Geography
Geomorphology
Erosion, Deposition and Weathering
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● Weathering: Weathering is the breaking down of rocks on the Earth’s surface by
natural elements such as wind, water, temperature changes, or living organisms. It
weakens and breaks the rock but does not move it.
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● There are three types:
○ Physical (mechanical): caused by temperature changes, freezing and thawing, or
plant roots breaking rock.
◆ Frost shattering: Water enters cracks → freezes → expands by 9% →
pressure → rock breaks. Common in cold climates.
◆ Exfoliation: Rock heats up in daytime & expands, cools at night & contracts
→ outer layers peel off like onion skin. Common in deserts.
○ Chemical: rainwater reacts with minerals in rocks, causing them to dissolve or
change.
◆ Carbonation: Rainwater + CO₂ → weak carbonic acid → dissolves limestone
→ caves & sinkholes form.
◆ Oxidation: Oxygen reacts with minerals (esp. iron) → rust → weakens rock.
◆ Hydrolysis: Water reacts with minerals (e.g., feldspar → clay). Common in
humid regions.
○ Biological Weathering: Organisms break down rocks.
◆ Roots grow into cracks → expand & widen them.
● Erosion: Erosion is the wearing away and removal of weathered material by moving
agents like water, ice, or wind. It shapes the land into valleys, cliffs, and other features.
● Deposition: Deposition occurs when the moving agent loses energy and drops the
material it was carrying. This process forms new landforms such as beaches, deltas,
sand dunes, and riverbanks.
Human Impact on weathering
● Mining and Quarrying
○ Increase the area exposed to water and air
● Building on steep slopes
○ Destabilises the ground and leads to further weathering and can cause
landslides and houses may collapse
Types of Rocks
. Igneous Rocks
○ Formed when magma or lava cools and hardens.
○ Examples: granite & basalt
. Sedimentary Rocks
○ Formed from layers of weathered rock, sand, and organic material that are
compressed and cemented over time.
○ Examples: sandstone & limestone
. Metamorphic Rocks
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○ Formed when existing rocks are changed by heat and pressure inside the Earth’s
crust.
○ Examples: marble (from limestone) & slate (from shale)
The Rock Cycle
. Igneous rocks form when magma cools.
. These rocks weather and erode into small particles.
. The particles settle (deposition) and form sedimentary rocks.
. When sedimentary rocks are buried deep underground, heat and pressure turn them
into metamorphic rocks.
. If metamorphic rocks melt, they form magma, and when that magma cools, the cycle
starts again.
The River System
● A river system is made up of a main river and all its tributaries (smaller streams that
flow into it). It begins at the source and ends at the mouth, where it flows into a sea,
lake, or another river. The river shapes the landscape through erosion, transportation,
and deposition.
Upper Course
● The source is where the river begins, usually high in the mountains.
● The river flows over steep slopes, moving fast with lots of energy.
● Vertical erosion is dominant (cuts downwards into the land).
● The river carries large boulders that scrape and wear away the riverbed (abrasion).
● Creates V-shaped valleys, rapids, and waterfalls.
Waterfalls
● Form where a river flows over hard and soft rock layers. The softer rock erodes faster,
forming a drop. Falling water erodes a plunge pool below, and the waterfall slowly
moves upstream, forming a gorge.
Rapids
● Sections of a river where water flows quickly over uneven rock surfaces, not as steep
as waterfalls but still fast and turbulent.
Middle Course
● Gentler slopes, slower flow, lateral erosion dominates.
Meander
○ Curves formed as erosion happens on the outer bend (fast flow) and deposition
on the inner bend (slow flow).
Ox-bow Lake
○ When a meander loop is cut off, forming a crescent-shaped lake that later dries
into a meander scar.
Lower Course
Lower Course
● Flat land, slow flow, deposition dominates.
Deltas
● Triangular landform where the river splits into smaller channels before entering the
sea.
Main Processes
● Hydraulic Action: Force of water breaks rock.
● Abrasion: Rocks scrape and wear the bed/banks
Wave Action
● Headlands and Bays: Form on coasts with alternating hard and soft rock.
○ Soft rock erodes faster → forms bays.
○ Hard rock erodes slower → forms headlands.
● Sea Cliffs: Steep rock faces formed as waves erode the base of a headland.
● Sea Caves: Waves erode cracks in cliffs, forming hollow openings.
● Arches: Caves erode right through a headland, forming a natural arch.
● Stacks: The arch roof collapses, leaving a tall column of rock.
● Stumps: Stacks eventually erode down to smaller rock remains.
● Beaches: Formed by deposited sand and pebbles along the shore.
Glacial (Ice) Erosion & Deposition
As the glacier moves, it erodes the land beneath and around it in two main ways:
● Plucking: The glacier freezes onto rocks and pulls them away as it moves.
