Consumer Studies Notes Chapter 2

1. Culture

• Explanation:

o Culture refers to the shared traditions, customs, and eating habits of a particular group of
people.

o It influences what food is eaten, how it is prepared, when it is eaten, and with whom.

• Examples:

o Italians often eat pasta, pizza, and olive oil-based dishes.

o Asian cultures may include rice or noodles as staple foods.

o In South Africa, maize meal (pap) is a cultural staple for many communities.

2. Religion

• Explanation:

o Religion provides guidelines on what foods are acceptable (allowed) or unacceptable

(forbidden), and sometimes when food can be eaten.

o These are known as dietary laws or food practices.

Food Beliefs and Practices of the 5 Major Religions:

1. Christianity

o No strict universal dietary laws.

o Some denominations avoid certain foods (e.g., Seventh-Day Adventists avoid pork and alcohol).

o Fasting during Lent or avoiding meat on Fridays.

2. Islam (Muslim)

o Only Halal food is allowed (permitted food, prepared according to Islamic law).

o Haram food is forbidden (e.g., pork, alcohol).

o Fasting during Ramadan: no food or drink from sunrise to sunset.

 3. Judaism (Jewish)

o Only Kosher food is eaten (prepared under Jewish dietary laws).

o Pork and shellfish are forbidden.

o Meat and dairy cannot be eaten together.

o Fasting during Yom Kippur.

4. Hinduism

o Many Hindus are vegetarian.

o Cow is sacred, so beef is not eaten.

o Alcohol is avoided.

o Food practices linked to purity and non-violence (Ahimsa).

5. Buddhism

o Many Buddhists are vegetarian or vegan.

o Some avoid onions, garlic, and other strong-flavoured foods (believed to affect meditation).

o Alcohol is usually avoided.

3. Socio-Economic Status (Income Level)

• Explanation:

o A family’s income level influences what kind of food they can afford, how often they eat out,
and whether they can buy luxury or basic food.

Food Practices in Low-Income Families:

• Often buy cheaper staple foods (bread, rice, maize meal, potatoes).

• Less money available for meat, dairy, or fresh fruit/vegetables.

• May rely on processed or bulk foods.

• Less likely to eat at restaurants or purchase convenience/fast food regularly.

Food Deserts and Health:

• Food deserts are areas where people have limited access to affordable, fresh, and nutritious food.

• Low-income families living in food deserts often rely on fast foods or corner shops with limited healthy
options.

• This leads to nutrient deficiencies and a higher risk of diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and heart
disease.
Food Practices in Middle/High-Income Families:

• Can afford a variety of foods, including fresh fruit, vegetables, meat, and imported items.

• More likely to dine out at restaurants or buy ready-made/convenience meals.

• Can follow healthier diets (because they can afford diverse and fresh options).

• May also spend on diet-specific lifestyles (organic, gluten-free, vegan foods).

4. Education

• Explanation:

o Education increases awareness of nutrition and health.

o Educated consumers make more informed food choices.

• Examples:

o A person with knowledge of nutrition will avoid excessive sugar and junk food.

o Educated families may prepare balanced meals with proteins, carbs, vitamins, and minerals.

o Lack of education may lead to poor dietary choices, e.g., overeating fried or sugary foods.

5. Values and Attitudes

• Explanation:

o Values are beliefs about what is important, while attitudes reflect feelings toward food choices.

o These affect whether people prefer home-cooked, organic, fast food, or ethical products.

• Influences on Food Practices:

o Health values: Someone who values health will choose low-fat, high-nutrition food.

o Convenience values: Someone who values convenience may eat more fast food or takeaways.

o Ethical values: Ethical consumers may only buy fair trade or environmentally friendly products.

o Preferences: Consumers may base choices on flavour, texture, and appearance of food.

o Nostalgia: Some people choose foods that remind them of their childhood or cultural traditions
(e.g., grandma’s homemade bread, traditional festival meals).
6. Emotions

• Explanation:

o Food choices are often linked to emotions, comfort, or stress.

• Examples:

o Stress may lead to overeating snacks and fast food.

o Sadness or depression may lead to craving sugary “comfort foods” like chocolate.

o Happiness or celebrations often involve feasting and eating more (e.g., birthdays, weddings,
Christmas).

o Food as a reward: Parents may reward children with sweets or treats.

o Food as a symbol of love: Preparing special meals for family or loved ones as a way of showing
care.

1. Definitions

• Nutrients:

o Substances in food that provide energy and materials the body needs for growth, repair, and
maintaining health.

o Examples: proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water.

• Malnutrition:

o A condition that occurs when a person’s diet does not provide the right amount or type of
nutrients.

o It includes both undernutrition and overnutrition.

• Undernutrition:

o When the body does not get enough energy or nutrients.

o Example: Protein deficiency can cause kwashiorkor in children.

• Overnutrition:

o When a person eats too much energy or nutrients, leading to health problems.

o Example: Eating too much fatty, sugary food may cause obesity.

• Diet:

o The food and drinks a person regularly consumes.

 • Special/Therapeutic Diets:

o Diets designed for medical or health reasons to manage specific conditions.

o Examples:

▪ Diabetic diet: avoids high-sugar foods.

▪ Low-sodium diet: for people with high blood pressure.

▪ Gluten-free diet: for people with celiac disease.

2. What Energy (Calories) is Used For

Energy from food is used for:

• Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): keeping the body alive (breathing, circulation, cell repair, temperature
control).

• Physical activity: movement and exercise.

• Growth and repair: building new cells, healing tissues.

• Digestion: breaking down and absorbing food.

