative

126
charges than it originally had. When they lose these electrons they will end up with a
smaller radius than when they were atoms.
Reactivity series of metals
Arrangement of metals in the decreasing order of their reactivity is called reactivity series
of metals.
K - Potassium Most reactive
Na - Sodium
Ca - Calcium
Mg - Magnesium
Al - Aluminium
Zn - Zinc Reactivity decreases
Fe - Iron
Pb - Lead
H - Hydrogen
Cu - Copper
Hg - Mercury
Ag - Silver
Au - Gold Least reactive

Physical properties of metals

The following are physical properties of metals:
 Metals are solids (except mercury)
 Metals are hard (except Alkali metals)
 Metals have metallic lustre (shine)
 Metals are malleable (can be beaten into thin sheets)
 Metals are ductile (can be drawn into wires)
 Metals have high melting points. (Gallium and Ceasium have low melting points. They
melt in the palm of the hand).
 Metals have high boiling points.
 Metals are good conductors of heat. (Best conductors are silver and copper. Poor
conductors are Lead and Mercury)
 Metals are good conductors of electricity. (Best conductors are Silver and Copper).
 Metals are sonorous (produce sound when beaten)

Chemical properties of metals:

Reaction with oxygen: Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides. When copper
is heated it combines with oxygen to form copper (11) oxide.
2Cu + O2  2CuO
Most metal oxides are basic oxides because they react with water to form bases.

127
4Na + O2  2Na2O
Na2O + H2O  2NaOH
Some metal oxides show acidic and basic properties. They are called amphoteric
oxides.
Eg: - Aluminium oxide, Zinc oxide etc.
Al2O3 + 6HCl  2AlCl3 + 3H2O
(basic)
Al2O3 + NaOH  NaAlO2 + H2O (Sodium aluminate)
(acidic)

Reaction with water:

Metals react with water to form metal oxides or metal hydroxides and hydrogen.
2Na + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2
Ca + H2O  Ca (OH)2 + H2
Mg+ H2O  MgO + H2

Reaction with acids:

Metals react with dilute acids to form salts and hydrogen.
Mg + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2
2Al + 6 HCl  2AlCl3 + 3H2
The reactivity varies from metal to metal. For the above metals the decreasing order of
reactivity is Mg > Al > Zn > Fe.
Copper, silver and gold do not react with dilute HCl.
Hydrogen gas is not evolved when metals react with nitric acid (HNO3) because it is a
strong oxidising agent and it oxidises the H2 produced to water and is itself reduced to
oxides of nitrogen.
3Cu + 8HNO3  3Cu (NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2NO2

Occurrence of metals:
Some metals like gold, silver, platinum etc are found in the free state in the earth’s crust
because they are least reactive. Most metals are found as oxides, carbonates,
sulphides, halides etc.
Minerals: are elements or compounds which occur naturally inside the earth’s crust.
Ore: is a mineral from which metals can be extracted profitably at low cost with
minimum effort. All the ores are minerals, but all the minerals are not ores.
Corrosion:
 Corrosion is the damage caused to metals due to the reaction of metals with oxygen,
moisture, carbon dioxide etc.
Eg: Formation of brown coating of rust over iron.

128
Formation of green coating of basic copper carbonate over copper.
Formation of black coating of silver sulphide over silver.
Prevention of corrosion: Corrosion of metals can be prevented by:
Applying oil or grease.
Applying paint.
By galvanisation. (Coating with zinc)
By tin-plating. (Coating with tin)
Chromium-plating. (Coating with a less reactive metal like chromium)
Sacrificial protection (attaching a more reactive metal piece)

3.2 Non-metals
Properties of non metals:
Non metals are found on the right side of the periodic table. They are only a small
number of elements - mostly gases. These elements form ions that are larger than their
atoms because they have more electrons in their outer shell so it is easier for them to
gain electrons to complete their outer shell than it would be for them to lose electrons.
When they gain electrons they will have more negative particles around the nucleus,
therefore they will form ions that have a negative charge. Remember the number of
protons can't change. The two most important groups of nonmetals are the halogens
and the inert gases.
Physical properties of non metals:
The physical properties of non metals are:
 Non metals may be solids, liquids or gases. (Solids – Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorus
etc. Liquids – Bromine ; Gases – Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen etc.)
 Non metals are soft. (Except diamond which is the hardest natural substance) Non
metals do not have lustre. (Except iodine crystals).
 Non metals are not malleable.
 Non metals are not ductile.
 Non metals which are solids and liquids have low melting points.
 Non metals which are solids and liquids have low boiling points.
 Non metals are poor conductors of heat.
 Non metals are poor conductors of electricity. (Except graphite)
 Non metals are not sonorous.

3.3 Differences between metals and non- metals

The table in figure 134 outlines the differences in physical properties of metals and non
metals.

129
Figure 134: Differences between the physical properties of metals and non metals

Differences in physical properties

Metals Non Metals
Example: iron, aluminium, Example: oxygen, sulphur,
sodium, magnesium chlorine, bromine
Usually solids at room Gases, liquids or solids at
temperature room temperture
Usually have high melting and Usually have low melting and
boiling points boiling points

Have shiny surfaces Have dull surfaces when solid

Malleable – can be hammered Non-malleable (brittle) when

into shape solid

Good conductors of heat and Poor conductors of heat and

electricity electricity

Density usually high Density usually low

3.4 Metalloids
Metalloids are the other type of elements on the periodic table. They are found along
the zig-zag line drawn between boron and aluminium, aluminium and silicon and so on.
This appears as a dark line on your periodic table. Aluminium is the exception here.
Those elements found along this line are metalloids, except aluminium. Aluminium is a
metal. They separate the metals from the non metals. They have characteristics that
resemble both metals and non metals. They are semi conductors of electricity, which
makes them useful in the manufacture of electronic equipment such as computer chips
and solar batteries. (Aluminium in English – aluminum is American)
3.5 Alloy
Most metallic substances which we use nowadays are mixtures of two or more metals,
called alloys.. An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of a metal with other metals or non
metals. The properties of the metal are changed by mixing other substances with it. This
is called alloying. Alloys are formed by mixing molten metals and then allowing them to
solidify. The alloys produced have more useful properties than the pure metals. For
example, aluminium has a low density and it does not corrode like iron, but it is only
moderately strong. On mixing with 4 per cent copper, it gives an alloy that is light, strong
and resistant to corrosion. This makes it ideal for aircraft construction.
Pure copper is a very good conductor of electricity. This makes it useful for electrical wires
and cables, but it is not very hard or strong. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Bronze is
an alloy of copper and tin. Alloying copper with zinc or nickel produces alloys that are strong
enough for use in coins.

The most important alloys are those based on iron. Iron allays are called steels. Steel
contains about 1 per cent carbon. It is much harder and tougher that iron. Stainless steel
contains about 20 per cent chromium and 10 per cent nickel. Chromium prevents the steel
from rusting; nickel makes it harder and less brittle.

130
Eg:
 Steel – iron, carbon
 Stainless steel – iron, carbon, chromiun, nickel
 Brass – copper, zinc
 Bronze – copper, tin
 Solder – lead, tin (used for welding electrical wires together)
If one of the metals in an alloy is mercury, it is called an amalgam.

131
 CHAPTER 7 - ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
Introduction

Acids, bases and salts are important groups of chemical compounds.

Acids are all around us. What do you think of when you hear the word acid ? Most
people think of a fuming, corrosive liquid which is very dangerous. However, not all acids
are like this. Most of us like vinegar which we add to our fish and chips. Vinegar has the
sharp, sour taste of acids. (the latin word for sour is acidus). Citric acid gives oranges
and lemons their sharp taste. These fruits also contain ascorbic acid. We know it better
as vitamin C! Did you know that even rain water is slightly acidic? Carbon dioxide
dissolves in the rain as it falls. This is also the gas in fizzy drinks, such as cola, beer and
sparkling mineral water. These are all examples of weak acids that we meet every day.
Other acids, like hydrochloric acid, nitric acids and sulphuric acid are obviously
dangerous.
Bases are chemically opposite to acids. When a base neutralises an acid a salt is
formed. Acids and bases are common ingredients in chemicals that we use every day in
our homes.
In this unit we will discuss the following:
 General properties, examples and uses
 Concept of pH scale
 Importance of pH in everyday life
 Properties and uses of sodium hydroxide, bleaching powder, baking soda, washing
soda

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 explain the properties of acids and bases and their uses
 explain what happens chemically when neutralization occur
 explain the uses of indicators
 explain how pH is defined and why is it useful in describing acid and base solutions
 explain the importance of pH in everyday life - in human, agriculture, and
environment
 explain the uses of sodium hydroxide, bleaching powder, baking soda, washing soda

What is an Acid?
The word 'acid' is derived from a Latin word, which means "sour". The sour taste of
some fruits and vegetables (like lemons, limes, grapefruits, and oranges) is due to
various types of acids present in them. The digestive fluids of most of animals and
humans also contain acids.
Acids are defined as substances that release hydrogen ions (H+) in solution.
HCl (aq)  H+ (aq) + Cl1- (aq)
Thus, acids are H+ ion (proton) donors.
Figure 136: common laboratory acid

132
Source: :[Link]/wiki/File:Hydrochloric
1.1 Common Acids
Experiments show that some acids (such as hydrochloric acid) conduct electricity very
well. The pH of their solutions is low. These are called strong acids. Other acids (such
as acetic acid) do not conduct electricity so well and the pH of their solutions is higher.
They are called weak acids.
Acids can be divided into weak and strong acids as shown below.

 Weak Acids  Strong Acids

Acetic acid (CH3COOH): vinegar Hydrochloric acid (HCl): stomach

acid
Acetylsalicylic acid (HOOC - C6H4 –COOCH3):
aspirin Nitric acid (HNO3): fertilizer,
explosives
Ascorbic acid (C6H6O6H2): vitamin C
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4): car
batteries

1.2 The physical properties of acids

 Acids have a sour taste.
 They are corrosive.
 They have pH number less than 7
 They turn blue litmus paper red

1.3 The chemical properties of acids

1. Neutralisation
Acids and alkalis react with each other. The alkali cancels out the acid in the reaction.
This is called neutralisation.
Acidity is due to hydrogen ions, H+. Bases remove acidity by reacting with these H+ ions
so:
Acids give up H+ ions and bases take H+ions.

133
Alkalis react with acids and neutralise them. A salt is made.
Acid + Base  Salt + water
The salts of sulphuric acid are known as sulphates.
The salts of hydrochloric acid are known as chlorides.
The salts of nitric acid are known as nitrates.
For example

Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid  sodium chloride + water

NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O

During neutralisation, H+ ions in the acid are converted to water. The other product of
neutralisation is a salt. When sodium hydroxide is used to neutralise hydrochloric acid,
sodium chloride is formed. Sodium chloride is a salt – the common salt we put on our food.
But scientists use the word salt to mean any compound formed by the reaction between an
acid and a base. Therefore, neutralisation can be summed up as:

Acid + base  salt + water

1. Acids react with carbonates to give carbon dioxide.

Acid + Carbonate  salt + H20 + CO2
2. When an acid reacts with any metal, H2 gas is liberated
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq)  H2 (g) + ZnCl2 (aq)
Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq)  H2 (g) + ZnSO4 (aq)
3. Provide H+ ion. Acids release hydrogen ion in water solutions. When an
acid dissolves in water, the acid ionizes, releasing both hydrogen ions and ions of a non
metal.
HCl (aq)  H+ (aq) + Cl1- (aq)

Acids:
• Turn litmus red
• Turn universal indicator orange or red
• Have a pH less than 7
• Conduct electricity
• React with metals above copper in the activity series to give hydrogen
• React with bases to form salts; this reaction is called neutralisation
• React with carbonates to give carbon dioxide

1.4 Uses of acids

Sulphuric acid is the chemical most widely used in industry.
Sulphuric acid is also used to remove the surface oxide layers on metals (pickling)
before the metals are coated with materials that prevent rusting. For example, before
iron is coated with chromium (in chromium-plating), the iron is dipped into dilute
sulphuric acid to remove the iron oxide normally present on the surface of the iron.

134
Another important use of sulphuric acid is in storage cels. In a lead storage cell, dilute
sulphuric acid serves as the electrolyte through which ions move between the lead
plates, acting as the cathode and the spongy lead dioxide, acting as the anode. Several
such cells connected together make up the type of storage battery used in automobiles.
Nitric acid, another important industrial acid, is used in the manufacture of fertilizers,
plastics, photographic film and dyes. Nitric acid is also used in the preparation of
such explosives as dynamite and TNT.
Hydrochloric acid is produced in small quantities in the stomach where the acid aids
digestion.
Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) is frequently taken by people with a cold to relieve
headache, muscle pain and fever.
Acids are used in industry both to dissolve materials and to create new compounds. We
drink very mild acids in our carbonated and fruit drinks.
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is normally found in citrus fruits and is used in the prevention
and treatment of scurvy.

