solution

Solution
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. It consists of
two components: solute and solvent.
a) Generally, the component that is present in the largest quantity is known as solvent.
Solvent determines the physical state in which solution exists. One or more
components present in the solution other than solvent are called solutes.
b) Solution may be classified as binary, ternary, quaternary or multi component
depending upon the number of components present. Two component solution is
called binary solution (sugar syrup).
c) A solution may be classified as solid, liquid or a gaseous solution. The different
types of solutions along with their examples are summarized:

Types of Examples
solutions
Gaseous
Solutions
 Gas in gas Air, mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, etc.
 Liquid in gas Water vapours
 Solid in gas Camphor vapours in nitrogen gas
Liquid Solutions
 Gas in liquid Carbon dioxide dissolved in water (aerated water), oxygen
dissolved in water, etc.
 Liquid in liquid Ethanol dissolved in water, vinegar, formalin, etc.
 Solid in liquid Sugar dissolved in water, saline water etc.

Solid Solutions
Solution of hydrogen in palladium
 Gas in solid
Amalgams, e.g., sodium amalgam
 Liquid in solid
Gold ornaments (copper or silver dissolved in gold)
 Solid in solid

d) The concentration of solution may be expressed in a number of ways. These are

described below:
i. Mass percentage (w/w)
Mass % of a component
Mass of the component in the solution
= × 100
total mass of the solution

ii. Volume percentage (v/v): The volume percentage is defined as:

Volume of the component
Volume % of a component = × 100
Total volume of solution
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 solution

iii. Parts per million:

Number of parts of the component
PPM = X 106
Total number of parts of all components of the solution

iv. Mole fraction:

Number of moles of the component
x=
Total number of moles of all the components

i. Molarity: Molarity (M) is defined as number of moles of solute dissolved in

one litre (or one cubic decimeter) of solution.
Moles of solute
Molarity =
volume of solution (in litre)

ii. Molality: Molality (m) is defined as the number of moles of the solute per
kilogram (kg) of the solvent and is expressed as:
Moles of solute
molarity (m) =
mass of solvent (in kg)

 Molarity of a solution changes with change in temperature this is due to the

change in the volume of the solution with change in temperature.
 Molality, mole fraction and ppm which do not involve volumes but involve
weights are independent of temperature.
 Molality is preferred over molarity for concentration of the solution as it does not
changes with change in temperature.
 1 Molar NaCl solution is more concentration than 1 Molal NaCl solution.

Questions

1) Calculate the mass percentage of benzene (C6 H6) and carbon tetrachloride
(CCl4) if 22g of benzene is dissolved in 122g of CCl4. [ 𝐂𝟔 𝐇𝟔 =15.2, 𝐂𝐂𝐥𝟒 =84.8%]

2) Calculate the mole fraction of a solution containing 5g NaOH in aq. solution

containing 80g H2O by mass. [x(NaOH)=0.027, x(𝐇𝟐 O)=0.97]

3) Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in solution containing 30% benzene by

mass in carbon tetrachloride. [x(𝐂𝟔 𝐇𝟔 )=0.45]

4) Calculate the mole fraction of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) in aq. solution

containing 20% of C2H6O2 by mass. [x(𝐂𝟐 𝐇𝟔 𝐎𝟐 )=0.067]

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 solution
5) A solution is obtained by mixing 300g of 25% and 400g of a 40% solution by
mass. Calculate the mass percentage of the resulting solution.
[Mass%=33.57%]

6) Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 5g NaOH dissolved in 450 ml

solution. [M=0.27]

7) Calculate the molarity of each of the following solution:-

a) 30g of Co (No3)2.6H2O in 4.3l of solution [M=0.0234]
b) 30 ml of 0.5 M H2 SO4 diluted to 500ml. [M=0.03]

8) Calculate the mass of urea (NH2CONH2) required in making 2.5 kg of 0.25

molal aqueous solution. [W=37.5g]

9) Calculate molality of 2.5 g of ethanoic acid (CH2COOH) in 75 g of benzene.