3. Do These Give Energy?

Nutrient Gives Energy? Notes

Protein Yes 4 kcal per gram, also used for growth/repair.

Starch (Carbohydrate) Yes 4 kcal per gram, main energy source.

Sugar (Carbohydrate) Yes 4 kcal per gram, quick energy.

Lipids (Fats) Yes 9 kcal per gram, most concentrated energy source.

Fibre No Cannot be digested; helps with digestion/regularity.

Vitamins No Regulate body processes, no energy.

Minerals No Build body structures (bones, blood), no energy.

4. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

• Definition:

o The minimum amount of energy your body needs at rest to keep vital processes working (e.g.,
breathing, circulation, cell activity, and temperature regulation).

• Importance:

o BMR makes up the largest part of daily energy needs (about 60–70%).

5. Factors Affecting Energy Used During Physical Activity

• Type of activity: intense sports use more energy than light walking.

• Duration of activity: longer activity = more energy used.

• Body size/weight: heavier people use more energy to move.

• Fitness level: fit people may use energy more efficiently.

• Age and gender: younger people and males often use more energy due to higher muscle mass.

6. Energy Intake vs. Energy Expenditure

• Energy intake: the amount of energy (calories) taken in from food and drinks.

• Energy expenditure: the amount of energy the body uses (BMR + activity + digestion).

Importance of Balance:

• To maintain a healthy body weight, energy intake must equal energy expenditure.

What Happens if Imbalanced:

• More food than needed (excess intake):

o Extra energy is stored as fat → weight gain / obesity.

• Less food than needed (deficit intake):

o Body breaks down fat and muscle for energy → weight loss, fatigue, undernutrition.
1. Promote a Healthy Lifestyle

a) Eat a variety of foods

• Different foods provide different nutrients, so no single food can supply all the body’s needs.

• A variety ensures balance between proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals.

• Example: Include fruits, vegetables, grains, dairy, and proteins in meals.

b) Be active

• Regular physical activity helps burn excess energy, maintain a healthy weight, and prevent diseases
such as diabetes, heart disease, and obesity.

• At least 30 minutes of moderate activity (e.g., walking, cycling, sports) is recommended daily.

• Advantages of being active:

o Improves circulation and heart health.

o Strengthens muscles and bones.

o Boosts mood and reduces stress.

o Improves concentration and sleep.

o Helps maintain a healthy body weight.

c) Drink lots of clean, safe water

• The body needs water for digestion, circulation, temperature control, and removing waste.

• South African guideline: about 6–8 glasses per day.

• Water should be chosen over sugary drinks.

• Extra water is needed during:

o Hot weather.

o Diarrhoea or vomiting.

o Fever.

2. Guidelines for Meal Planning

a) Make starchy foods the basis of most meals

• Starches (bread, maize meal, rice, pasta, potatoes) are an important source of energy.

• Choose wholegrain or high-fibre starches for longer-lasting energy and better digestion.
b) Eat plenty of fruits and vegetables daily

• Aim for at least 5 portions per day (3 vegetables + 2 fruits).

• Rich in vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and fibre.

• Help protect against diseases like cancer, diabetes, and heart disease.

c) Eat legumes regularly

• Legumes (beans, lentils, peas, chickpeas, soya) are affordable sources of protein, fibre, iron, and other
nutrients.

• They are naturally low in fat.

• They have a low Glycaemic Index (GI), meaning they release energy slowly and help maintain stable
blood sugar levels.

• Good alternative to meat and help reduce cholesterol.

d) Chicken, fish, meat, milk or eggs can be eaten daily

• Provide high-quality protein for growth, repair, and strength.

• Choose lean meats and remove skin from chicken to reduce fat intake.

• Milk, yoghurt, and cheese provide calcium for healthy bones and teeth.

• Fish (especially oily fish like pilchards or sardines) provide omega-3 fats, which are good for the heart.

3. Guidelines on Moderation and Balance

a) Eat fats sparingly

• The body needs some fat, but too much leads to obesity, heart disease, and high cholesterol.

• Types of fats:

o Saturated fats: Found in butter, fatty meat, full-cream dairy. They raise “bad” cholesterol (LDL)
→ risk of heart disease.

o Monounsaturated fats: Found in olive oil, avocados, peanuts. They lower LDL and protect the
heart.

o Polyunsaturated fats: Found in sunflower oil, oily fish, nuts, seeds. They lower LDL and provide
essential fatty acids.

• Choose more mono- and polyunsaturated fats, and limit saturated fats.
b) Use salt sparingly

• Too much salt can cause high blood pressure (hypertension), increasing risk of stroke or heart disease.

• Avoid adding too much salt during cooking and eating, and limit processed foods high in sodium.

c) Use sugary drinks and foods sparingly and not in between meals

• Sugary foods (cakes, sweets, soft drinks) add extra energy but no nutrients ("empty calories").

• Frequent sugar intake causes tooth decay and weight gain.

• Best to eat sweet foods occasionally and with meals, not as snacks.

d) If you drink alcohol, drink sensibly

• Alcohol is high in energy but has no nutritional value.

• Excessive drinking can damage the liver, lead to obesity, and increase risk of accidents.

• Guidelines:

o Men: not more than 3 standard drinks in a day, but not every day.

o Women: not more than 2 standard drinks in a day, but not every day.

• Who should not drink alcohol:

o Pregnant women.

o Children and teenagers under 18.

o People on certain medications.

o People with liver problems or alcohol addiction.

1. What is a Food Pyramid?

• A food pyramid is a visual guide that shows the types and amounts of foods people should eat daily for
a balanced diet.

• Foods are grouped into categories based on their main nutrients.