2. What is a Base?
Bases are the chemical opposites of acids. A base is a compound which neutralises an
acid. When a base neutralises an acid a salt is formed. Bases are compounds of metal
oxides (e.g.Na2O), metal hydroxide (e.g. NaOH), metal carbonates (e.g.Na2C03), metal
hydrogen carbonate (e.g.NaHCO3), ammonia solution (NH3).
Neutralisation always forms salt and water.
Acid + metal oxides  metal salt + H2O
Acid + metal hydroxides  metal salt + H2O
Acid + metal carbonates  metal salt + H2O + CO2
Acid + metal hydrogen carbonates  metal salt + H2O + CO2
Acid + metal ammonia solution  ammonium salt + H2O
2.1 Common bases
 Aluminum hydroxide (Al[OH]3): antacids, deodorants
 Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH): glass cleaner
 Calcium hydroxide (Ca[OH]2): caustic lime, mortar, plaster
 Magnesium hydroxide (Mg[OH]2): laxatives, antacids
 Sodium bicarbonate/sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3): baking soda
 Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3): dish detergent
 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH): lye, oven and drain cleaner
 Sodium hypochlorite (NaClO): bleach

2.2 Uses of bases

 A major use for bases is in cleaning. Soaps and detergents are bases or alkalis.
 A common base is sodium hydroxide (NaOH). It is also called lye and is the grease-
cutting material in early forms of soap.

135
  Calcium hydroxide, commonly known as slaked lime, is used in the preparation of
plaster and mortar. Water solutions of calcium hydroxide, called limewater, can be
used in the lab as a test for the presence of carbon dioxide.
 If a gardener finds the soil is too acidic to grow certain plants, by noting it has a low
pH, the gardener will add lime (calcium oxide) to make the soil neutral or alkaline,
depending on how much is used. Lime is similar to chalk.
 Ammonium hydroxide, frequently called ammonia, is used in the preparation of
important related compounds such as nitric acid and ammonium chloride. Ammonia
is also used as a cleaning agent.
 Magnesium hydroxide (Mg (OH)2) is commonly known as milk of magnesia. In
dilute solutions it is used as an antacid for the stomach. In the form of a suspension of
magnesium hydroxide in water, it is used as a laxative.

3. Alkalis
Water soluble bases are called alkalis. An alkaline solution contains hydroxide ions (OH-
). All alkalis are bases that dissociate in water to yield hydroxyl ions (OH-) as the only
negative ions. Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide and
ammonium hydroxide are the common alkalis.

Substances which neutralise acids are called bases.

Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis.
The reactions between acids and bases are called
neutralisations.

3.1 Properties of Alkalis

 They will remove the sharp taste from an acid. Taste bitter, chalky.
 They have a soapy feel.
 Turn red litmus blue.
 Neutralize acids.
 Like acids, they must be handled carefully, because they can burn skin.
 They have pH > 7.

4. Indicators
It would be too dangerous to taste a liquid to find out if it is acidic or alkaline. Chemists
use substances called indicators.
 Indicators help you find out whether a solution is acidic or not.
 They change colour in acid or alkaline solutions.

136
  Different indicators change to different colours.
Indicators are substances that change colour depending on whether they are in
acidic or alkaline solution.
Litmus Test
Litmus is an indicator. It changes colour in acid and alkaline solutions. Litmus is red in
an acid. Litmus is blue in an alkali.
The table in figure 137 outlines the Indicators and their colours in acid alkaline solution.
Figure 137:

Indicators Color in acid Color in alkaline

solution solution

Blue litmus Red Blue

Methyl orange Pink Yellow
Methyl red Red Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink
Red litmus Red Blue

5. pH
pH indicates the power of hydrogen. It measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
A pH of 7 is neutral.
A pH less than 7 is acidic.
A pH greater than 7 is basic.
The stronger an acid, the lower is its pH. The stronger an alkali, the higher is its pH.

Figure 138: The pH of some common substances

137
Source: [Link]
5.1 pH measurement
A common way to measure the pH of a liquid is by the use of litmus paper. This is a
special type of paper containing a chemical that will tell you whether a substance is
acidic or alkaline by its colour. Acids turn the paper red and bases turn it blue (fig 139a).
There are natural pH indicators such red cabbage juice (fig 139c), which will change its
colour when subjected to an acid or a base.
The pH of a substance can be measured is by using a pH meter (fig 139b). The pH
electrode is placed into the solution and a pH reading is given on the digital display.
Gardeners also use a battery powered pH meter to measure the pH of the soil.
Figure 139: a) pH Indicator paper

[Link]

Figure 139: b) pH meter

138
[Link]

Figure 139: c) red cabbage

Source: [Link]

6. Importance of pH in everyday life

1. 0ur body works within a narrow pH range of 7-0 to 7-8. Plants and animals survive in
a narrow range.
2. In agriculture: Every crop grows better in a particular pH range. For example, rice
grows better in slightly acidic soil, sugarcane in neutral and citrus fruits in alkaline soil.
If the soil is too acidic, (having low pH), then it is treated with quicklime basic compounds
(calcium, oxide) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) or chalk (calcium carbonate). All
these are bases and hence react with compounds the excess acid present in the soil
and reduce its acidity.
If the soil is too basic (or too alkaline) it has a high pH. If the soil is too alkaline then its
alkalinity can be reduced by adding decaying organic matter (manure or compost) which
contains acidic materials.
3. In medicines: Certain diseases are diagnosed only on the basis of the pH value of
blood and urine.
4. In the digestive system: Hydrochloric acid is produced in the stomach which helps in
the digestion of food but if it becomes excessive, the pH falls and pain and irritation
occurs. To get rid of this ANTACIDS like milk of magnesia (Mg(OH)2) are generally used
to adjust the pH.
5. In saving tooth decay: Substances like chocolates and sweets are degraded by
bacteria present in our mouth. When the pH falls to 5-5 tooth decay starts. Tooth
enamel, calcium phosphate {e}, is the hardest substance in our body. It gets corroded.
The saliva produced by salivary glands is slightly alkaline and helps to neutralise the
acid to some extent but tooth paste is used to neutralise excess acid in the mouth.
6. Bee sting leaves acid in the body. If baking soda, a base, is applied on the stung area,
it gives relief.

139
7. Pools: the pH is one of many factors that are tested in a swimming pool. Outside a
certain range, it can not only become uncomfortable, but it can allow algae to thrive.
So, pH is not just an abstract scientific concept, it is very useful to know what its role is in
your daily life. The next section deals with uses of salts.

7. Uses of Salts

Figure 141: Uses of bleaching powder, washing soda, baking soda and sodium
hydroxide

Compound Formula Uses

Bleaching powder is CaOCl 2

 Is used for the
calcium oxychloride disinfection of drinking
water or swimming pool
water.
 Is an ingredient in
bleaching powder, used
for bleaching cotton and
linen.
 It is used in bathroom
cleaners, household
disinfectant sprays,
moss and algae
removers and weed
killers.
 In addition, calcium
oxychloride may be used
to manufacture
chloroform.

Washing soda is Na 2CO 3.10H2O

 Sodium carbonate
sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen
decahydrate carbonate are useful
chemicals for many
industrial processes.
 It is used in the
manufacture of sodium
compounds such as
borax, caustic soda, etc.
 Sodium carbonate
(washing soda) is used
in glass, soap and paper
industries.
 Sodium carbonate

140
 can be used as a
cleaning agent for
domestic purposes.
 It is used for removing
permanent hardness of
water.
 It is used in laundry.
 It is used as a
laboratory reagent.

Baking soda is (NaHCO3)

 It is used as an
sodium hydrogen ingredient in antacids.
carbonate Being alkaline, it
neutralises excess acid
in the stomach and
provides relief.
 It is used as an
additive in food and
drinks.
 It is used for making
baking powder.
 It is used in soda-acid
fire extinguishers.
Sodium Hydroxide is NaOH
 Used in drain
caustic soda. cleaners and oven
cleaners which make
use of its ability to
convert fats to water-
soluble soap.
 Sodium hydroxide in
combination with
chlorine is used as a
bleaching agent for
fabrics.
 Sodium hydroxide is
used in the refining of
bauxite (which contains
alumina) to produce
aluminium oxide. This is
the raw material used to
produce aluminium.

141
Some important salts

Name Formula Use

Sodium chloride NaCl Common salt - used in

cooking

Calcium sulphate (CaSO4)2. H2O Plaster of Paris - setting

broken limbs

Iron (11) sulphate FeSO4 Iron tablets – to cure

anaemia (lack of
haemoglobin)

Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 ‘Nitram, - fertiliser

142
 CHAPTER 8 - MEASUREMENT IN SCIENCE
Introduction
We use measurements every day of our lives. We measure milk in litres, we buy chicken
by the kg, a recipe may call for a cup of sugar, a tablespoonful of oil, ¼ teaspoonful of
salt. In chemistry, all measurements are done in the metric system or in its expanded
modernized version, the SI system, from the French le Systeme Internationale d’ Unite’s.
The main advantage of the SI system is that it is a decimal system; that is, the units are
all multiples of ten of larger or smaller units. This unit is generally based on accepted SI
units but also include
 Accuracy and precision
 Qualitative and Significant figures

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 explain the basic SI units
 read and write the symbols for SI units
 build derived units from the basic units for mass, length, temperature and time.
 explain why standards and measurements are essential to chemistry.
 describe the metric units most commonly used in chemistry.
 use derived units.
 clearly distinguish between precision and accuracy.
 explain the concept of significant figures.
 define rules for deciding the number of significant figures in a measured quantity.
 explain the concept of an exact number.
 define rules for determining the number of significant figures in a number calculated
as a result of a mathematical operation.
 list the rules for rounding numbers.

Measurement and Units

The practice of chemistry demands both accuracy and clarity. The properties of matter
must be measured correctly and reported without ambiguity. A measurement is always
reported as a value. A value is a quantitative description that includes both a number
and a unit. For 100 meters, the meter is a unit by which distance is measured and the
100 is the number of units contained in the measurement. Units are quantities defined
by standards that people have agreed to use to compare one event or object to another.
In earlier times the units for length were based on parts of the body. An inch (the unit)
was the width of the thumb (the standard) and a foot was the length of a typical adult
foot. You might have described the length of a cart you wanted made as eight feet,
meaning eight times the length of your foot.
In the 18th century, the French invented the metric system, based on a more consistent,
systematic and carefully defined set of standards than had ever been used before and
called it the International System of Measurement ( SI for Systeme International
d’Unites)

143
1.1 The International System of Measurement
A modern elaboration of the original metric system was set up in 1960. It was developed
to provide a very organized, precise and practical system of measurement that everyone
in the world could use. The SI system is constructed using seven base units, from
which all other units are derived.

Figure 142: Base units for the International System of Measurement

Type of measurement Base unit Abbreviation

Length meter m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Temperature kelvin K

Amount of substance mole mol

Electric current amphere A

Luminous intensity candela cd

The chemist is not usually interested in electric currents or luminous intensity, so only
the first four base units: meter (m), kilogram (kg), second (s), and kelvin (K) are often
used.

1.2 SI Units Derived from Base Units

Volume is not on the list of SI base units. Rather than create a new definition for volume,
we derive its units from the base unit for length, the meter (the volume of a rectangular
object can be calculated from the relation: volume = length x width x height). Volume can
be defined as length cubed, so cubic meters, m3, can be used as a volume unit. A more
common unit of volume is the litre (often spelled out, but abbreviated by chemists as L
and by some others as l).

1.3 Mass and Weight

Mass is usually defined as a measure of the amount of matter in an object (matter is
defined as anything that has mass and takes up space).
Weight is the force of gravity due to the pull of the earth. Weight of an object varies
slightly at different places on the earth.
If you were to travel to the moon your weight would change because the pull of gravity is
weaker there than on earth but your mass would stay the same because you are still
made up of the same amount of matter.

144
Weight is measured in units of Force like Newton (which is the SI unit of Force).
If your mass is 60 kgs then your weight is approximately 60 x 10 = 600 Newtons. This is
because a mass of 1 kg (on earth) weigh almost 10 Newtons.
If you go to the moon your mass remains the same, i.e 60 kgs, but your weight becomes
less by 1/6 of the amount, since the moon's gravity is 1/6 that of earth.
A true balance beam (like a triple beam balance you use at school) measures mass by
balancing the scale against a known (standardized) mass. On the moon the mass on the
top side of the balance may 'exert less force', but then less force will be needed to
balance it.

1.4 Differences between Mass and Weight

Figure 143: The table shows the differences between Mass and Weight
Mass Weight

Is always a constant at any place Depends on gravity at the place

and time

Is measured in kilograms in SI Is measured in Newton's (not in

unit kilograms as one might think)

Is measured using balance Is measured using scales

Can never be zero Can also be zero

Temperature Scales
Temperature is a measure of the availability of heat or cold or in simpler terms, of how
hot or cold a substance is. It can be measured by means of a thermometer. When we
speak of body temperature as being 37 degrees or when we say that the outside
temperature is 26.5 degrees or even 2 degrees below zero, we are usually speaking in
terms of degrees Celsius (0C) and Fahrenheit (0F), even though we may not express the
unit itself. In chemistry, the Celsius (C) and Kelvin (K) Temperature scales are
commonly used. Let us see first how the Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales
compare with one another.

For the Celsius scale, the temperature at which water freezes is defined as 0 °C, and the
temperature at which water boils is defined as 100 °C.
Thus a degree Celsius, °C, is 1/100 of the temperature difference between freezing and
boiling water.