● Abrasion: The rocks frozen into the base of the glacier scrape against the valley floor,
wearing it down like sandpaper.
This erosion creates distinctive landforms such as:
● Cirques (or Corries): These are bowl-shaped hollows found in glaciated mountain
areas. They form at the source of a glacier, where snow gathers in a hollow and turns
to ice. As the ice moves, it deepens and enlarges the hollow through erosion. When the
glacier melts, it often leaves behind a small tarn lake in the hollow.
● Arêtes: When two glaciers erode back-to-back hollows on opposite sides of a
mountain, they form a narrow, sharp ridge known as an arête. These are common in
mountainous regions with multiple glaciers.
● U-shaped Valleys: As glaciers move through V-shaped river valleys, they erode the
sides and bottom, transforming them into wide, flat-floored valleys with steep sides
When glaciers melt, they also deposit material that they carried with them. This creates
depositional landforms such as:
● Moraines: These are ridges or accumulations of unsorted, angular rock material left
behind by melting glaciers.
● Types include:
○ Lateral moraines (at the sides of the glacier)
○ Medial moraines (where two glaciers meet)
○ Ground moraines (beneath the glacier)
○ Terminal moraines (at the glacier’s furthest advance point). B
○ Recessional moraines (formed during pauses as the glacier retreats).
● Drumlins: These are smooth, elongated hills made of glacial till. They show the
direction of glacier movement, with the blunt end facing the direction the ice came
from and the tapered end showing the direction it moved. Many drumlins together form
a drumlin swarm.
● Eskers: These are long, winding ridges of sand and gravel deposited by streams that
once flowed beneath glaciers.
Wind Erosion and Deposition
In arid (dry) and semi-arid regions, wind is a powerful agent of erosion and deposition. It acts
mainly on loose sand and small rock particles that are not held in place by vegetation or
moisture. The two main processes of wind erosion are:
● Deflation: The removal of loose particles like sand and dust from the ground by strong
winds, leaving behind rocky surfaces called desert pavements.
● Abrasion: When windblown sand grains strike against rock surfaces, they wear them
down gradually, carving out unique landforms.
Common wind erosion landforms include:
● Mushroom Rocks: These form when wind abrasion erodes the base of a rock faster
than the top, as most sand particles are carried close to the ground. This gives the
rock a narrow “stem” and a wider “cap,” resembling a mushroom.
● Yardangs: These are long, sharp ridges of rock or compacted sand that form parallel
to the prevailing wind direction. Wind abrasion and deflation carve these shapes in
exposed desert regions where the rock layers have different levels of hardness.
● Wind can also cause deposition when it loses energy and drops the material it was
carrying. This leads to the formation of:
○ Sand dunes: Hills of loose sand formed when wind slows down, often found in
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deserts or coastal areas.
○ Loess deposits: Fine, powdery dust that settles over large areas, often creating
fertile soils.
Resources and Sustainability
● Natural resources are materials and substances found in nature that people use to live
and improve their lives.
● There are two main types of natural resources:
○ Renewable resources
○ Non-renewable resources
Renewable Resources
● Renewable resources are those that can be replaced naturally if people use them
wisely.
● They are part of the Earth’s natural cycles, meaning they replenish themselves over
time.
● Examples:
○ Soil
○ Forests and Trees
○ Fish
○ Wind
○ Air & fresh water
Non- Renewable Resources
● Non-renewable resources exist in limited amounts and cannot be replaced once they
are used up.
● They take millions of years to form, so if humans use them too quickly, they’ll
eventually disappear.
● Examples:
○ Coal
○ Oil
○ Natural gas
○ Minerals (like gold, iron, and copper)
● Estimates for global fossil fuel depletion:
○ Oil may run out by around 2030
○ Natural gas by around 2050
○ Coal by around 2200
Effects of Using Resources Unwisely
● When people use resources irresponsibly, two things can happen:
. Resources are damaged (e.g., polluted soil or water).
. Resources are used up (e.g., overfished oceans or deforestation).
● This can lead to depletion when a resource is used faster than it can replace itself.
● Depletion means future generations may not have access to that resource at all.
Over- Exploitation and Depletion
● Exploitation is when people use a resource too quickly.
● When this continues unchecked, it becomes over-exploitation.
● Over time, this causes depletion, where resources are so reduced they may never
recover.
Overfishing
● Modern technology has made it much easier to catch fish.
● Fishing fleets use huge nets, sonar, factory ships, and electronic fish finders allowing
them to remove massive amounts of fish faster than the ocean can replace them.
● Consequences of Overfishing:
○ Fish populations decline or become extinct.
○ Other sea creatures are affected (e.g., food chains collapse).
○ Less food is available for people.
○ Unemployment in fishing communities.
○ Increased unemployment & poverty.
○ Lack of international laws means there’s little control over how much fish people
catch.
WISE Resource Use — Wasted
Letter Meaning
W Wasting electricity and water
(e.g., leaving lights on electricity
often comes from coal).