• The pyramid is wider at the bottom → foods to eat more often.

• The pyramid narrows at the top → foods to eat sparingly.

• Water is essential for all body processes, even though not always shown in the pyramid.

2. How to Read a Food Pyramid

• Base (bottom): Largest portion – cereals & grains (main energy source).
 • Middle layers: Moderate portions – fruits, vegetables, dairy, meat/alternatives.

• Top (tip): Smallest portion – fats, oils, sugary foods (use sparingly).

3. Table: Food Pyramid Categories

Food Group Main Nutrient(s) Main Function(s) Suggested Servings Tip

• Starch: provides
Cereals & Cereal energy
Choose wholegrain/high-
Products (bread, Carbohydrates • Fibre: aids
4–6 servings per day fibre cereals for longer-
rice, pasta, maize (starch, fibre) digestion &
lasting energy.
meal, oats, etc.) prevents
constipation

• Vitamin C:
boosts immunity
• Helps iron
Vitamin C, Beta- Eat a variety of colours
Fruits & absorption Fruits: 2–3/day
carotene (Vitamin (red, green, orange) for
Vegetables • Beta-carotene Vegetables: 3–4/day
A) maximum vitamins.
(Vitamin A):
healthy eyes, skin
& immune system

• Calcium &
Phosphorus:
Dairy Products Calcium, Choose low-fat
strong bones &
(milk, yoghurt, Phosphorus, 2–3 servings per day milk/yoghurt to reduce
teeth
cheese) Protein saturated fat intake.
• Protein: growth
& repair

• Protein: growth
& repair
Meat & Meat Protein, Iron • Iron: forms red
Alternatives (meat/eggs), blood cells Choose lean cuts, remove
(meat, poultry, Vitamin B12, B • Vitamin B12 & B 2 servings per day fat/skin, eat fish twice a
eggs, fish, beans, Vitamins, Zinc, vitamins: release week.
nuts, lentils) Iodine (fish) energy & keep
nerves healthy
• Zinc: growth &
healing
Food Group Main Nutrient(s) Main Function(s) Suggested Servings Tip

• Iodine: thyroid
function

• Lipids:
concentrated
Fats & Oils energy Prefer unsaturated fats
(butter, • Protect organs & (olive/sunflower oil, nuts,
Lipids, Vitamin E Use sparingly
margarine, oil, insulate body avocado) over saturated
avocado, nuts) • Vitamin E: fats (butter, fatty meat).
antioxidant,
protects cells

• Digestion
6–8 glasses per day
• Circulation
— (No nutrient, but More in hot weather, Choose clean, safe water
Water • Temperature
essential for life) diarrhoea/vomiting, instead of sugary drinks.
control
fever
• Removes waste

4. Water-Soluble vs Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Type of Vitamin Examples Where Stored Notes

• Need daily intake

Water-Soluble Vitamin C, B-group vitamins (B1, B2, Not stored in the body –
• Easily destroyed by heat
Vitamins B6, B12, Niacin, Folate) excess lost in urine
& water

• Can build up in the body

Fat-Soluble Stored in liver & fatty
Vitamins A, D, E, K if eaten in excess
Vitamins tissues
• Absorbed with dietary fat

1. Benefits of Good Nutrition

• Supports growth & development – during adolescence, rapid growth requires balanced intake of
energy, protein, vitamins, and minerals.

• Boosts immune system – lowers risk of illness and infection.

• Improves concentration & learning – a healthy brain needs steady glucose, iron, and B vitamins.

• Prevents nutrient deficiency diseases – e.g., anaemia (iron deficiency), rickets (Vitamin D/calcium
deficiency), scurvy (Vitamin C deficiency).
 • Reduces risk of chronic diseases later in life – such as obesity, diabetes, heart disease, osteoporosis.

• Maintains healthy weight – balance between energy intake and expenditure prevents undernutrition
or overweight.

• Enhances energy & mood – stable blood sugar and sufficient vitamins/minerals reduce fatigue, stress,
and irritability.

2. Specific Nutrient Needs of Teens

a) Energy

• Teens need more energy than children because of:

• Rapid growth spurts
• Increased physical activity
• Hormonal changes

• Sources: carbohydrates (whole grains, fruits, vegetables), healthy fats, and some protein.

• Guideline:
• Avoid excessive junk food (high sugar/fat, low nutrients).
• Choose complex carbs (whole wheat, oats, brown rice) for steady energy release.

b) Protein

• Essential for:
• Growth of muscles, bones, organs, and tissues
• Repair of damaged cells
• Production of hormones and enzymes

• Sources: lean meats, chicken, fish, eggs, dairy, beans, lentils, soy, nuts.

• Guideline:
• Teens should eat 2–3 servings per day from protein-rich foods.
• Combine plant proteins (e.g., beans + rice) for complete amino acids if vegetarian.

c) Calcium

• Needed for:
• Building strong bones & teeth
• Peak bone mass formation (most bone density is built before age 20)
• Proper muscle and nerve function

• Sources: milk, yoghurt, cheese, fortified plant milks, green leafy vegetables, almonds, tinned fish with
bones (pilchards).
 • Guideline:
• Teens should aim for 3 servings of dairy or fortified alternatives per day.
• Combine with Vitamin D (from sunlight, oily fish, egg yolk) for absorption.

d) Iron

• Needed for:
• Production of haemoglobin in red blood cells (carries oxygen)
• Prevents anaemia (fatigue, poor concentration, pale skin)

• Increased need during adolescence:

• Girls – menstruation causes monthly iron loss.
• Boys – rapid muscle growth increases demand.