145
For the Fahrenheit scale, commonly used in the USA, the temperature at which water
freezes is defined as 32 °F, and the temperature at which water boils is defined as 212
°F.
There are 180 °F between freezing and boiling water (212 - 32 = 180), so a degree
Fahrenheit, °F, is 1/180 of the temperature difference between freezing and boiling
water.
This information can be combined into the following formulas:

°F = (1.8 x °C) + 32

°C = °F- 32
1.8

To change Celsius temperatures to the corresponding Fahrenheit reading add 32; the
second formula is used to do the reverse, to change a Fahrenheit reading to Celsius
subtract 32.
In science, we often measure temperature on the Kelvin scale. A Kelvin thermometer
will indicate the freezing point of water as 273 K and the boiling point of water as 373 K.
Temperatures on the Kelvin scale are given as numbers only, without the degree sign.
Why pick 273 K for the freezing point of water? Why not an even number? This
temperature was selected so that zero on the Kelvin scale would represent the lowest
temperature it is possible to reach. This temperature, K, is also called absolute zero.
There are 100 units between the boiling and freezing points of water on the Kelvin scale
(373K-273K), just as there are on the Celsius scale. The difference between the freezing
points of water on the Kelvin and Celsius scales is 273 (273-0). This information can be
combined into the following formula.

K = 0C+273

°C = number of K -273

The unit of measurement on the Kelvin scale is called the kelvin, K.

The value 0 K is defined as absolute zero, the lowest possible temperature.
Absolute zero is the point beyond which the motion of the particles, and therefore the
temperature, cannot be decreased.
Absolute zero is 0 K, -273.15 °C, and -459.67 °F.
Because the zero point for the Kelvin scale is absolute zero, all Kelvin temperatures are
positive.

Example
A temperature reading of 77 °F is measured with a Fahrenheit thermometer. What
reading would this temperature give if a Celsius thermometer were used?

Solution the change is from a Fahrenheit reading to a Celsius reading, the equation used
is:

°C =°F- 32/1.8

146
=77 – 32/1.8 = 250C

The Importance of Measurement

3.1 Scientific measurement can be qualitative or quantitative
a) Qualitative Measurements give results in a descriptive, non numeric form, verbal,
description (rough, bright, red...)

b) Quantitative Measurements give results in definite form, usually as numbers,

description by numbers (10 Kg., 98.6°C, 5'4" tall…)

Example – Classify as qualitative or quantitative

1. By feeling your forehead, you say you have a fever.
2. By using a thermometer, your temperature is measured as 102.5ºF.
3.2 Reporting Values from Measurements
All measurements are uncertain to some degree. Scientists are very careful to report the
values of measurements in a way that not only shows the measurement’s magnitude but
also reflects its degree of uncertainty.
The uncertainty of a measurement is related to both the precision and the accuracy of
the measurement.
3.3 Accuracy and Precision
Precision describes how closely a series of measurements of the same object resemble
each other. The closer the measurements are to each other, the more precise they are.

The precision of a measurement is not necessarily equal to its accuracy. Accuracy

describes how closely a measured value approaches the true value of the property.

Figure 144: To show the Accuracy and Precision

147
To get a better understanding of these terms, let’s imagine a coin that has a true mass of
2.525 g.
If the coin is weighed by five different students, each using the same balance, the
masses they report are likely to be slightly different. For example, the reported masses
might be 2.680 g, 2.681 g, 2.680 g, 2.679 g, and 2.680 g. Because the range of values is
±0.001 g of 2.680 g, the precision of the balance used to weigh them is said to be
±0.001 g, but notice that none of the measured values is very accurate.
Although the precision of our measurement is ±0.001 g, our measurement is inaccurate
by 0.155 g (2.680 - 2.525 = 0.155). Scientists recognize that even very precise
measurements are not necessarily accurate.

4. Large and small numbers

The numbers that scientists use range from enormous to extremely tiny. The distances
between the stars are literally astronomical – the star nearest to the sun is 23 500 000 000
000 miles from it. As another example, the number of atoms of chlorine in 35.5g of chlorine
is 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000, or 602 thousand billion billion. The diameter of one
chlorine atom is about 0.000 000 01 cm. To report and work with such large and small
numbers, scientists use exponential notation. A typical number written in exponential
notation looks as follows:

The coefficient is merely a decimal number written in the ordinary way. That coefficient is
multiplied by the exponential part made up of the base (10) and the exponent. (Ten is the
only base which will be used with numbers in exponential form in the general chemistry
course.) The exponent tells how many times the base is multiplied by the coefficient:

2.53 X 104 = 2.53 X 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 = 25300

Since the exponent is 4, four 10s are multiplied by the coefficient.

4.1 EXPONENTIAL NUMBERS

Scientific notation provides a method for conveniently representing any number including
those that are very large or very small. In scientific notation, numbers are represented as the
product of a nonexponential term and an exponential term in the general form M X10n. The
nonexponential term M is a number between 1 and 10 (but not equal to 10) written with a
decimal to the right of the first nonzero digit in the number. This position of the decimal is
called the standard position. The exponential term is a 10 raised to a whole number
exponent n that may be positive or negative. The value of n is the number of places the
decimal must be moved from the standard position in M to be at the original position in the
number when is written normally without using scientific notation. If n is positive, the original
decimal position is to the right of the standard position. If n is negative, the original, decimal
position is to the left of the standard position.

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
A way representing numbers consisting of a product between a nonexponential number and
10 raised to a whole-number exponent that may be positive or negative.

148
STANDARD POSITION FOR A DECIMAL
In scientific notation, the position to the right of the first nonzero digit in the non-exponential
number.

EXAMPLE

1. The following numbers are written using scientific notation. Write them without using
scientific notation.

a) 3.72X 105 (b) 8.513 X 10-7

a) 372,000
b) 0.0000008513

2. Write the following numbers using scientific notation:

a) 8725.6 (b) 0.000729

a) 8.7256 X 103 (b) 7.29 X 10-4

1) POSITIVE EXPONENTS INDICATS MAKING A NUMBER LARGER.

MOVE DECIMAL POINT TO THE RIGHT
3.11 X102 = 311
2) NEGATIVE EXPONENTS INDICATS MAKING A NUMBER SMALLER.
MOVE DECIMAL POINT TO THE LEFT
3.11 X10-2 = 0.0311

The multiplication and division of numbers written in scientific notation can be done quite
simply by using some characteristics of exponentials. Consider the following multiplication:
(a X 10y) (b X10z)
The multiplication is done in two steps. First, the nonexponential terms a and b are multiplied
in the usual way. The exponential terms 10y and 10z are multiplied by adding the exponents
y and z and using the resulting sum as a new exponent of 10. Thus, we can write
(a X10y) (b X10z) = (a X b) (10y+z)
Division is done similarly. The nonexponential terms are divided in the usual way, and the
exponential terms are divided by subtracting the exponent of the bottom term from that of the
top term. The final answer is then written as a product of the resulting nonexponential and
exponential terms:
a X 10y / b X 10z = (a X b)/ (10y-z)

EXAMPLE

Do the following operations:

a. (3.5 X 104) (2.0 X 102)

b. 3.8 X 105/1.9 X 102
c. (4.6 X10-7) (5.0 X 103)
d. 1.2 X 103/3.0 X 10-2

149
 a) = (3.5 X2.0) (104X 102)
= (7.0) (104+2) =7.0 x106

b) = (3.8 /1.9 ) (105 / 102)

= (2.0) (105-2) = 2.0 X103

c) = (4.6 X5.0) (10-7X 103)

= (23) (10-7+3) = 23 X 10-4

d) = (0.40 )(10 3-(-2)) = 0.40 x 105

5. Significant figures
All numbers in a measurement that are measured accurately, plus a last estimated digit.

What is a "significant figure"?

The number of significant figures in a result is simply the number of figures

that are known with some degree of reliability. The number 13.2 is said to
have 3 significant figures. The number 13.20 is said to have 4 significant
figures.

5.1 Significant Figures rules

1) ALL NON ZERO DIGITS ARE ALWAYS SIGNIFICANT.

4.2 and 27 both have two sig. figs.

1.59 and 15.9 both have three sig. figs.

2) ZEROES BETWEEN TWO NON ZERO DIGITS ARE ALWAYS SIGNIFICANT.

ZEROES BETWEEN TWO SIGNIFICANT DIGITS ARE ALWAYS SIGNIFICANT.

(“Sig. Fig. Sandwich”) 8.909 and 1005 both have four sig. figs.

20.6 contain three sig. figs

100.25 contain five sig. figs

3) ZEROES TO THE LEFT OF NON ZERO DIGITS ARE NOT SIGNIFICANT.

0.0006 and 0.06 both have only one sig. fig.

0.517 contain three sig. figs

4) TERMINAL ZEROES AFTER THE DECIMAL POINT ARE ALWAYS SIGNIFICANT.

1.000 and 9.820 both have four sig. figs.

59.0 contain three sig. figs

5) In a number with no decimal point, zeroes at the end of the number (‘trailing
zeroes’) are not necessarily significant. Thus, in the value 602,000, there are at least

150
three significant figures (the 6, the first 0 (see rule 2) and the 2). The three trailing zeroes
may or may not be significant because their primary purpose is to put the 6, the 0 and
the 2 in the correct position. A method to avoid this ambiguity, by expressing the value in
scientific notation, is presented shortly.

5) TERMINAL ZERORES NOT INVOLVING A DECIMAL POINT ARE NOT

SIGNIFICANT … UNLESS WRITTEN IN SCIENTIFIC NOTATION FOR
CLARIFICATION OR UNLESS A DECIMAL POINT IS PLACED AFTER THE LAST
ZERO.
1230 written as 1.23 x 103 has three [Link].
1230 written as 1230. Or 1.230 x 103 has four [Link].

Example

Determine the number of significant figures in each of the following measurements.

a. 24.60C (b) 0.036g (c) 15.0mL (d) 0.0020m

a. all the numbers are significant: three significant figures

b. the leading zeros are not significant: two significant figures

c. the trailing zeros is significant: three significant figures

d. the leading zeros are not significant, but the trailing zero is: two significant figures

6. Rounding off
The following rules are used when rounding off a number:

1. When the number dropped is less than 5, the preceding number remains
unchanged. Thus, 1.874 is rounded off to 1.87 and 0.056452 is rounded off to 0.05645.

2. When the number dropped is more than 5, 1 is added to the preceding number.
Thus, 4.7438 is rounded off to 4.744 and 0.0526 is rounded off to 0.053.

3. When the number dropped is exactly 5, if the preceding number is even, it

remains unchanged; if the preceding number is odd, 1 is added to it. Thus, 7.245 is
rounded off to 7.24 and 13.7735 is rounded off to 13.774. For a number such as may be
obtained from a hand calculator, rounding off successively, we have

9.1703845

9.170384

9.17038

9.1704

9.170

9.17

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9.2

9.0

1) IN ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION, THE ANSWER MAY CONTAIN ONLY AS

MANY DECIMAL PLACES AS THE LEAST ACCURATE VALUE.

5.2208 + 0.1 = 5.3208 5.3 adjusted

121.50 + 9000 = 9121.50 9122 adjusted

2) IN MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION, THE ANSWER MAY CONTAIN ONLY AS

MANY TOTAL DIGITS AS THE LEAST ACCURATE VALUE USED.

5 x 10.000 = 50.000 50 adjusted

49.600 / 47.40 = 1.0464135 1.046 adjusted

Example
 Divide 9.3 by 4.05
The answer found is 2.296296296. However, a division should have as an answer the
same number of significant figures as the least accurately known (fewest significant
figures) of the numbers being divided. One of the numbers, 9.3 contains only 2
significant figures. Therefore, the answer can only have 2 significant figures, i.e., 2.3
(rounded off).

 Multiply 0.31 by 2.563.

Answer is 0.79453. As in division, a multiplication can have as an answer the same
number of significant figures as the least accurately known (fewest significant figures) of
the numbers being multiplied. The number 0.31 has 2 significant figures (the zero fixes
the decimal point). Therefore, the answer can only have 2 significant figures, i.e., 0.79
(rounded off).

 Add 3.56+4.321+5.9436.
Answer is 13.8246. With addition (or subtraction), the answer is significant to the least
number of decimal places of the numbers added (or subtracted). The least accurate
number is 3.56, measured only to the hundredth place. The answer should be to this
accuracy, i.e., 13.82 (rounded off to the hundredth place).

 Subtraction 6.532-1.3.
Answer is 5.232. However, since the least accurate number is 1.3, measured to the
tenth place, the answer should be to this accuracy, i.e., 5.2 (rounded off to the tenth
place).

152
 Chapter 9 – Graphs
Introduction

Graphs are very useful tools that we can use to represent data. We can use graphs in
physics, mathematics, biology, chemistry and a range of other disciplines. In physics we
mostly use graphs when studying motion and forces. In this unit we are going to concentrate
on interpreting and constructing line graphs and column graphs.