A Air and water pollution from
careless human activity.
S Soil erosion from poor farming
methods.
T Tree loss without replanting
(deforestation).
E Excessive use of natural
resources, e.g., overfishing.
D Damaging nature through
inefficient technology (e.g.,
urinals that constantly waste
water).
Overgrazing
● Overgrazing occurs when animals eat too much vegetation on a piece of land for too
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long.
● This prevents plants from regrowing and causes soil erosion, loss of nutrients, and
desertification.
● Causes:
○ Too many animals on one piece of land
○ Lack of rotation or resting periods for pastures
○ Poor land management
● Effects:
○ Soil becomes bare and infertile
○ Water runs off quickly → erosion
○ Desert areas spread
○ Less food for animals and people
Concepts of Sustainable and Unsustainable Resource Use
● The concept of sustainability aims to maintain a balance between the needs of the
environment and people’s social economic needs.
○ Sustainable resource use promotes a green environment
● Unsustainable use of resources threatens the availability of resources in the future and
also the quality of resources in the present
○ Evidence:
◆ Soil erosion and desertification
◆ Deforestation
◆ Reduction of mineral resources
◆ Extinction of plant and animal resources
◆ Water and air pollution
Sustainable Land Use for Grazing
● Farmers can prevent overgrazing through smart management:
○ Rotational grazing: Move animals between different fields to let grass regrow.
○ Zero grazing: Keep animals in stalls and bring feed to them.
○ Reforestation: Replant trees to improve soil and rainfall.
○ Quota system: Limit the number of animals grazing on one area.
○ Public awareness: Teach farmers about soil and grazing management.
○ Protect riparian zones: Keep animals away from riverbanks to protect vegetation.
Sustainable Fishing
● Quota: A maximum quantity that is allowed
○ A quota is usually given as tons of a certain fish species that is allowed to be
taken.
○ Once this quota has been reached, no more fishing of that particular fish is
allowed.
● Marine Protected Areas
○ Provide a safe place for fish stocks to breed and grow.
○ Protect important habitats from damage by human activities.
○ Increase the size of fish catches in surrounding fishing areas.
● Information Awareness
○ The South African Sustainable Seafood Initiative (SASSI) has published a list of
endangered fish to inform consumer about which fish is safe to buy.
◆ Green - hake and yellowtail (safe)
◆ Orange - Kingklip and Cape Salmon (suffer from overfishing)
◆ Red - galjoen and white stump nose (protected and cannot be legally sold)
Carbon Footprint
● A carbon footprint is the total amount of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and greenhouse gases
released into the atmosphere by human activities.
How to Reduce Your Carbon Footprint:
● Turn off lights and taps when not in use.
● Use energy-efficient lightbulbs and appliances.
● Recycle and avoid excessive packaging.
● Take shorter showers.
● Eat less meat (reduces methane).
● Buy local and organic food.
● Use public transport, walk, or carpool.
Businesses Can Help By:
● Using electric or fuel-efficient vehicles.
● Encouraging employees to save electricity and paper.
● Promoting recycling at work.
Government’s Role:
● Create policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
● Fine companies that exceed emission limits.
● Reward businesses that reduce pollution.
● Run public campaigns on sustainability.
Food Resources and Food Security
● Food security means all people, at all times, have access to enough safe, nutritious
food for a healthy life.
Three Pillars of Food Security:
. Food Availability – Having enough food produced or imported.
. Food Access – People can afford and reach food.
. Food Use – People know how to use and store food safely with good nutrition and
sanitation.
● Malnutrition happens when people eat too little food or food that lacks the right
nutrients.
Role of Science and Technology in Food Production
● Technology helps increase food production and protect crops and animals from
disease.
● Examples:
○ Selective breeding: Choosing the best animals/plants to reproduce for stronger
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offspring.
○ Cloning: Creating genetically identical copies of organisms.
○ Veterinary medicine: Treating and preventing animal diseases.
○ Artificial insemination & embryo transfer: Improving livestock breeding.
Genetically Modified (GM) Crops
● Genetically modified crops are plants whose DNA has been altered to make them
stronger and more resistant.
● Benefits:
○ Resistant to pests and diseases.
○ Survive harsh conditions like drought or frost.
○ Grow in poor soils.
○ Have improved nutritional value.
○ Reduce the need for chemical sprays.
Sustainable Farming
● Sustainable farming meets today’s food needs without harming the environment or
reducing future productivity.
● Practices Include:
○ Rotating crops to keep soil fertile.
○ Using compost and manure instead of harsh chemicals.
○ Avoiding unnecessary antibiotics for animals.
○ Using natural pest control methods.
○ Conserving water and soil.
○ Maintaining biodiversity by keeping natural habitats.
● Goal:
○ To create a farming system that feeds people, protects nature, and supports
future generations.