• Sources: red meat, chicken, fish, beans, lentils, spinach, fortified cereals.

• Guideline:
• Eat iron-rich foods daily.
• Combine plant iron with Vitamin C-rich foods (orange, tomato, guava) to improve absorption.
• Avoid tea/coffee with meals (reduces iron absorption).

e) Vitamins

• Vitamin A – for healthy vision, immune system, skin. (Carrots, sweet potato, spinach, liver, eggs).

• Vitamin C – boosts immunity, helps iron absorption, wound healing. (Citrus, guava, peppers).

• Vitamin D – helps calcium absorption, strong bones. (Sunlight, oily fish, fortified dairy).

• B-group Vitamins – release energy from food, healthy nervous system, red blood cell production.
(Whole grains, meat, dairy, leafy vegetables).

• Vitamin E – antioxidant, protects cells. (Nuts, seeds, vegetable oils).

f) Fibre

• Needed for:
• Healthy digestion, prevents constipation
• Helps regulate blood sugar
• Prevents overeating by keeping teens fuller for longer

• Sources: whole grains (brown bread, oats), fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts.

• Guideline:
• Replace refined foods (white bread, sugary snacks) with high-fibre alternatives.
• Aim for at least 25–30 g of fibre daily.
Balanced Diet and Meal Planning

Balanced Diet

• A balanced diet provides the body with the right amount of nutrients in the correct proportions for
health, growth, and energy.

• It ensures the body gets:

o Enough energy for daily activities and body functions.

o Variety of foods to provide all nutrients needed for growth, repair, and immunity.

o Controlled intake of food to prevent undernutrition, overnutrition, and lifestyle diseases (e.g.,
obesity, diabetes, heart disease).

Benefits of a Balanced Breakfast

• Provides energy to start the day and improves concentration and performance.

• Prevents overeating later in the day by controlling appetite.

• Helps maintain a healthy weight.

• Stabilises blood sugar levels.

• Improves mood and reduces fatigue.

High vs Low Nutrient Density

• High Nutrient Density:

o Foods that provide lots of nutrients (vitamins, minerals, fibre) relative to their energy (calories).

o Example: Fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean meat, low-fat dairy.

o Benefit: Helps meet nutrient needs without consuming too many calories.

• Low Nutrient Density:

o Foods that provide few nutrients relative to their energy (high in sugar or fat).

o Example: Soft drinks, chips, sweets, fried fast foods.

o Risk: Can lead to weight gain and nutrient deficiencies if eaten too often.
Suggestions for Meals

Breakfast:

• Whole-grain/starchy food (oats, brown bread, maize meal).

• Protein source (eggs, peanut butter, yoghurt).

• Fruit/vegetables (vitamins, fibre).

• Low-fat milk or dairy product.

Main Meal (Lunch/Dinner):

• Starch (whole grains, maize, rice, potatoes).

• Protein (meat, chicken, fish, legumes, eggs).

• Vegetables/salad (vitamins, minerals, fibre).

• Small portion of healthy fats (avocado, olive oil).

Light Meal:

• Soup, sandwiches, or wraps with vegetables and lean protein.

• Can include legumes or small portion of dairy.

Snacks:

• Fruit, raw vegetables, nuts, yoghurt, popcorn (air-popped), wholegrain crackers.

Food Groups & Budget-Friendly Meal Planning

Food Group Recommendations Budget Choices

Base of most meals, choose wholegrain Buy in bulk; store brands; maize/rice as
Starchy Foods
where possible. staples.

Vegetables & Buy in season; frozen or dried; grow your

Eat daily, variety of colours.
Fruits own.

Legumes Eat regularly, low GI, low fat, high fibre. Use dried beans/lentils; buy in bulk.

Meat, Fish, Eggs, Cheaper meat cuts; eggs; canned fish;

Small daily portions, prefer lean protein.
Dairy powdered milk.

Buy oil in bulk; use sunflower oil or

Fats & Oils Use sparingly, prefer healthy fats.
margarine.
Food Group Recommendations Budget Choices

Avoid processed sugary foods; flavour with

Sugar & Salt Use sparingly.
herbs/spices.

Meal Plan vs Menu

• Meal Plan: Outline of meals over a period, ensures nutrition, variety, and budget-conscious choices.

• Menu: Detailed list of foods for one meal or occasion, focuses on presentation and serving.

Importance of Variation in Menu Planning

• Texture: Combine soft and crunchy foods for interest.

• Colour: Attracts appetite and ensures nutrient variety.

• Cooking Method: Balance frying, steaming, baking, grilling for flavour and nutrients.

• Temperature: Mix hot and cold dishes.

• Types of Food: Rotate proteins, starches, and vegetables to cover all nutrient needs.

1. How to Identify Spoilt Food

Signs that food has gone bad include:

• Appearance: Discolouration, mould, slimy texture, unusual spots.

• Smell: Sour, rancid, or off odours.

• Texture: Sticky, slimy, or overly dry (moisture loss).

• Taste: Bitter, sour, or unpleasant taste (if safe to sample).

• Packaging: Swollen cans, leaking containers, or damaged packaging.

2. Factors that Cause Food Spoilage

a) Natural Decay

• Food naturally deteriorates over time due to biological processes.

• Moisture loss: Food dries out, shrivels, loses weight, and texture changes.

• Moisture absorption: Foods absorb water from the environment → encourages microbial growth.

• Examples: Bread becoming hard, vegetables wilting.

b) Actions of Enzymes

• Enzymes naturally present in food speed up chemical reactions, causing spoilage:

o Oxidation: Browning of fruits (e.g., apples, bananas).

o Breakdown of proteins/fats: Leads to off-flavours or rancidity.