Labelling graphs and axes

It is important that a graph has a title. Remember, your graph will probably be seen by
someone else and it has to be clear and to the point and whatever data is represented by
your graph must be easy to read. Start by giving your graph a title. This title should be short
and to the point and should, when you read it, immediately tell you exactly what you are
looking at. Secondly, both axes should be labelled correctly with a title and the correct unit
for the measurement used (if applicable). The axis labels should preferably be just one word
with the unit in brackets next to the title. You may ask why it is important that you include
the unit. Well, many times the information in a graph is used for calculations and if you don’t
know what the unit is, it will be difficult to use the data in formulas, doing calculations based
on the information in your graph.

Figure 1: Column graph representing rainfall

Title of the graph

Rainfall in Windhoek 2010

125

100
Rainfall (mm)

Title for y-axis 75

50

25

0
January February March
Months

Title for the x-axis

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In figure 1 you can clearly see that the information is about rainfall and it represents three
months of the year, January, February and March. In the chart title you can also see that it
is for Windhoek in the year 2010. The x-axis (horizontal) represents the months of the year
and the y-axis (vertical) represents the rainfall in mm. The x-axis, that represents the
months of the year, does not have a unit. For the y-axis, the unit in which we represent rain
fall is mm, the abbreviation for millimetres. In science we must always make sure that we
use the correct SI units.

In addition to choosing your scale that you are going to use for the two axes, you also have
to choose the interval of your scale. This is up to you, but what you have to keep in mind is
that it can influence the ease with which you can read your graph. Someone else using your
graph may also have difficulty reading the correct value if the interval on the scale is too
large. Below is a variation of the graph in figure 1 with a different interval on the y-axis.

Figure 2: Variation on figure 1

Rainfall in Windhoek 2010

140

120

100
Rainfall (mm)

80

60

40

20

0
January February March
Months

In figure 2 the intervals on the y-axis is 20 mm. The same three rainfalls in figure 1 is used.
January – 125 mm, February – 75 mm and March – 100 mm. It is still easy to see the exact
rainfall for March in figure 2, but for January and February it will be difficult since top of the
column is somewhere between two intervals on the y-axis.

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 Scales and Axes for Graphs

When constructing/drawing a graph it is important that you choose the scales for the x-axis
and y-axis correctly. Take a good look at the given information before starting your graph. It
doesn’t matter what type of graph you are going to use or what the data is, the principle
stays the same. The scale you choose should include ALL the values of your data from the
minimum value to the maximum value. For example: if the rainfall for a certain timeframe is
43 mm, 69mm, 7 mm and 102 mm respectively, your scale should have a minimum of zero
and a maximum of equal or more than 102 mm. Your scale should have intervals that make
your graph easy to read, if the interval is too large, you and others using or seeing your
graph might find it difficult to take accurate readings.

Plotting the Variables

The first decision you have to make, before you even choose you scales and units, is to
decide which is you dependent variable and which is your independent variable. This is
important because the independent variable is always plotted on the x-axis and the
dependent variable is always plotted on the y-axis.

An independent variable stands alone and is not changed by the other variables that you are
trying to measure. A dependent variable is something that depends on other variables. If
you find it difficult to decide which is the dependent variable and which is the independent
variable, use them in the following sentence: (Independent variable) causes a change in
(Dependent Variable) and it isn't possible that (Dependent Variable) could cause a change in
(Independent Variable).

This data is usually presented in rows or columns, showing the variables that you can plot on
the two axes. Below is the data from which the graph in figure 1 was constructed.

Figure 3: Rainfall in Windhoek in 2010

Columns

Month of the year Rainfall in millimetres

January 125
February 75
March 10

Rows

Month of the year January February March

Rainfall in millimetres 125 75 100

155
Constructing Column Graphs and Line Graphs

Column graphs and line graphs are used to represent different types of information. We
usually use line graphs in physics to represent motion and forces and column graphs are
used for more “static” data, like test scores, expenses and colours. For example, if a farmer
has 7 brown cows, 3 white and 4 black you would rather use a column graph than a line
graph. If you want to compare the speed of two people walking, you would rather use a line
graph.

Let’s look at how you would construct a column graph. Here is your data.

Figure 4: Data for test scores

Name of student Test 1 Test 2 Test 3

Anne 45 % 55 % 63 %
Jeromy 72 % 60 % 52 %

What you can see from this data is that there are two students, Anne and Jeromy. Both
have written three tests and the test scores are given as a percentage. As previously
discussed the first thing you have to decide is your titles for the graph and axes. In your
chart title you have to state what your data is about. Examples may include “Anne and
Jeromy Test Scores” or “Student Test Scores”. Then your axes titles, which should be easy.
On the y-axis examples may be “Score (%)” or “Test outcome (%)”. On the horizontal you
can also have different titles as indicated in the two examples below. Next thing is to take a
look at the test scores and choose the intervals you are going to use. Then you can start.
Below is two versions of the data in figure 4.

156
Figure 5: Version 1-Test scores for students represented in a column graph

Student Test Scores

72
68
64
60
56
52
48 Legend
44
Percentage

40
36
32 Anne
28
24 Jeromy
20
16
12
8
4
0
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3
Test number

In this graph you will see that there are two columns at each test number since two students’
scores are represented. On the right side of the graph is a legendwhich indicates which of
the two student scores you are looking at when the two columns are next to each other.
Since the test scores are so different your choice of interval on the y-axis becomes very
important.

The horizontal lines you seen on the graph are called grid lines. These lines are there to
make it easier for you to read the corresponding values of the graph on the y-axis. Looking
at the numbers you can see that the interval on the y-axis is 4 %. In between each interval
there is another line, which represents the middle of the interval, which in this case will be 2
%. Therefore, the line between 12 % and 16 % will represent 14 %.

Now look at Jeromy’s test scores, they are all even numbers and will fall on a line. However,
Anne’s scores are all uneven numbers and will fall between two lines. For example, Anne’s
test 2 score is 55 % and on the graph this falls between 54 % and 56%. Major gridlines are
the lines next to a value and minor gridlines are the lines in between the values.

157
Figure 6: Version 2-Test scores for students represented in a column graph

Test Scores
80
72
70
63
60
60 55
52
50 45

Score (%) 40

30

20

10

0
Anne test 1 Jeromy test 1 Anne test 2 Jeromy test 2 Anne test 3 Jeromy test 3

In this graph there are no major or minor gridlines. This is because the test percentage is
written on top of each column taking away any guess work on the reader’s side. From this
graph you can now for example calculate each of the two students’ average for the three
tests and you can see who did the best in each of the three tests.

The second type of graph we are going to look at is a line graph. As stated previously we
use this typically for motion graphs.A line graph is very different from a column graph as we
use it to represent two measurable quantities directly related.

Figure 7: Speed of 2 cars

Time in seconds 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Speed of car 1 in m/s 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Speed of car 2 in m/s 0 3 6 9 12 15 18

The data in figure 7 represents the different speeds of two cars over a time interval of six
seconds. We are going to use this data to draw a line graph. When drawing a line graph, it
is advisable to use a graph paper for accuracy.

158
Start by naming both of your axes and choosing your scales according to the data provided
in the three columns in figure 7. Plot each variable, making sure that you work accurately.
Remember, the independent variable, in this case time, is on the x-axis and the dependent
variable, speed, is on the y-axis. See figure 8.

Figure 8: Labels and Plotting the variables

Speed-Time Graph
20

18

16

14

12
Speed (m/s)

10

8 car 1

6 car 2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (s)

When you are done plotting, take a ruler and connect all the dots with a straight line. See
figure 9. As you can now see, the two lines representing the speeds of the two cars do not
look the same. One line has a different slope or is steeper than the other. We call this slope
the gradient of the line. We can calculate the gradient using the following formula:

Change in the y-coordinates or Δy

Change in the x-coordinates Δx

159
Figure 9: Completed Speed-Time Graph

Speed-Time Graph
20
18
16
14
12
Speed (m/s)

10
8 car 1

6 car 2
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (s)

Let’s use the data in figure 9 to calculate the gradient of car 1 and car 2 for the time interval
t = 2 s to t = 5 s.

Car 1: Δy = (speed at 5 s minus speed at 2 s) = (10 – 4) = 6 = 2

Δx (5 s – 2 s) 3 3

Car 2: Δy = (speed at 5 s minus speed at 2 s) = (15 – 6) = 9 = 3

Δx (5 s – 2 s) 3 3

From this calculation the gradient of car 2 is steeper than the gradient of car 1. Gradient
does not have a unit. On a speed-time graph a positive gradient indicates that the object is
accelerating, meaning its speed is increasing. It is also possible to get a negative gradient
which in turn would indicate deceleration, meaning the object is moving slower or the speed
is decreasing. See figure 10.

160
Figure 10: Negative gradient

Speed-Time Graph
5

3
Speed (m/s)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s)

Let’s use the same time interval of t = 2 s to t = 5 s to calculate the gradient.

Δy = (speed at 5 s minus speed at 2 s) = (0 – 3) = -3 = -1

Δx (5 s – 2 s) 3 3

Now the gradient is negative meaning the object was decelerating. If you look at the graph
you will see that when the time started the object was moving at 5 m/s and the speed
became less as the time increased until after 5 s the speed is 0 m/s, meaning the car came
to a standstill.

It is not only important to construct a graph from data that you receive, but you must also
interpret a graph. In other words, you must be able to read the data on a graph and then
write it in a sentence.

Using the data in figure 9 for car 1: The car started from rest (speed 0 m/s) with the speed
increasing uniformly (because the gradient the same throughout) over a time period of 6
seconds to reach a final speed of 12 m/s.

161
Test yourself

Here are a few questions you can answer to see how well you have understood the theory
and to put in practise what you have learned about column and line graphs.

Question 1

Use the data given below to draw a line graph. Your graph should have the appropriate title
and axis titles. When you have completed the graph, calculate the gradient of both lines for
the interval 1 grams to 4 grams.

Mass in grams 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Extension of spring 1 in mm 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Extension of spring 2 in mm 0 4 8 12 16 20 24

Question 2

The average percentage of four groups after their first chemistry test is as follows: Group 1
with 56%; Group 2 with 79%; Group 3 with 59% and Group 4 with 40%. Use the data to
draw a column graph.

Question 3

What is the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable?

Question 4

Use the data below to draw a line graph.

Time in s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Speed of car 1 (m/s) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Speed of car 2 (m/s) 25 25 25 25 25 25 20 15 10 5 0

Determine the gradient for car 1 from t = 4 s to t 10 s.

Determine the gradient for car 2 from t = 3 s to t 8 s.

162
Answers:

Question 1

Spring extension graph

24

20
extension of spring (mm)

16

12
spring 1
8
spring 2
4

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
mass added (g)

Question 2

Chemistry Test 1
80
79
70

60
average percentage

59
50 56

40
40
30

20

10

0
group 1 group 2 group 3 group 4

163
Question 3

A dependent variable depends on other factors and changes when something else changes.
An independent variable stands alone and does not depend on other factors. For example if
you measure speed against time, time would be the independent variable, because the
speed depends on what the time is while the time does not depend on what the speed is.

Question 4

Speed-Time Graph
26
24
22
20
18
16
Speed (m/s)

14
12
car 1
10
8 car 2
6
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)

Gradient car 1: Δy = (20 – 8) = 12 = 2

Δx (10 – 4) 6

Gradient car 2: Δy = (10 – 25) = -15 = -3

Δx (8 – 3) 5

Summary

In this unit you learned more about constructing/drawing line and column graphs. You’ve
learned how to choose your scale to include all the variables and how to manage the
intervals of your scales to make interpreting and reading your graphs with ease and
accuracy. You have also learned how to calculate the gradient of the line in a line graph.
Giving your graph the appropriate title for completion and including the correct unit where
needed.

164
 Chapter 10 – Energy Sources, Work and Power
Most of the energy we use everyday in our industry, homes, vehicles, and power stations
comes from a fuel that we burn. These may include fuel oil, wood, petrol and crude oil. We
can classify the energy resources on earth as renewable or non-renewable. Wood is an
example of a renewable energy source, because if we cut down a tree we can plant more
trees to provide more wood. Crude oil on the other hand is a non-renewable resource. It
was formed over millions of years ago under ground in conditions that does not exist
anymore today. Once we use up our crude oil, coal and natural gas resources it will be gone
forever since it cannot be replaced.

Sources of Energy

Non-Renewable Energy Sources

Crude oil, natural gas and coal are three of the non-renewable fuel resources. We call them
non-renewable fuels or fossil fuels, because they were formed from plant and animal
remains that lived millions of years ago. Crude oil is used to manufacture for example
paraffin, petrol, diesel and jet fuel. Crude oil is also the raw material from which most
plastics are made. Fossil fuel resources are limited and when they burn their waste products
pollute the atmosphere. The most serious concern is the amount of CO2, carbon dioxide,
which is released during the burning of these fuels. The reason is that CO2,together with
water vapour and methane gas, is one of the main contributors to global warming.

Figure 11:The different non-renewable energy sources

(Source: [Link]

165
From figure 11 you can see that there is one other set of non-renewable fuels and that is
nuclear fuels. These mostly contain uranium and are used in nuclear power stations where
the stored chemical energy in the atoms is released through a process called fission. During
the process of fission the nucleus of the uranium atom is split into smaller parts and during
this splitting process large amounts of energy is produced. One kilogram of nuclear fuel
stores as much energy as fifty five tonnes of coal!