[0.556 molal]

10) Concentrated nitric acid used in the laboratory work is 68% nitric acid by
mass in aqueous solution. What should be molarity of such sample of the acid if
the density of solution is 1.504 g/ml, also calculate molality and the mole
fraction? [x(HN𝐎𝟑 )=0.37, m=33.71, M=16.22 ]

11) An aqueous solution of sodium chloride is marked 10% (w/w) on the bottle.
The density of the solution is 1.071 g/ml. what is its molality and molarity? Also
what is the mole fraction of each component in the solution?
[x(NaCl)=0.032, m=1.88m, M=1.82M ]

12) Density of 98% H2SO4 is 1.84 g/cm3 at 20°C. Calculate the molarity of the
solution. [M=18.4M]

13) A solution of antifreeze is prepared from 222.6 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6 O2)
and 200g of water. Calculate the molality of the solution. If the density of the
solution is 1.072 g/ml then what shall be the molarity of the solution?
[m=17.95m, M=9.11M]

14) A solution of glucose is labelled as 10 percent (w/w). what would be the

molality and mole fraction of each component in the solution? If the density of
the solution is 1.2g/ml, then what shall be the molarity of the solution.
[x(glucose)=0.010, m=0.611m, M=0.66 M]

15) A sample of drinking water was found to be severely contaminated with

chloroform (CHCl3) supposed to be carcinogen. The level of contamination was
15 PPM (by mass).
i. Express this in percentage by mass. [1510-4 %]

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 solution
ii. Determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample. [m=1.2510-4 m]

16) Calculate molarity, molality and mole fraction of KI if the density of 20%
(m/m) aqueous solution KI is 1.202g / ml. [x(KI)=0.026, m=1.5m, M=1.44M]

17) How many ml of a 0.1M HCl is required to react completely with 1g mixture
of Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 containing equimolar amounts of the two of it.
[volume =157.8ml]

Factors influencing the solubility of a Gas in a liquid:-

The solubility of a gas in a liquid depends upon a number of factors. These are
briefly discussed.

[Link] nature of the gas and the solvent (liquid):

The solubility depends upon the nature of both the gas and the solvent or the liquid
as we have noticed in case of solids. Generally gases like ammonia (NH3), sulphur
dioxide (SO2), hydrogen chloride (HCl) which are of polar nature can readily dissolve
in water.
While gases like H2, N2, CH4, C2 H6 etc. which are of non-polar nature are water
insoluble and dissolve in some other solvents which are of non-polar nature.

[Link] of temperature
In general, the solubility of gas in a liquid decreases with the rise in
temperature.
When dissolved, the gas molecules are present in liquid phase and
the process of dissolution can be considered similar to condensation and heat is
evolved in this process.
According to Le-chatelier’s principle, the increase in temperature favours the reverse
process. Therefore, the solubility decreases with the increase in temperature.
𝐆𝐚𝐬 + 𝐋𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 ⇌ 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐝 (𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧) : ∆ 𝐇 = −𝐯𝐞

3. Effect of pressure
This is a very important factor because the solubility of any gas in a particular
liquid increases when it is compressed or the pressure is increased. This exercise
actually brings the molecules closer and they liquefy to be a part of the solution. The
relation between pressure and solubility is guided by Henry’s Law.
According to Law
“The mass of a gas dissolved in a given volume of the liquid at a constant
temperature depends upon the pressure which is applied. mp(at constant
temperature)”
The law was given by William Henry in 1802. At about the same time Dalton,
also stated on the basis of the experimentation that the solubility of a gas present in a
liquid is a function of the partial pressure of the gas. In case the solubility of the gas be

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 solution
expressed in terms of its mole fraction, then Partial pressure of the gas (P)  Mole
fraction of the gas in the solution.
The most commonly used form of Henry’s Law states that “the pressure of the gas in
vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (x) in the solution”
and is expressed as:
𝐏 = 𝐊𝐇 × 𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

partial pressure of the gas

KH =
mole fraction of the gas in the solution

here K H is known as 𝐇𝐞𝐧𝐫𝐲′ 𝐬 𝐥𝐚𝐰 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭

To illustrate this, a graph has been plotted between the values of the partial
pressures of HCl (g) dissolved in cyclohexane and the corresponding mole fraction at
298 K. the plot is shown in fig. KH values of the number of gases at specific
temperatures have been determined in the same way. These are given in table.