• Prevention methods:

o Refrigeration slows enzyme activity.

o Freezing preserves food longer.

o Blanching vegetables before freezing deactivates enzymes.

o Using acid (e.g., lemon juice) to prevent browning.

c) Insects and Rodents

• Insects (flies, weevils) and rodents can:

o Eat food.

o Lay eggs or droppings, contaminating food with bacteria.

• Prevention:

o Store food in airtight containers.

o Keep kitchen and storage areas clean.

o Use screens or traps to block pests.

o Dispose of waste promptly.

d) Contamination by Micro-Organisms

• Micro-organisms are tiny organisms that can cause spoilage or disease.

• Types:

i) Bacteria

• Single-celled organisms; some cause food poisoning.

• Grow rapidly in protein-rich foods like meat, eggs, milk.

• Examples: Salmonella, E. coli.

ii) Moulds

• Multicellular fungi; grow on bread, cheese, fruits.

• Often visible as fuzzy patches.

• Some moulds produce toxins (mycotoxins).

iii) Yeast

• Single-celled fungi; grow in sugary foods like jam, fruit juices.

• Cause fermentation → gas, off smell, bubbling.

Pathogenic Micro-Organisms

• Micro-organisms that cause illness (food poisoning).

• Can survive freezing or cooking if spores are present (e.g., Clostridium botulinum).

• Highlights the importance of:

o Good food hygiene.

o Proper cooking, storing, and freezing practices.

3. Food Contamination

• Definition: The presence of harmful substances (micro-organisms, chemicals, physical objects) in food.

• How it happens:

o Poor hygiene during preparation.

o Contact with dirty surfaces or hands.

o Cross-contamination (raw meat touching vegetables).

o Exposure to pests.

4. Factors Affecting Micro-Organism Growth

Factor Explanation

Type of Food High-protein and high-moisture foods (meat, dairy) spoil faster.

Acidity (pH) Microbes grow best in neutral pH (6.5–7.5). Acidic foods (pickles, citrus) resist growth.

Temperature “Danger zone” 5–60°C favours growth. Too hot (>60°C) kills, too cold (<5°C) slows growth.
Factor Explanation

Oxygen Aerobic microbes need oxygen; anaerobic microbes (like Clostridium) grow without it.

Moisture High water content encourages microbial growth; dry foods are safer.

5. Principles of Preventing Food Poisoning/Spoilage

1. Prevent micro-organisms from entering food

o Example: Wash hands, clean surfaces, cover food, use airtight containers.

2. Prevent growth of micro-organisms already in food

o Example: Refrigerate or freeze food, control storage temperature.

3. Eliminate micro-organisms via proper processing

o Example: Cook food thoroughly, pasteurise milk, canning.

6. Conditions Where Micro-Organisms Will Not Grow

Condition Explanation Example

Low/High Temperature Microbes grow poorly in cold or are killed Refrigerated milk, frozen meat,
(Temperature Control) at high temperatures. boiling soup.

Microbes need water and sometimes Dried beans, vacuum-packed

Lack of Air/Moisture
oxygen to grow. meat.

Lemon juice, pickled

Acidic Environment Acidic pH inhibits microbial growth.
vegetables, vinegar.

HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points)

• Definition: A food safety management system that identifies, evaluates, and controls hazards that could
make food unsafe.

• Purpose: Prevent food contamination and foodborne illnesses.

1. Five Basic Guidelines for Food Safety

• Clean – wash hands, utensils, and surfaces often to remove dirt and microbes.

• Cover – keep food covered to protect from dust, insects, pets, and contamination.
 • Separate – prevent cross-contamination (e.g., raw meat from vegetables).

• Cook – cook thoroughly to kill harmful microbes.

• Chill – refrigerate promptly to slow microbial growth.

2. Personal Hygiene in Food Handling

Definition:
Personal hygiene in food handling means keeping oneself and one’s clothing clean to prevent food
contamination.

Practices & Rules:

• Wash hands thoroughly before handling food, after toilet use, sneezing, or touching hair/face.

• Wear clean clothing and aprons.

• Keep nails short, clean, and free of nail polish.

• Tie back long hair and wear hair nets if possible.

• Avoid handling food when ill, coughing, or with open wounds.

• Do not chew gum, smoke, or eat while preparing food.

3. Kitchen Hygiene Rules

Work Surfaces

• Clean and disinfect before and after food preparation.

• Use separate chopping boards for raw meat, vegetables, and ready-to-eat food.

Spills

• Wipe up spills immediately to prevent accidents and bacterial growth.

Cloths

• Use disposable paper towels or wash cloths frequently in hot water.

• Avoid using the same cloth for dishes and surfaces.

Utensils

• Wash and sanitize after each use.

• Avoid using cracked or broken utensils that can harbor bacteria.

Washing Up

• Use hot, soapy water.

• Rinse and air dry utensils (towels may spread bacteria).

Pets

• Keep pets away from kitchen areas.

• Do not use pet dishes or utensils near human food preparation.

Cleaning Agents

• Store separately from food in clearly labeled containers.

• Use correct agents for specific purposes (e.g., disinfectants for surfaces).

Pests

• Keep kitchen free of cockroaches, flies, and rodents.

• Store food in sealed containers.

• Dispose of waste promptly.

Refrigerator/Freezer

• Keep fridge at or below 5 °C; freezer at –18 °C or below.

• Do not overload to allow air circulation.

• Store raw meat at the bottom to prevent dripping onto other foods.

Food Storage

• Keep dry foods in cool, dry places.

• Use airtight containers.

• Label with purchase and opening dates.