As with fossil fuels, there are concerns regarding these nuclear fuels. Most notably is safety.
Nuclear radiation that is emitted by radioactive elements is dangerous to humans. The waste
products from these fuels can stay radioactive for thousands of years and should be treated
and stored according to international recognised safety standards. Another problem is
building nuclear power stations. They are extremely expensive to build and when they have
to be closed down it is equally expensive.

Figure 12: Pollution caused by power stations

(Source: [Link]

166
Renewable Energy Sources

Figure 13: Pie chart of Energy Sources

(Source: [Link]

As you can see from the pie chart in figure 13 there is set of other sources we call
renewable energy sources. However, these form a very small percentage of the energy
sources that we actually use in our everyday lives.

Figure 14: Renewable Energy Sources

(Source: [Link]

167
1 Hydroelectric energy

A dam wall is built in an appropriate area to allow a river to fill up behind the dam wall.
Generators are built within the dam wall to generate electricity as the water flow turns the
turbine. Hydroelectric energy is a very useful and clean source of energy. However dams
are very expensive to build and very few areas of the world are suitable for building dams.
In countries like Norway and China we find numerous hydroelectric power plants. Building a
dam however may lead to flooding and environmental damage to the area below the dam.

Figure 15: Illustration of a dam wall being used in generating hydroelectric energy

(Source: [Link]

2 Tidal energy

Tidal power, or tidal energy, is a form of hydro power that uses the tidal movements of the
ocean as water flows back and forth. There is more than one way to use tides to generate
electricity. One way is to use kinetic energy that powers turbines as the water moves
between full and ebb tide. Another is to use the potential energy in which barrages are used
to exploit the difference between high and low tide. When there is a substantial amount of
water that flows in and out of river and inlets, it is possible to harness the energy created to
drive generators to produce electricity.

The effectiveness of the installation to produce significant levels of electricity depends

entirely on the range of the tide and the volume of water that is pushed through the barrage.
In order to make the process worthwhile the tidal range must be at least 4 [Link] are

168
very few places in the world where the conditions are suited to a tidal system that generates
sustainable power. One of these is the Bay of Fundy in Canada which has the largest tidal
range in the world with an annual average of 10.8 metres.

Tidal plants are similar to hydropower plants with the obvious difference being that the flow
of water driving the turbine in a tidal plant comes from purely natural forces, whereas in
hydroelectric the flow of water that turns the turbine is controlled manually.

Figure 16: Using tidal movement to generate electricity

(Source: [Link]

Figure 17: Using barrages between high and low tide to generate electricity

(Source: [Link]

169
3 Wind energy

Wind energy is the form of renewable energy that has been the fastest growing renewable
energy source in the past couple of years. It is actually a form of solar energy as wind arises
as a result of the sun heating the earth’s surface unevenly, causing cooler dense air to
replace warmer lighter air.

Generators are driven by the blades of the wind turbines (windmills). The kinetic energy can
either be stored in batteries or used directly. In order to create energy from wind you need a
constant flow of wind. This means you cannot just put down a bunch of windmills anywhere.
To cut down on transmission the distance from the windmills to the electricity users needs to
be as short as possible. Wind flow must also be available at a constant rate. Most people
are concerned that windmills spoil the landscape. They are also noisy and are therefore
built in remote areas. They can be built on land or in the sea.

Figure 18: Wind farm

(Source: [Link]
[Link])

4 Geothermal energy

The word geothermal means “heat from the earth”. These sources originates from heat that
is trapped within the earth: the planet core; decay of naturally occurring substances within
the earth’s crust and the movement of continental plates as they slide against or underneath
each other. Volcanoes, hot springs and steam vents represent the easily accessible points
to this energy but most geothermal energy is trapped underneath the earth’s crust and must
be accessed by drilling into the resource.

Parts of New Zealand, Japan, the USA and Europe have high geothermal activity. High
grade geothermal energy sources such as geysers, mud pots and hot, dry rocks, is used to
generate electricity. Geothermal energy can also be used as a heating source. In Iceland

170
hot water is brought to the surface through a bore. It is then sent through insulated pipes to
homes and into radiator panels. Over 80% of the homes in Iceland are heated this way.

Figure 19: Geothermal power plant

(Source: [Link]

5 Solar energy

Solar energy starts with the sun. We use solar panels, also known as photovoltaic, to
convert light from the sun, which is composed of particles of energy called "photons", into
electricity that can be used to power electrical devices. Solar panels can be used for a wide
variety of applications including telecommunications equipment and solar geysers to
produce hot water in residences.

The solar cells in the solar panels are made from a material that can deliver electric current
when they absorb the energy from the sun. If you want to use solar panels it is important
thayou can have them directed at the sun for most of the day throughout the year. Some
countries have variable amounts of sunlight and if you should have cloud coverage for a few
days and no alternative source for heating water, you will have to take a few cold showers.
Solar cells are also expensive and must be large in area to be efficient and to give you
useful amounts of power. To give you an idea, you need a solar panel with an area of 10 m2
to power an electric kettle.

171
Figure 20: Solar panels used in solar heating

(Source: [Link]

6 Biofuel

Biofuel has become very popular in today’s life. The term biofuel include solid biomass,
liquid biofuel and various biogases. We get this type of fuel from plant or animal matter.
This can include alcohol made from sugar cane and methane gas that we can get from
rotting waste.

Bioethanol is produced when plant matter naturally ferment and can be used for a vehicle
fuel in its pure form but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and
improve vehicle [Link] is widely used in the USA and [Link] is
made from animal fat, vegetable oil or recycled greases. Biodiesel is mostly added to diesel
to reduce carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions.

For biofuels to be truly sustainable they need to be made more efficiently than currently used
methods and without using so many staple foods. One of the downsides of biofuel produced
from plant matter is the depletion of soil nutrients.

172
Figure 21: Biofuel cycle

(Source: [Link]

Saving Energy

Scientists are committing more and more of their time and resources to develop methods to
make use of fuels that does not pollute or fuels that emit less pollution. Burning fossil fuels
is one of the biggest causes of pollution, because they produce carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide and unburnt hydrocarbons. However, the alternatives have their own challenges.

Things we can do to try and save resources is to for example make use of public transport or
ride bicycles instead of using cars. This will reduce the number of vehicles on the road and
thus reduce the amount of petrol and diesel being used in combustion, as well as reduce the
pollutant gasses.

Recycling has become more popular and is an important tool in cutting down waste. We can
also work towards manufacturing products that last longer. In countries that have long and
very cold winters they make use of burning oil and other fuels for indoor heating. If they can
build buildings with better insulation, it would mean less need for indoor heating devices like
radiators. On the other hand in Southern Africa and Australia with their very hot and long
summers, most buildings have airconditioners. Architects and engineers are continuously
working on new and improved building methods to try and have better ventilation to
decrease the need for airconditioners and thus save on energy. Making use of natural
building materials is another way of trying to preserve natural resources.

Application of the Principle of Energy Conversion

Our society as a whole relies on huge amounts of energy every day. We get this energy
mostly in the form of electricity. The electricity is most of the time supplied by generators in
power stations.

173
The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but is
converted from one form to another. In a power station we use this law to produce electrical
energy.

In most power stations electricity is generated by turbines which are turned by steam. The
process starts with the heating of water and turning the water into steam. This heat energy
comes from burning fossil fuels (coal, oil or natural gas) which contains stored chemical
energy. The steam is transferred via insulated pipes to the turbine room. The steam then
turns the turbines and so the heat energy is converted into kinetic energy. The turbines
turns in a magnetic field and in so doing converts the kinetic energy to electrical energy.

Once the steam has passed through the turbines, it is cooled down and condensed and can
then be used again for the same process. The burning of these fuels produce the smoke,
CO2 and soot which contribute to pollution of our atmosphere. Coal burning power stations
add to pollution as they also produce sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.

Figure 22: Coal fired power station

(Source:[Link]
+Claudia)

Together with the conversion of energy from one form to another, we have to think of
efficiency. Unfortunately, power stations waste more energy than they can deliver. The
cooling of the water and waste gases represents the main loss of energy. One way of
making use of the “wasted” thermal energy is to transfer it through pipe systems for indoor
heating of offices and homes in the local [Link] all generators are turned by turbines that
is driven by steam. In windmills we rely on wind to turn the turbines. Similarly in
hydroelectric power schemes and tidal power schemes the turbines are turned by falling
water.

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Mechanical energy

A body can posse’s mechanical energy or have the ability to work for two reasons, either by
virtue of its position or because of its motion. These two kinds of energy are called kinetic
energy and potential energy respectively.

Kinetic energy is the energy a body possesses because it is in motion.

KE = ½ mv2

Potential energy is the energy a body possesses because of its position.

PE = mgh

Work

The term work can have several interpretations in ordinary conversation, including mental
activity, such as working in the office or reading in school. In physics, however, work has
only one meaning.

We say work is done whenever a force moves a body through a distance in the direction of
force, and is equal to the product of the force and the distance moved.

Work done = Force x distance

The SI unit is joule(J)

One joule is the work done when a force of 1 newton moves a distance of 1 metre.

Example

What work is done when a force of 10 N moves a body through a distance of 20m

Workdone = force x distance

W = 10 x 20 = 200 Joules

Power

Power is defined as the rate of doing work or the rate of transfer of energy.

P = workdone / time taken

P = w/t = F x s

P=Fxv

Electrical Energy

Energy is used up when work is done. The unit of both energy and work are joules (J). We
have defined the potential difference (p.d) between two points as the work done (in joules)
when one coulomb of electricity moves from one point to the other, Therefore if the p.d

175
applied is V (in volts) and the quantity of electricity which passes through is Q (in coulomb),
the work done is VQ (in joules).

W= VQ

or W= VIt

where t is the time during which the current flows. Using Ohm’s Law in the form V=IR or
I=V/R, our expression for the work done or the electrical energy expanded may be put in any
of the following three forms:

W=IVt
W=V2t/R
or
W=I2Rt
or

Electrical Power

Power is defined as energy used or produced per second.

Work = W/t= (J/s)

Time

From the above definition of work, we can say that power may be written in any of these
three forms,

Power, P= IV

P=V2/R

P=I2R

The unit of power, joules/second or volt-ampere, is called the watt, just as in the case of
mechanical energy

Test yourself

Question 1

What do you think can be done practically to save energy so that we use less of the earth’s
energy resources?

Question 2

State which of the following fuels are renewable or non-renewable: alcohol, wood, coal,
petrol and uranium.

176
Question 3

Give two ways in which electricity is generated without burning any fuel.

Question 4

Briefly discuss two problems caused by burning fossil fuels.

Question 5

State two ways in which moving water is used to generate electricity.

Question 6

Where would you build a wind farm in Namibia?

Answers

Question 1

Recycling, new and renewable energy sources. Use public transport and making use of
natural building materials. Design buildings to make less use of air conditioners and indoor
heating.

Question 2

Renewable – alcohol; Non-renewable – uranium, coal, petrol

Question 3

Making use of wind and water to turn turbines to generate electricity.

Question 4

Production of smoke, soot and CO2, all contribute to pollution and global warming. Also,
fossil fuels are non-renewable and once used up will be gone forever.

Question 5

Tidal, hydroelectric and waves

Question 6

When building a wind farm we need to consider an area that is not too close to where there
are populated areas, because of the noise and the fact that no one wants to live next to a
windmill. At the same time you want to build it in an area where you have a lot of wind. In
Namibia suitable areas could be the desert or maybe the south where there is a flat open
space.

177
Summary

In this unit we discussed differences between renewable and non-renewable energy. We

also looked at ways of generating electricity making use of natural resources like wind,
water, the ocean and biofuels. We briefly discussed how you can contribute to save energy,
if you make a little effort in recycling. Lastly we looked at the practical application of energy
conversion in providing us with the electrical energy we use everyday.

178
 Chapter 11 – Electricity

Can you imagine our life today without electricity? No television, no internet or facebook.
How would you do your cooking and cleaning? In this unit we are going to look at electricity.
What exactly is electricity? How do we construct simple circuits making use of devices
called ammeters and voltmeters? We are also going to do simple calculations on voltage,
current and resistance.

Current Related to Charge Flow

All matter is made of tiny particles we call atoms. Atoms consist of protons, neutrons and
electrons. When we look at a model of an atom the centre mass, the nucleus, consist of the
protons and neutrons, making the nucleus positively charged. Around the nucleus we find
the very tiny negatively charged particles called electrons. It is the flow of electrons that we
call electricity. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other, in other words two
positive particles (called ions) will repel each other and so will two negative particles. A
positive and a negative particle however will be attracted to each other.

When you draw an electric circuit you can indicate the direction of the flow of electrons
depending on how you look at it. It is important to indicate this as it may influence the rule
we use to determine in which direction a magnetic field is around a current carrying
conductor. A power source (which provides the electrons that flow around the circuit) has a
negative pole and a positive pole. Electrons are negatively charged.

Figure 22: Electron flow

In the figure above the arrow indicates that the current (flow of electrons) exits the cell/power
supply at the negative side and will enter the cell/power supply at the positive side. This
direction of flow we call electron flow. This is because electrons, which are negatively
charged, are repelled by the negative side of the cell/power supply and thus the electrons
move from the negative pole around the circuit to the positive pole.