Waste Bins

• Keep covered.

• Empty daily.

• Wash and disinfect regularly.

4. Hygiene Chain for Food Safety

Purchasing → Storage → Preparation → Cooking → Serving

5. Food Labels – Shelf-life Dates

• Sell by date: For retailers; food should be sold by this date.

• Use by date: Indicates safety; do not eat past this date.

• Best before date: Food may still be safe after this date but quality may decline.

6. Guidelines for Food Safety

Purchasing

• Buy from reputable suppliers.

• Check expiry dates and packaging (no dents, bulges, or leaks).

• Transport perishables in cooler bags if possible.

• Buy fruits/vegetables in season (cheaper and fresher).

Preventing Cross-Contamination

• Use color-coded chopping boards.

• Keep raw and cooked foods separate.

• Wash knives and boards between uses.

• Store foods in sealed containers.

Food Preparation

• Wash fruits and vegetables before use.

• Thaw frozen food in the fridge, not at room temperature.

• Marinate in the fridge, not on counters.

• Avoid preparing food too far in advance.

Serving Food

• Use clean serving spoons and utensils.

• Keep hot food hot (above 60 °C) and cold food cold (below 5 °C).

• Do not leave food standing out for more than 2 hours.

• Avoid touching ready-to-eat food with bare hands.

Eating Food

• Wash hands before eating.

• Use clean plates and utensils.

• Do not share utensils or drink from the same bottle/glass.

Leftover Food

• Refrigerate within 2 hours of cooking.

• Store in airtight containers.

• Reheat thoroughly (to at least 75 °C).

• Use within 2–3 days.

• Do not re-freeze food once thawed.

Eating Outside/Restaurants

• Choose restaurants with visible hygiene standards.

• Avoid food outlets where food is left uncovered.

• Ensure hot food is served hot and cold food cold.

• Avoid raw or undercooked meats, seafood, or eggs.

1. Types of Foods by Perishability

Perishable Foods

• Definition: Spoil very quickly, usually within a few hours to a few days.

• Examples: Milk, fresh meat, fish, poultry, eggs, leafy vegetables, berries.

• How fast they spoil: Within 1–7 days depending on storage.

• Proper storage:

o Refrigerate at 2–4 °C.

o Freeze at –18 °C for longer storage.

o Store in sealed, airtight containers.

o Keep raw and cooked foods separate to prevent contamination.

o Use within expiry/use-by dates.

Semi-Perishable Foods

• Definition: Last a few weeks to months under proper conditions.

• Examples: Potatoes, onions, pumpkins, butter, cheese, bread, nuts.

• How fast they spoil: 1–3 months (faster in humid conditions).

• Proper storage:

o Store in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area.

o Keep away from moisture (prevents mould).

o Refrigerate bread, cheese, and butter if not eaten quickly.

o Do not store potatoes and onions together (they cause faster spoilage).

o Inspect regularly for mould/soft spots.

Non-Perishable Foods

• Definition: Can last for months to years if unopened and stored correctly.

• Examples: Rice, pasta, flour, canned foods, sugar, salt, dried beans.

• How fast they spoil: 6 months to years.

• Proper storage:

o Store in airtight containers to avoid pests.

o Keep in a cool, dark, dry cupboard/pantry.

o Rotate stock using FIFO (First In, First Out).

o Check cans for dents, bulges, or rust (discard damaged cans).

o Keep away from cleaning chemicals and strong odours.

2. Guidelines for Different Storage Areas

Dry Storage (Pantry/Cupboard)

• Keep at 10–21 °C in a cool, dry, well-ventilated place.

• Store items on shelves, not directly on the floor.

• Use airtight containers for flour, sugar, cereals.

• Keep away from direct sunlight and humidity.

• Separate cleaning products from food items.

 • Regularly check for signs of pests (moths, weevils, rodents).

• Follow FIFO to reduce waste.

Refrigerator (2–4 °C)

• Keep thermometer inside to monitor temperature.

• Store raw meat/fish in sealed containers on the bottom shelf.

• Place ready-to-eat foods on the top shelves.

• Use crisper drawers for fruits/vegetables.

• Do not overload (air must circulate).

• Clean fridge regularly to prevent bacterial growth.

• Never put hot food directly inside → let it cool first.

Freezer (–18 °C or lower)

• Keep at consistent temperature (avoid frequent door opening).

• Label and date all frozen items.

• Store in freezer-safe containers/bags.

• Do not refreeze once thawed.

• Freeze in small portions for quicker thawing.

• Keep a freezer inventory to avoid forgotten items.

• Wrap food tightly to prevent freezer burn.

3. General Guidelines for Proper Food Storage

• Store foods at the correct temperature (cold foods cold, dry foods dry).

• Always cover and seal foods to prevent contamination.

• Label with dates for tracking freshness.

• Keep storage areas clean and pest-free.

• Avoid mixing food and cleaning chemicals.

• Regularly check expiry dates.

• Discard spoiled or suspicious food immediately.

1. General Guidelines for Pest Control

• Keep all food areas clean, dry, and well-ventilated.

• Store food in sealed, airtight containers.

• Practice FIFO (First In, First Out) to reduce old stock.

• Dispose of garbage daily in tightly sealed bins with lids.

• Seal cracks, holes, and gaps in walls, floors, and cupboards.

• Keep drains and sinks clean and free of standing water.

• Install flyscreens on doors and windows.

• Do not leave pet food or human food out overnight.

• Regularly inspect storage areas for signs of infestation.

• Use safe pesticides or professional pest control when necessary.

2. Specific Pest Control Guidelines

Cockroaches

• Thrive in dark, damp, warm places (cupboards, drains).