179
Figure 23: Conventional current flow

In figure 23 the arrow shows that the electrons flow out the positive side of the power
supply, around the circuit and in at the negative side. When cells were first invented it was
wrongly assumed that electrons move from the positive pole to the negative [Link] is
what we call conventional current flow.

Alternating and Direct Current

When you have to differentiate between AC (alternating current) and DC (direct current), the
easiest is to let yourself be led by the names. Direct indicates that the current flows in the
same direction all the time and never changes [Link] means to change,
meaning the current changes the direction in which it flows. In other words, if you have a
circuit with a power supply, AC would mean that the current will flow clockwise and then
change direction to flow anticlockwise. When we talk about AC, we also have to indicate the
number of times the current changes direction per second. The unit for this is Hertz. 50 Hz
means that the current will change direction 50 times in one second.

Simple Circuit Diagrams

When you draw a diagram of a circuit you must use the appropriate scientific symbols for the
different parts of the circuit. The most basic symbols are for the cell/battery, resistor, light
bulb, switch, connecting wire, ammeter and voltmeter. In figure 24 are a few of the basic
symbols you would need when drawing a circuit diagram. Note that the symbol for a cell is
drawn as a long thin line and a shorter thicker line. The positive side of the cell is the long
thin line. Also note the symbol for the light bulb; it is a cross inside a circle.

180
Figure 24: Basic circuit symbols

(Source: Complete Physics for IGCSE, Stephen Pople)

In figure 25 below there are two circuits. The one at the top shows you a battery connected
to a lightbulb and a switch. Just below you see the same circuit in diagram form, with the
switch open.

Figure 25: Complete circuit diagram

(Source: Complete Physics for IGCSE, Stephen Pople)

181
Series and Parallel Circuits

When you draw a circuit diagram for a real life circuit you have to pay attention to the way
that the resistors (of which light bulbs are just one type) are connected to the power supply
and to each other. When resistors are connected next to each other like links in a chain, we
say that they are connected in series. When they are connected side by side they are
connected in parallel. In figure 26 you can see two light bulbs in series on the left and two
light bulbs in parallel on the right.

Figure 26: Series and Parallel connection

(Source: Complete Physics for IGCSE, Stephen Pople)

If resistors are connected in series, they have exactly the same current that runs through
them. Look at the two light bulbs in series. The current leaves the battery and flows through
the first light bulb. There is no split in the wire which means that exactly the same current
will flow through the second light bulb. When resistors are connected in series, they share
the voltage of the battery/cell. The two bulbs in series thus also share the voltage of the
battery. If one of the two bulbs is removed, the circuit is broken and the other bulb will go
out.

Looking at the two light bulbs that are connected in parallel you can see that the total current
flows anticlockwise from the battery. Before reaching the first light bulb the wire splits into
two parts, meaning the current will also split so that a portion of the total current will flow
through each of the light bulbs. The sum of the two currents that flow through the two light
bulbs will be equal to the total current. Each light bulb however will get the full voltage of the
battery, because each of them is directly connected to the battery. That means that if the
voltage of the battery is 4 V the voltage across each of the light bulbs will also be 4 V. If one
of the bulbs are removed the other will keep on working because there is still a part of the
circuit that is unbroken.

Because bulbs in parallel get the full voltage of the battery and bulbs in series have to share
the voltage of the battery, bulbs that are connected in parallel shine brighter than bulbs that
are connected in series.

182
If resistors are connected in series, their combined resistance is more than that of any of
the resistors by themselves. You can calculate the total resistance for resistors in series by
getting the sum of the individual resistors.

The formula for calculating total resistance for series connected resistors is:

RT = R1 + R2

If resistors are connected in parallel, their combined resistance is less than that of any of
the resistors by themselves. You can also calculate the total resistance of resistors in
parallel with a formula which is a little different.

The formula for calculating total resistance for parallel connected resistors is:

1 = 1 + 1

RT R1 R2

A battery is formed when cells are connected to each other to form a battery. Cells can be
connected in series or in parallel. If cells are connected in series, the total voltage of the
battery is the sum of the individual voltages of the cells. For example, if three cells are
connected in series and each cell has a voltage of 2 V, the total voltage of the battery is
2 V + 2 V + 2 V = 6 V. However, if the same three cells are connected in parallel, the total
voltage of the battery will be the same as for each cell.

Electric Current and Ammeters

A battery or cell is the device needed to produce electricity. The battery is made from
specific types of materials that undergo chemical reactions and in doing so produce
electrons. It is the chemical reactions inside the battery that “push” the electrons out of the
battery on the negative side and around the circuit to the positive side. However, if there is
no wire/conductor that connects the two sides of the battery through which the electrons can
flow, they will not be able to get to the other side of the battery. A complete circuit consists
of a battery (power supply), connection wires and loads. The loads are devices that work
with electricity, like radios, televisions, heaters and kettles. Apart from the loads you can
also connect switches, ammeters and voltmeters.

Electric current is the rate of flow of charge and can be calculated as follows:

current = charge

time

You can see from the formula that for the same charge and different times, the current will
also be different. That is because current is an indication of the number of electrons that
pass a point in the circuit in one second. The SI unit for current is Ampere (A). A current of
1 A means that about 6 million millionmillion electrons are flowing past a point in the circuit
every second. To measure current we use a device called an ammeter. Since the ammeter
has to measure the current strength, it means that the ammeter has to “count” the number of
electrons that go through the device. The material from which the ammeter is made of has

183
to allow the electrons to pass through it unhindered. That means that the ammeter has to
have to pose almost no resistance to the electrons. To measure the current we have to put
the ammeter in the path of the electrons in order for them to flow through it. We say that the
ammeter has to be connected in series. When an ammeter is connected in a circuit, it has
almost no effect on the current. As far as the circuit is concerned, it sees the ammeter as
just another part of the connecting wire.

Figure 27: Circuit demonstrating the use of ammeters

(Source: Complete Physics for IGCSE, Stephen Pople)

In the circuit above two ammeters are connected, one on either side of the light bulb.
Current leaving the battery must flow through the bulb and thus through both ammeters.
Because there is no split in the connecting wire both of the ammeters will give the same
reading. Both ammeters will measure the same current and the current will be the same at
all points around the circuit.

Potential Difference and Voltmeters

Cells and batteries will have their voltage indicated on it. The voltage is an indication of the
energy it gives to the electrons that is pushed out of the battery. Potential difference (PD) is
the scientific name for this energy. We measure this potential difference by connecting a
voltmeter across the two poles of the battery or cell in parallel. The SI unit for PD is volt (V).
When the PD across the cell is 1 V, then 1 joule of potential energy is given to each coulomb
of charge. When the PD across the cell is 2 V, then 2 joule of potential energy is given to
each coulomb of charge.

A cell or battery can give its highest PD when nothing is connected to it and we call this
energy or maximum PD the Electromotive Force (EMF). When a battery is connected to a
circuit containing loads, the PD drops because of energy wastage that happens inside the
battery.

184
Figure 28: Potential difference

(Source:Complete Physics for IGCSE, Stephen Pople)

As you can see from figure 28 the function of the battery is to give the electrons energy
which is spent as the electrons flow through the loads around the circuit. To increase the PD
of a battery we can connect several of the same cells in series (in a line) to form a battery.
The word battery actually means a collection of joined cells.

Figure 29: Series connection of cells to form a battery

(Source:Complete Physics for IGCSE, Stephen Pople)

In figure 30 is a circuit consisting of a battery made of two cells connected in series and also
two bulbs that are connected in series. As the electrons flow through the two bulbs they lose
energy. This is because they spend their energy that the battery gave them as light and
heat as they go through the bulbs. When they flow back to the battery and through the
battery they are “recharged”. To measure the PD of the battery we connect a voltmeter in
parallel across the battery’s two poles and the reading on the voltmeter will tell you what the
voltage of the battery is.

185
Figure 30: Connecting voltmeters to measure potential difference

(Source: Complete Physics for IGCSE, Stephen Pople)

On the left the actual circuit and on the right the representing circuit diagram. Across each
of the bulbs you can see a voltmeter connected in parallel. The readings on the voltmeters
illustrate a principle that applies in any circuit. The principle is the voltage rule of Kirschoff
which states that the sum of the voltages around the circuit is equal to the voltage of the
battery. In figure 30 the voltage of the battery is 3 V and that is equal to the sum of the
voltmeter readings on the voltmeters connected across the bulbs. Voltage across a resistor
can be calculated with the formula:

Voltage across the resistor = current through resistor x resistance

V = IR

This formula can also be manipulated to calculate current with I = V / R and the resistance
with R = V / I.

Ohm’s law

In 1826, a German physicist, called Georg Simon Ohm, discovered that for a given
conductor there is a relationship between the current flowing through it and the potential
difference across it. He found the following relationship

The current passing through a metallic conductor at

constant temperature is proportional to the potential
difference between its ends. This is known as the
Ohm’s law

186
If V represents potential difference in volts and I represents current in amperes, Ohm’s law
can be written symbolically as

V ὰ I, or

V= IR

where R is a constant of proportionality which depends on the nature of the conductor and
has been identified as the resistance of the conductor. By transformation of the formula, any
of the following three versions defines Ohm’s Law.

V = IR
R= 𝑽𝑽/𝑰𝑰
or I=V/R
or

For a given value of V you may see from the above relations that R is large when I is small.
This means that a high resistance conductor will allow only a small current to pass through it
but a low resistance conductor will allow a large current to pass through

Safety devices

These are there to protect you from electrocution, prevent fires or other electricity related
accidents. One kind of safety device is called a circuit breaker, sometimes referred to also
as a trip switch. This is found in your house on your consumer unit and acts as an automatic
switch which “trips” when the current rises above the specified value. You can reset it by
turning the switch on again or pressing the reset button. Sometimes the consumer unit is
also called the switch box or fuse box.

Some circuits may have a residual current device (RCD) which compares the currents in the
live and neutral wire, which should be the same. If they are not the current aims to flow to
earth and will use any means possible, which could be you. The RCD senses the difference
in current between the two wires and then switches the current off before any harm can be
done.

In most countries each group of sockets in the house (or sometimes, each individual socket)
is protected by its own fuse or circuit breaker in the fuse box. A fuse is a piece of wire which
melts if the current is too large. If this is not the case each appliance is protected by a fuse
in the plug, in which case more than one socket can be connected to the same cable in the
fuse box.

187
Figure 31: Fuses

(Source: [Link]

Hazards

Wires carrying electrical current can be very dangerous if they are not properly insulated. If
the insulation is damaged and broken, strands of wire are exposed, meaning that at some
points a wire will have a higher resistance. When current flows through it, the heating effect,
which is a result of the higher resistance, may be enough to melt the insulation and cause a
fire.

Long extension leads are useful but can be a safety hazard. If you use them while they are
still coiled up, they may overheat. The current warms up the wire as it flows through it, but
the heat has less area to escape to from a tight bundle.

Any wet area or puddles of water near electrical conductors can also be dangerous. Water
has the ability to conduct water. If electrical equipment gets wet, there is the risk of you
being injured if you are in contact with the water and the conductor at the same time. Make
sure that you keep your leads away from water. All electrical devices should be dry before
you use them.

When you use electrical appliances you should be careful of accidentally cutting the cables.
For example when you use a lawnmower it is easy to run over your extension cable. Cutting
these cables can lead to electrocution as these carry high voltage.

Electric shock is the result of electricity running through the body’s nerves, muscles and
organs disturbing normal functions. The measure of the electric shock is the amount of
current that flows through the body. The table below show typical results due to particular
current strength.

Figure 32: Results of electric current through a body

1 to 3 mA Can be felt
3 to 10 mA Tingling, heat and pain
10 to 15 mA Muscles contract, hard or impossible to let go of conductor
25 to 30 mA Chest muscles contract, unable to breath
50 to 250 mA Ventricular fibrillation
5 A and above Heart muscles clamp, pumping action ceases, tissue burns

188
(Source: [Link]

Figure 33: Danger of exposed wires

(Source: [Link]

Wiring of an Electrical Plug

Plugs are devices that connect electrical appliances to the mains. Different countries around
the world use different kinds of plugs. In some they use two-pin plugs and some countries
they use three-pin plugs. Some three-pin plugs have a built in fuse, which is a safety device
to protect the plug. This fuse value may be 3 A, 5 A or 13 A. This tells you what the current
needs to be for the wire in the fuse to melt.

Figure 34: Wiring a three-point plug

(Source:[Link]
[Link])

189
The wiring of a three-pin plug is actually very easy. There are three different coloured wires
in a lead, blue, brown and a green-and–yellow wire. Each of these is connected to one of
the pins in a three-pin plug. When you open the plug there will be an indication next to each
pin that tells you which wire should be connected to that pin. The blue wire is the neutral,
the brown wire is the live and the green-and-yellow wire is earth. When you do the wiring of
a three-pin plug yourself, make sure that the wires are connected to the correct terminals,
that the cable is held firmly by the grip and that the correct fuse is used, if required.

Test yourself

Question 1

Draw a circuit diagram with two cells in series connected to two bulbs, also in series.
Connect an ammeter between the two cells and connect a voltmeter to take the reading of
the battery.