• Control methods:

o Keep kitchens and storerooms dry and clean.

o Seal cracks and crevices where they hide.

o Do not leave crumbs, grease, or food scraps lying around.

o Store food in airtight containers.

o Use cockroach baits, traps, or professional fumigation.

Flies

• Spread bacteria by landing on food and surfaces.

• Control methods:

o Keep garbage bins tightly closed.

o Use UV light fly traps or sticky strips in kitchens.

o Avoid leaving food uncovered.

Rodents (Rats & Mice)

• Contaminate food with droppings, urine, and gnawing.

• Control methods:

o Seal holes and gaps in walls, doors, and floors.

o Remove waste and rubbish promptly.

o Set rat traps or bait stations.

o Keep outdoor areas tidy (trim grass, remove clutter).

Weevils (Grain Insects)

• Common in flour, rice, grains, and cereals.

• Control methods:

o Store grains in airtight containers.

o Keep storage areas cool and dry.

1. Negative Impact of Waste

• Environmental pollution – litter, water contamination, and air pollution.

• Health hazards – attracts pests (flies, rodents, cockroaches) that spread disease.

• Loss of resources – valuable materials like metals, paper, and plastics are wasted.

• Increased landfill pressure – landfills fill up quickly and produce harmful gases.

• Energy waste – energy used in production is lost when items are discarded.

• Climate change contribution – methane gas from waste contributes to global warming.
2. How Waste Control Helps

• Conserves natural resources:

o Minerals – recycling metals reduces mining.

o Energy – less energy needed to recycle than to produce new items.

o Forests – recycling paper reduces deforestation.

o Petroleum – plastics recycling reduces oil use.

o Landfill sites – less waste dumped = longer lifespan of sites.

• Saves money – households and businesses spend less on buying new items.

• Lessens environmental impact – reduces pollution and carbon footprint.

3. Reducing Waste

Definition: Preventing waste before it is created.

Guidelines:

• Buy products with minimal or eco-friendly packaging.

• Choose reusable containers instead of disposable ones.

• Print and write on both sides of paper.

• Avoid single-use items (plastic straws, cups, bags).

4. Reusing Waste

Definition: Using items again for the same or a new purpose instead of discarding.
Guidelines:

• Reuse jars, bottles, and containers for storage.

• Repair clothes, furniture, or appliances instead of replacing.

• Use shopping bags and gift bags multiple times.

• Repurpose waste items (e.g., glass bottles as vases, tires as garden planters).

• Use scrap paper for notes.

5. Recycling

Definition: Processing waste materials into new products.

Advantages:

• Saves natural resources and energy.

• Reduces landfill waste.

• Creates jobs in recycling industries.

• Cuts greenhouse gas emissions.

• Encourages sustainable living.

What CAN be Recycled:

• Paper & cardboard (newspapers, boxes, magazines).

• Glass bottles and jars.

• Metals (aluminium cans, steel).

• Plastics (bottles, containers with recycling codes).

What CANNOT be Recycled:

• Food-contaminated paper (pizza boxes, greasy wrappers).

• Ceramics, light bulbs, mirrors.

6. Composting

Definition: A natural process where organic waste breaks down into nutrient-rich soil (compost).

What CAN be Composted:

• Fruit and vegetable peels.

• Coffee grounds and tea bags.

• Eggshells.

• Garden waste (grass cuttings, leaves).

• Stale bread and grains.

Chapter 2 Summary

1. Factors Affecting Food Practices of Consumers

• Culture & Religion: Influences food choice; e.g., Hindus don’t drink alcohol, Muslims avoid pork.

• Socio-economic Status:

o Low-income: cheaper, high-carb, processed foods → more nutrient deficiencies.

o Middle/high-income: can afford variety, fresh produce, premium products.

• Education: Knowledge influences healthy food choices.

• Values & Attitudes: Preferences for flavor, texture, appearance, and nostalgic foods.

• Emotions: Food used as reward, symbol of love.

• Food Deserts: Limited access to fresh foods increases malnutrition in low-income areas.

2. Nutrition & Nutrient Needs

• Nutrients: Substances in food essential for growth, energy, and body functions.

• Malnutrition: Poor nutrition;

o Overnutrition → obesity, heart disease.

o Undernutrition → anemia, stunted growth.

• Diet: Typical foods eaten daily.

• Special/Therapeutic Diets: Designed for medical needs (e.g., diabetic diet).

• Energy (Calories): Used for BMR, physical activity, growth, repair.

• BMR: Energy used at rest to maintain basic body functions.

• Energy Intake vs Expenditure: Balance needed to maintain weight; overeating → weight gain, under-
eating → weight loss.

3. South African Food-Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDGs)

• Healthy Lifestyle: Eat variety of foods, be active (improves strength, flexibility, mood, bone health),
drink water (extra when hot, diarrhoea, vomiting, fever).

• Meal Planning:

o Starchy foods form meal basis.

o Eat fruit & vegetables daily.

 o Legumes regularly (low-fat, low-GI).

o Chicken, fish, meat, milk, or eggs daily.

• Moderation & Balance:

o Eat fats sparingly (monounsaturated/polyunsaturated better than saturated).

o Use salt sparingly.

o Limit sugary foods/drinks and not between meals.

o Alcohol: Men ≤3 standard drinks/day, Women ≤2 standard drinks/day, not daily; some shouldn’t
drink at all.