Question 2

Draw a circuit diagram with one cell connected to two bulbs that are connected to each other
in parallel. Connect two voltmeters so that they will take the individual readings of the two
bulbs.

Question 3

Draw a circuit diagram with the following:(a) three cells in series (b) two bulbs in parallel to
each other(c) one open switch next to one of the light bulbs (d) one ammeter next to the
other light bulb (e) voltmeter 1 across the battery (f) voltmeter 2 across the lightbulb next to
the switch and (g) voltmeter 3 across the lightbulb next to the ammeter.

Question 4

In your circuit in question 3, which voltmeters will have the same reading?

Question 5

A battery consists of four cells and each cell has a voltage of 2 V. What will be the total
voltage of the battery when the cells are connected in (a) series and (b) in parallel?

Question 6

Three resistors are connected in series. R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 1 Ω and R3 = 5Ω. Calculate RT.

Question 7

Three resistors are connected in parallel. R1 = 1 Ω, R2 = 2 Ω and R3 = 3 Ω. Calculate RT.

Question 8

In figure 35:

(a) what type of meter is X? (b) what type of meter is Y?(c) what is the reading on meter Y?

190
Figure 35: Electric circuit

(Source: Complete Physics for IGCSE, Stephen Pople)

Question 9

If three bulbs are connected in series in a circuit, with a voltmeter connected across each,
what will the sum of the three voltmeter readings tell you in relation to a voltmeter that is
connected across the battery?

Question 10

Two resistors are connected in series to a battery with a potential difference of 9 V. The
current that flows around the circuit is 1,5 A. The one resistor has a resistance of 4 Ω. What
is the resistance of the other resistor?

Answers:

Question 1

191
Question 2

Question 3

Question 4

V1=V2=V3

Question 5

(a) 8 V(b) 2 V

Question 6

RT = 8 Ω

Question 7

RT= 6/11 Ω or 0,55 Ω

Question 8

(a) voltage (b) voltage (c) ampere

192
Question 9

The sum of the three voltmeters will have the same reading as the voltmeter connected
across the battery.

Question 10

Since the potential difference across the battery is the same as the sum of the voltages
across the two resistors, it means that the voltage across the other resistor is 9 V – (4 Ω x
1,5 A) = 3 V. The current that flows through both resistros is 1,5 A which means that the
resistance of the second resistor can be calculated: R = V/I = 3 V / 1,5 A = 2 Ω

Summary

In this unit we discussed several topics about electricity, including AC and DC and how to
relate the direction of current flow to the charge of an electron. You learnt how an ammeter
and voltmeter are connected in a circuit and how it works. We also looked at the basic
symbols used in circuit diagram construction. You learned how to properly wire a three-pin
plug. And we discussed uses of electricity, electrical hazards and safety devices.

193
 Chapter 12 – Radioactivity
The principle of radioactivity was actually discovered in 1896 when a photographic plate
wrapped in paper was left in a drawer for a few days. Some uranium salt was accidently left
on top of it. After a few days it was discovered that the photographic plate was affected by
radiation which could only have come from the uranium salt. A new type radiation was
discovered and later the name radioactivity was given to the process. What then is
radioactive decay?

Radioactive decay is the spontaneous breaking down, or disintegration of unstable nuclides

to form stable ones.

An example of an unstable nuclide is uranium-238 which gradually breaks down, throwing off
small pieces of nucleus and changing into nuclides such as radium-226, and eventually
become lead-204 which is a stable nuclide.

alpha and beta particles are in fact pieces of the nucleus which have been thrown out, while
gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation which often accompanies the ejection of alpha
and beta partice.

For example, the radioactive element of radium (Ra)-226 decays to radon (Rn) by gamma
emission.

88Ra → 22286Rn +
226 4
2He

Radon decays to radium-222 by the emission of beta particles (electron).

86Rn → 22288Rn + 2- 01e

222

Half-life of a radioactive material is the time taken for half a radioactive material to decay to
half its origin form.

Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons. Protons and neutrons have the same mass and the total number of
protons and neutrons will give you the mass of an atom. We call this the atomic mass or
nucleon number. The number of protons is given by the atomic number. Therefore,
isotopes of the same element will have the same atomic numbers but different mass
numbers.

Atoms of any element will always have the same number of protons and electrons in order
for the atom to have a neutral charge, but the number of neutrons is not fixed. Some may
have more neutrons than other. For example, all hydrogen atoms have one proton. Most
hydrogen atoms have no neutrons, some have one neutron and a few even have two
neutrons. This means that the element Hydrogen has three different “versions” of atoms.
And this is what we call ISOTOPES. We say that hydrogen has three isotopes.

194
Figure 36:The three isotopes of Hydrogen

(Source: Integrated Science 1, George Bethell and David Coppock)

The information about an isotope can be given in the symbol of the atom. In the table in
figure 37 we can see two isotopes of the element carbon. The number 6 indicates the
atomic number or number of protons which for all carbon atoms is the same. The number at
the top, the mass number or atomic mass, is different because the two atoms have different
numbers of neutrons. Subtracting the atomic number from the mass number will give you
the number of [Link] elements occur in nature as a mixture of two or more isotopes.

Figure 37: Isotopes of Carbon

(Source:Integrated Science 1, George Bethell and David Coppock)

Radioactive Materials

Radioactive materials are not just found in nuclear power stations. We find small amounts of
radioactive materials in the ground, in the atmosphere and even in living things. This is
because elements are a mixture of isotopes and some isotopes are unstable. In the table
below are a few examples of isotopes found around us.

195
Figure 38: Some common isotopes

Isotopes
Unstable,
Stable radioactive Found in
carbon-12 air, plants
carbon-13 carbon-14 animals
potassium-39 rocks, plants
potassium-41 potassium-40 sea water
uranium-234
uranium-235
uranium-238 rocks, plants

All radioactive materials are not necessarily dangerous, some are actually quit useful. It
depends on the type of radiation the particles emit. Harmful radioactive materials can
damage or destroy vital body cells. If you are exposed to an overdose of radiation you can
get cancer or radiation sickness, which is incurable. Radioactive gas and dust is especially
dangerous because it can be taken in with air, food and drink. Once it is in your body it
cannot be removed and leads to damage deep within the body. People who work in nuclear
power stations wear badges that “count” the radiation they are exposed to. Every month
they hand in their badge to check the level of radiation they have been exposed to.

The types of nuclear radiation that is emitted by radioactive isotopes include alpha, beta and
gamma radiation. Below is a summary of the important information regarding each of these
types of radiation that can be emitted from radioactive materials.

196
Figure 39: Types of Radiation

Magnetic
Type of
Penetrating power deflection with What is it?
Radiation
magnet
will not go through positively charged
thin paper helium nucleus
alpha can be stopped by small deflection (two protons
a few centimetres and two neutrons)
4
of air 2 He

goes through thin high energy

Paper Electrons
beta can be stopped by large deflection (negatively
a few millimetres charged)
of aluminium e-1
electromagnetic
very penetrating wave
very short
gamma will be stopped by no deflection wavelength
several centimetres very high energy
of lead or several
metres of concrete

Radioactivity is the result of an unstable nucleus. The nucleus is unstable because of the
extra neutrons. In time the isotope throws a particle out of the nucleus in the form of
radiation. The process is called radioactive decay. The particles given out and the energy
given out is what we measure or detect as [Link] this decay or breaking up of the
nucleus, some elements can actually change into different elements.

Figure 40: Alpha radiation

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(Source:[Link]
k/s1600/half+[Link])

Background Radiation

Even when we are not using radioactive materials ourselves, we are exposed to very low
levels of radiation. This radiation is around us and we call it background radiation. The level
of background radiation is usually very low but it does vary from place to place. Most of the
background radiation that we are exposed to comes from rocks in the earth. Other
background radiation come from cosmic rays from outer space and some also comes from
the radioactive elements inside our bodies. The amount of background radiation you are
exposed to in a year depends on where you live, where you travel to and whether you have
medical treatment.

Application of Isotopes

Although some radioactive materials are useful, they should always be handled with great
care. They should be kept in boxes lined with lead and should be locked away after use.
Some radioactive sources are so dangerous that they cannot be handled directly by
humans. In such cases scientists use robotic arms to handle these materials. When the
insides of nuclear reactors need to be inspected, cameras mounted on remote controlled
trolleys can be used. Robots can go into places where the level of radioactivity is high
enough to kill humans. Following are a few uses of radioactive materials.

1. Sterilizing

Bacteria can cause infections and disease and we find them almost everywhere. In places
like hospitals and dental practices great care goes into using sterilised instrumentation.
Glass and metal instruments can be sterilised with steam, but plastic will not do very well
under these high temperatures. The only way to sterilize them is to use radiation. Gamma
rays will kill the bacteria on bandages, plastic syringes and dressings. Gamma rays are also
used to kill bacteria, mould and insects in food, even after the food is packaged. This can
even prolong the shelf life of the food.

2. Treatment of Cancer

Cancer cells can be killed with radiation. Cancer cells that are very deep within the body are
destroyed with gamma rays from the isotope [Link] has to be taken though not to
kill the surrounding cells as well. During this treatment the dosage is very important as well
as the direction of the rays. Patients that undergo this type of cancer treatment may lose
their hair and also suffer from radiation sickness. The cells of skin cancer are closer to the
surface of the body. For this type of cancer we use beta radiation that we get from
strontium-90.

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3. Studying the Thyroid Gland

Your thyroid gland is in your throat. It produces a hormone which controls growth in your
body. If the hormone level is too high or too low you can become very ill. Symptoms include
weightloss, your eyes popping outward, swelling of the neck and shaking hands. The thyroid
gland uses iodine to make this hormone. By using a solution containing a small amount of
radioactive iodine-131, doctors can measure the amount of iodine that is taken up by the
gland.

4. Carbon Dating

Figure 41: How old is it?

(Source: [Link]

All living organisms contain the element carbon. Carbon-12 is the common isotope of the
element carbon, but another isotope called carbon-14 also exists. Plants, animals and
humans take up C-14when they breath in air. During their life, they always contain a small
amount of carbon-14 in their cells. This amount decreases but is constantly replaced by
more from the air. When the plant or animal dies, the carbon-14 that is trapped in the body
decays but is not replaced [Link] half-life of carbon-14 is 5700 years. This means
that if you have a sample of carbon-14, it will take 5700 years for half of that sample to
decay. By measuring the number carbon-14 atoms that are left in a fossil or dead remains,
the age of the fossil or dead remains can be worked out. This method is called carbon
dating.

This method can be used to date the bones of dead animals or anything made from
something which once lived. We can also use this method of dating for cloth, paper and
wood. The Dead Sea Scrolls are ancient religious and historical documents that were found
near the Dead Sea by accident in 1947. They are made from leather and papyrus, a
primitive type of paper. When the method of carbon dating was used to determine how old
they are, scientists found that they were about 1900 years old.

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5. Investigating Chemical Reactions

During a chemical reaction, all the isotopes of an element react in exactly the same way.
They form the same compounds but each isotope can still be identified. To identify what
happens in reactions, scientists can “label” an atom by using a different isotope. They can
then trace the isotopes to see for example how plants use chlorophyll during photosynthesis.

Figure 41: Carbon-11 radioactivity in tobacco leaves

(Source: [Link]

6. Other

The lungs of patients can also be checked using a radioactive [Link] breath in tiny
amounts of radioactive krypton gas, it decays in the lungs and the radiation can be watched
on a television [Link] isotopes can also be used to check for liquid flow. For
example, if an underground oil pipe is leaking, some slightly radioactive liquid can be
pumped into the pipe and radiation detector is then used above ground to determine where
there is a leak.

Gamma rays can be used to take x-ray type photographs of welded metal joints. In tyre
factories the thickness of the tyres can be checked using a beta source. The source of the
radiation is on one side and a detector on the other side of the tyre. If too much radiation is
picked up, it means that the cord being made is too thin because it allows too much of the
radiation through. A similar method is used in canning factories to check if the food cans are
full.

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Figure 42: Measuring thickness with radiation

(Source: [Link]

Test Yourself

Question 1

Write down the number of protons and the number of neutrons in these atoms:

(a) 42He (b)23892Ur (c)24294Pu(d)20782PB

Question 2

Describe the difference in the particles that is lost from nuclear atoms during alpha decay
and beta decay.

Question 3

Name the metal used to shield doctors and nurses from gamma radiation?

Question 4

Can you name four other applications of radioactive materials?

Answers

Question 1

(a) 2 protons and 2 neutrons

(b) 92 protons and 146 neutrons

(c) 94 protons and 150 neutrons

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(d) 82 protons and 125 neutrons

Question 2

During alpha decay, two protons and two neutrons are lost. During beta decay an electron is
lost.

Question 3

Lead

Question 4

We can use radioactive material to check for leaks in joints that are welded together, we can
check the thickness of tyres and if beer cans are ful. It can also be used to check for water
flow.

Summary

In this unit we discussed the identification of radioactive elements when counting the protons
and neutrons. We discussed background radiation and looked at the three different types of
radioactive decay. Isotopes have many important medical and other uses that were also
briefly highlighted.