4. Food Pyramid & Nutrients

Food Group Main Nutrient Function (bullet points) Serving Size Tips

Cereals & cereal Carbohydrates • Provide energy • Aid

4–6 servings/day Choose whole grains
products (starch & fiber) digestion

Fruits & Vitamin C, Beta- • Protect cells • Aid Fruit: 2–4 servings,
Eat variety of colours
Vegetables Carotene (A) immunity • Eye health Veg: 3–5 servings/day

Calcium,
• Strong bones/teeth • Choose low-fat
Dairy Phosphorus, 2–3 servings/day
Growth & repair options
Protein

• Growth & repair •

Meat & Meat Protein, Iron, B12, Include fish for
Blood formation • 1–2 servings/day
Alternatives Zinc, Iodine variety
Immunity

• Energy • Protect
Prefer mono/
Fats & Oils Lipids, Vitamin E organs • Vitamin Use sparingly
polyunsaturated
absorption

• Water-soluble vitamins: B, C (lost in cooking).

• Fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, K (stored in body).

5. Benefits of Good Nutrition for Teens

• Promotes growth, immunity, energy, mental focus.

• Nutrient needs:

o Energy: Adequate calories for growth & activity.

 o Protein: Growth & repair.

o Calcium: Bones & teeth.

o Iron: Blood formation; prevent anemia.

o Vitamins: Support metabolism & immunity.

o Fiber: Healthy digestion.

6. Balanced Diet & Meal Planning

• Balanced Diet: Provides enough energy, variety of nutrients, and controls food intake.

• Ideal Meals:

o Breakfast: whole grain cereal, fruit, milk.

o Main meal: protein + starch + veg.

o Light meal/snacks: fruit, yogurt, nuts.

• Food Groups & Budget Choices: Buy seasonal fruit/veg, frozen vegetables, legumes, cheaper protein
alternatives.

• Meal Plan vs Menu:

o Meal plan: structured schedule for meals.

o Menu: list of meals served.

• Menu Planning Factors: Texture, colour, cooking method, temperature, variety.

• High vs Low Nutrient Density: High = many nutrients per calorie; Low = few nutrients per calorie.

7. Food Spoilage & Safety

• Identifying Spoilt Food: smell, taste, texture, appearance, packaging.

• Causes:

o Natural decay: moisture loss/absorption.

o Enzymes: oxidation (prevent with refrigeration, acid, blanching).

o Insects & rodents: prevent with storage hygiene & pest control.

o Microorganisms: bacteria, moulds, yeasts; pathogens cause disease.

• Food Contamination: Harmful substances enter food.

• Factors Affecting Microbes: food type, pH, temperature, oxygen, moisture.

 • Prevention Principles:

o Prevent contamination, inhibit growth, eliminate via processing.

• Microbe Non-Growth Conditions: low/high temp, lack of air/moisture, acidic environment.

• HACCP: System to prevent food hazards; monitor critical points (cooking, chilling).

8. Food Safety & Hygiene

• Personal Hygiene: Clean hands, nails, hair; wear clean clothing; avoid sickness while handling food.

• Kitchen Hygiene: Clean surfaces, utensils; manage spills; store properly; control pests.

• Hygiene Chain: Purchasing → Storage → Preparation → Cooking → Serving

• Food Label Dates: Sell by, Use by, Best before.

• Guidelines:

o Purchasing: check quality, dates, packaging.

o Prevent cross-contamination: separate raw/cooked foods.

o Preparation: wash, thaw safely, cook thoroughly.

o Serving: keep hot foods hot, cold foods cold, avoid bare-hand contact.

o Eating: clean hands, use clean utensils.

o Leftovers: refrigerate within 2 hours, reheat properly.

o Eating out: choose hygienic places, avoid raw/undercooked foods.

9. Food Perishability & Storage

Spoilage
Type Examples Storage
Rate

Fridge 2–4°C or freeze –18°C; sealed

Perishable Milk, meat, fish, eggs, leafy veg 1–7 days
containers

Semi- Potatoes, onions, butter, cheese, Cool, dry, ventilated area; refrigerate if
1–3 months
Perishable bread needed

Months–
Non-Perishable Rice, pasta, canned foods, sugar Airtight containers, cool dry dark place
years

• Dry Storage: Cool, ventilated, off floor, check pests.

 • Refrigerator: 2–4°C, separate raw/cooked, clean regularly, label leftovers.

• Freezer: –18°C, airtight containers, label/date, avoid refreezing.

10. Pest Control

• General Guidelines: Clean, dry storage; sealed containers; remove waste; seal cracks; flyscreens;
monitor regularly.

• Cockroaches: Seal cracks, dry clean surfaces, baits/traps.

• Flies: Flyscreens, cover food, clean spills, sticky strips/UV traps.

• Rodents: Seal entry, elevate food, traps/bait stations, tidy outdoors.

• Weevils: Airtight containers, cool/dry storage, inspect grains, freeze before storage.

11. Waste Management

• Negative Impacts: Pollution, health hazards, resource loss, landfill pressure, energy waste.

• Benefits of Waste Control: Conserve resources, save money, reduce environmental impact.

• Reduce Waste Guidelines: Plan meals, buy minimal packaging, avoid single-use items, print on both
sides, donate unused items.

• Reuse Waste Guidelines: Repurpose jars/containers, repair items, reuse shopping bags, use scrap
paper.

• Recycling: Saves resources/energy, reduces landfill, creates jobs, lowers emissions.

o Can recycle: paper, cardboard, glass, metals, plastics (coded).

o Cannot recycle: contaminated paper, ceramics, plastic bags, medical/hazardous waste.

• Composting: Organic waste into nutrient-rich soil.

o Can compost: fruit/veg peels, coffee grounds, eggshells, garden waste.

o Cannot compost: meat, dairy, oily foods, pet waste, plastics.