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 Chapter 13 – Forces

Forces are all around us and present in every single thing we do. We can’t see them but we
can see their effect on objects. We do not realise just how many times a day we are using a
force or is subjected to a force. Just breathing requires our lungs to pull oxygenated air into
our bodies. We can describe a force as a push or a pull that is applied to an object and can
have certain effects on an object.

Effects of Forces

A force is a push or pull effect applied to an object. We say that a force is a vector as it has
both magnitude and direction.

Figure 43: Types of forces

(Source: Co-ordinated Science, StepenPople and Peter Whitehead)

A force can make an object that was stationary move or it can change the speed of an
already moving object. It can also change the direction of a moving object. The SI unit that
we measure a force in is Newton (N).

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Figure 44: Effects of forces

(Source: [Link]

Small forces can be measured with a spring balance like the one below. It works on a
principle that the greater the force that is applied, the more the spring stretch and the higher
the reading on the scale will be.

Figure 45: A Spring Scale

(Source: Co-ordinated Science, StepenPople and Peter Whitehead)

In many cases the same object can have more than one force that is acting on it at the same
time. In some cases the forces can cancel each other out. In such a case the object will not
move. We say that the forces are in balance. The object will then behave as if no force is
acting on it at all. With balanced forces acting on an object, it can be at rest or moving at a
constant speed. When more than one force is acting on an object and these forces cancel
each other out, we say that the RESULTANT force is equal to 0 N.

According to Newton’s First Law of motion: if no external force is acting on an object, the
object will remain at rest if it is at rest or if it is already moving, it will keep moving with a
constant speed in the same original direction.

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If an object is at rest, it takes a force to make it move. If it is already moving, it takes a force
to make it stop, go faster or slower or go in a different direction. This means that all objects
resist a change to their velocity, even if the velocity is zero. This resistance to velocity is
called inertia, and this is a property that all objects have, moving or not moving. The more
mass something an object has, the more inertia it has.

In figure 46, two forces act on an object. The two forces are not the same magnitude (one
force is 5 N and the other force is 3 N) and they are acting in opposite directions. These two
forces are thus unbalanced. We can add them together and replace their combined effect
with a single force. This single force is called the RESULTANT. Since forces are vectors
(they have magnitude and direction), when you state a force you have to give the magnitude
and the direction. This is also true for resultant forces.

Figure 46: Illustrating the Resultant Force

(Source: Complete Physics for IGCSE, Stephen Pople)

The 5 N force is applied to the right and the 3 N force is applied to the left. The resultant of
the two forces will be in the same direction as the direction in which the bigger of the two
forces was originally applied. Thus the resultant force of 2 N is to the right.

The way we do calculations with forces is to give them either a + or a - sign. All the forces
upwards and to the right are indicated with a + sing. All forces to the left and downwards are
indicated with a - sign. In order to calculate the resultant force, the forces are then added
together.

For the example in figure 46: Resultant = +5 N –3 N = +2 N. The sign of the answer also
tells you in which direction the resultant force is.

When forces act in the same direction it is also possible to calculate the resultant force as
shown in the example below.

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Figure 47: Calculating the Resultant Force

(Source: Complete Physics for IGCSE, Stephen Pople)

Force-Extension Graphs

When a force is applied to a spring the spring stretches or contracts. We can illustrate the
effect of a force on a spring using a line graph to represent the data. What you do is to take
a spring and then add different masses at the bottom to see how much the spring stretches
every time you add another mass. Use a ruler to measure the length of the spring everytime
you add another mass to it.

Figure 48: Measuring spring extension

(Source: [Link]

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Measurements that you take when applying masses to a spring to stretch it out and the
effect in length of your spring can then be put into a table. See the example below. The
information in the table in figure 49can then be represented in a line graph, see figure 50.

Figure 49: Table of spring extension

Nr of masses added Extension of the spring in mm

0 0
1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
5 13
6 23

Figure 50: Extension graph

Force-Extension Graph

26
24
22
20
18
Extension (mm)

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
nr of masses

When the masses are added to the spring, it causes it to stretch. Each mass piece has the
same mass. The force that causes the spring to stretch is the weight of each mass. Weight
is calculated as mass x gravitational [Link] of the line on the graph is a straight
line and then it curves upwards. From 0 to 4 mass pieces the extension of the spring is
proportional to the force producing it. We can say this because the gradient is constant,
meaning the line is straight.

Even with a steel spring, there is a limit to how much you can stretch a spring before it is
damaged. Up to the point where it is damaged we say that the spring behaves elastically,
which means it will go back to its original length and shape when the load is taken off. We
call this point the limit of proportionality.

207
 If the elastic limit is passed, the spring will be permanently damaged. It will not go back to its
original length and shape when the load is removed. This is what we see as the upwards
curve in the line.

Figure 51: A spring stretched beyond the limit of proportionality

(Source: [Link]

Test yourself

Question 1

Below is a set of data for two springs. Draw a line graph to determine which of the two
springs, 1 or 2, was stretched over its limit of proportionality.

Spring 1 extension in Spring 2 extension in Nr of

mm mm masses
0 0 0
0,5 1,3 2
1 2,6 4
1,5 4,2 6
2 7 8

Question 2

What does it mean when we say that a spring is elastic?

Question 3

Name three effects that a force or forces can have on an object.

Question 4

Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force in each of the following:

(a) 5 N and 3 N (b) 7 N upwards and 10 N downwards

(c) 12 N to the right and 7 N to the left (d) +9 N and -8 N , both horizontal forces

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Answers

Question 1

Force-Extension Graph

8
extension (mm)

6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8
nr of masses added

Question 2

It means that after stretching the spring will return to its original shape and length.

Question 3

Make an object move, change its speed, change its direction and also change its shape.

Question 4

(a) -2 N (means that the resultant force is to the left)

(b) -3 N (downwards)

(c) +5 N (to the right)

(d) +1 N (to the right)

Summary

In this unit we looked at the different effects that a force can have on an object. You learnt
what a resultant force is and how to calculate it as well as how to use + and - signs to
indicate the direction of a force. We discussed what happens when you stretch a spring and
how far you can stretch it before it is damaged. You’ve seen how the gradient in a Force-
Extension graph changes when a spring is stretched within and outside its limits.

209
 Chapter 14 - Sound

Sound travels as waves that are unseen to the naked eye. What you hear depends on the
source from which the sound comes from and the medium through which the sound travels.
We are going to look at the production of sound, how sound travels and what makes us hear
noises that we classify as loud or soft, high or low.

Production of Sound

You can perform an easy experiment to illustrate how sound is produced. When you hold a
plastic ruler near the edge of a table and then flick the ruler with your hand, you will see the
ruler vibrate and you will hear it make a sound. As the ruler vibrates, it “squashes” and
“stretches” the air molecules in front of it. These “squashes” are called compressions of air
molecules and the “stretches” are called rarefactions. A sound wave is formed when we get
a number of these compressions and rarefactions of air molecules.

Figure 52: Vibrations that causes sound

(Source: Focus on Physical Science )

We can represent a wave like this with a spring. Moving the end backwards and forwards
produces this travelling wave effect. See figure 53.

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Figure 53: Longitudinal Wave

(Source: Complete Physics for IGCSE, Stephen Pople)

Waves that are formed by these oscillations are called longitudinal waves. In longitudinal
waves, the oscillations are in the same direction as in which the wave is travelling. Sound
waves are examples of longitudinal waves.

Pitch of Sound

The sounds that we hear do not sound the same all the time. We hear high and low sounds,
soft and loud sounds. Certain properties of the sound waves cause this. These properties
include wavelength, amplitude and frequency.

The upper most part of a wave is called a crest and the lower most part of a wave is called
the trough.

Figure 54: Wave Crest and Trough

(Source: [Link]

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Wavelength is the distance between any point on a wave and the equivalent point on the
next. This can be between two crests or troughs. In sound waves, the distance from one
compression to the next is called the wavelength.

Figure 55: Wavelength

(Source: [Link]

Amplitude is the maximum distance a point on a wave moves from its resting position.

Figure 56: Amplitude

(Source: [Link]

Frequency is the number of complete waves that pass any point in one second. The SI unit
for frequency is Hertz (Hz). For example, if four complete waves pass a point in one second
we say that the frequency is 4 Hz.

212
Figure 57: Frequency

(Source: [Link]

The time it takes for one oscillation (one complete wave) to form, is called the period and it is
measured in seconds. The period can be calculated using the formula 1/frequency. So, if
the frequency is 4, the period is then ¼ = 0,25 seconds.

Now we can talk in more detail about the different sounds we hear. Sounds can be soft and
can be loud. Sounds can be high or they can be low. For example a young girl will yell with
a high voice and a grown man will usually talk in a low voice. The “highness” or “lowness” of
sound is what we call a high pitch and a low pitch. A high pitch is caused by a high
frequency and a low pitch is caused by a low frequency. In a sound with a high frequency
the wavelength is short and in a sound with a low frequency the wavelength is long. Below
you can see the difference between a low and high pitch, clearly shown by the difference in
frequency of the wave.

Figure 58: Pitch related to Frequency

(Source: Focus on Physical Science)

213
Loudness of Sound

The loudness of sound is related to the amplitude of the sound wave. The higher the
amplitude the louder the [Link] lower the amplitude the softer the sound. In figure 59
you can see two waves with the same frequency but different amplitudes. The one on the
left will have a louder sound because the amplitude is higher. The one on the right will have
a softer sound because the amplitude is smaller. Sound waves carry energy. The larger the
amplitude the more energy the wave carries and that is why the sound is louder.

Figure 59: Amplitude and Loudness

(Source: Complete Physics for IGCSE, Stephen Pople)

Connected to pitch and loudness is noise. What is noise? We can say that noise is any
sound that we don’t like or a sound that is too loud or a sound that hurts our ears when we
are exposed to it.

Figure 60: Noise

(Source:[Link]
U6AqY58niqc/Ta7BvM_PeEI/AAAAAAAACjw/ku9UJPa8BmE/s1600/[Link])

214
When you are exposed to any noise for too long your ears can be damaged. In extreme
cases it can actually lead to deafness. When we look at the wave form we can see the
difference between a “clean” sound and noise. We talk about the quality of the sound that
we hear. In any sound, whether it is music or people talking, there is a pattern of
frequencies. However, some sounds have no regular patterns or frequencies and these are
what we call noise. In figure 61 you can see three different frequencies. From the left you
see a pure note, two frequencies together and on the right you can see what noise looks
like.

Figure 61: Different frequencies

(Source: Physics for IGCSE)

Transmission of Sound

Here is something I would like you to do. Get a friend to knock on a table of desk. Can you
hear it? Now repeat the same by holding your ear against the table or desk. Can you still
hear the sound? Is it any different from when your ear was not against the table?

When we talk about the transmission of sound we have to consider how the sound wave
moves and what sound wave needs to travel in for you to hear it. Sound can travel through
gases, liquids and solids. As we discussed in the beginning of the unit, sound waves are
formed when the particles are pressed together and stretched apart in what we call
compressions and rarefactions. Since it is the particles in a medium that carries the
soundwaves, it is easy to understand that the closer the particles are the easier it would be
to transmit the sound wave. Sound waves require a medium through which it can travel. It
cannot travel through a vacuum.

Human Hearing

Animals can hear much better than people because it is one of their preservation methods.
They can hear better than us because they can hear different frequencies of sounds than us.
Young people can also hear better than older people. The normal ear can hear the
frequencies from about 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz and is the most sensitive to sounds with a
frequency of about 1 000 Hz. When we get older the upper limit of what we can hear
decreases considerably. Sometimes the hearing of people decreases so much that they
have to wear a hearing [Link] waves with a frequency above 20 000 Hz is called
ultrasonic waves, because they are above the normal hearing limit for people. Dogs can

215
hear sound waves with a frequency of up to 50 000 Hz. Bats can hear sound waves with a
frequency of up to 120 000 Hz.

Figure 62: The decibel scale

(Source:[Link]
htm?../venues/ohoffice/fact_sht/[Link])

The ear is the organ that we hear with. The process of hearing a sound is physical rather
than chemical. The compressions and rarefactions of air particles made by the vibration of
an object reach the ear. The vibrating air particles cause the eardrum to vibrate. The brain
then interprets the vibrations as sound.

Test yourself

Question 1

What type of wave do we use to describe the transmission of sound?

Question 2

Which medium will transmit sound the best, copper pipe, water in a swimming pool or early
morning air?

Question 3

Which characteristic of a wave will cause the following:

(a) soft musical notes(b) fire alarm(c) car horn

(d) a bird chirping(e) the humming of a vacuum cleaner

216
Question 4

If 70 waves pass a point in 2 seconds, what is the period of the wave?

Answers

Question 1

Longitudinal wave

Question 2

Copper pipe, since sound is transmitted with the compression and rarefaction of particles,
sound is transmitted best through a medium where the particles are close together. In this
case the solid material of copper will transmit sound the best.

Question 3

(a) small amplitude (soft)(b) large amplitude (loud)(c) large amplitude (loud)

(d) high frequency (high sound)(e) low frequency (low sound)

Question 4

Frequency is the number of waves that pass a point in one second. If 70 waves pass a point
in 2 seconds, then the frequency is 70/2 = 35. The period of a wave is equal to 1/frequency,
thus the period for this wave is 1/35 = 0,02857 seconds.

217