KH values of different gases in water

Gas Temperature (K) KH (Torr)

Partial press
ure (Torr)

He 293 10∙9107
H2 293 5∙2107
Mole fraction of HCI in
cyclohexane
N2 293 5∙75107
N2 303 6∙68107

From the data collected, it is quite obvious that:

a) Higher the value of KH for a gas, lesser will be its solubility in a given solvent. Thus,
solubilities of He, H2 and N2 in water at 293 K at the same pressure follow the order:
H2> N2> He.
b) As the temperature increases the solubility of the gas tends to decrease. Thus,
nitrogen is more soluble in water at 293 k than at 303K. 𝐓 ↑ , 𝐊𝐇 ↑, 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 ↓

Henry’s constant –KH. It is a function of nature of the gas.

 Different gases have different KH at the same temperature.
 Higher the KH at given pressure, lower is the solubility of the gas in the liquid.
 KH value increases with increasing temperature, hence lower the solubility of the gas
in a liquid at higher temperature

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 solution
Application of Henry’s Law
 Solubility of CO2 in soft drinks or aerated drinks increases with increase in pressure
therefore bottles are sealed under high pressure.
 To avoid bend (the blocking of blood capillaries) and toxic effects of high
concentration of N2 in the blood, oxygen cylinder used by scuba divers are diluted
with less soluble helium. It has lower solubility & higher KH.
 Anoxia – it is the condition in which low blood oxygen causes climbers to become
weak and unable to think properly. It is due to the lesser partial pressure of the
oxygen at high attitude than at ground level.

Questions
Henry’s Law

1) If N2 gas if bubbled through water at 293k, how may millimoles of N2 gas would
dissolve in 1L of water. Assume that N2 exerts a partial pressure of 0.987 bar.
Given that Henry’s law constant for N2 at 293k is 76.48 k bar.
[0.7 millimoles]

2) Henry’s law constant for CO2 in water is 1.67108 pa at 298k. Calculate the
quantity of CO2 in 500 ml of soda water when packed under 2.5atm CO 2
pressure at 298k. [ no. of moles of C𝐎𝟐 =42.1410-3 mol, quantity=1.854g]

3) The partial pressure of ethane over a saturated solution containing 6.5610-3g

of ethane is 1bar. If the solution contains 5.0010-2g of ethane, then what shall
be the partial pressure of the gas? [P=0.762 bar]

4) Henry’s law constant for the molality of ethane in benzene at 298k is 4.27105
mm Hg. Calculate the solubility of methane in benzene at 298k under 760mm.
[ x=1.7810-3]

5) H2S, a toxic gas with rotten egg like smell, is used for the quantitative analysis.
If the solubility of H2S in water at STP is 0.195m, calculate Henry’s law
constant. [𝐊𝐇 =282 bar]

6) The air is a mixture of number of gases. The major components are oxygen and
nitrogen with approximate proportion of 20% is to 79% by volume at 298k.
The water is in equilibrium with air at a pressure of 10atm. At 298k if the
Henry’s law constant for oxygen and nitrogen are 3.3107mm and 6.51107mm
respectively, then calculate the composition of these gases in 𝐇𝟐 O.
[x(𝐎𝟐 )= 4.6110-5 , x(𝐍𝟐 )=9.2210-5 ]

7) Give reasons at higher attitudes, people suffer from a disease called anoxia. In
this disease they become weak and cannot think properly.

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 solution
8) Explain why are aquatic Species more comfortable in cold water rather than
warm water?
9) What is effect of temperature on the molality and molarity?
10) Why does scuba divers suffer from bend?

Raoult’s Law (Liquid in Liquid solution)

For a homogeneous solution of two volatile miscible liquids, the partial vapour
pressure of each component is directly proportional to the mole fraction of such
component in that solution and the constant of proportionality is equal to vapour
pressure of such component in its pure state.
P1 ∝ x1 , P1 = P10x1
P2 ∝ x2 , P2 = P20x2
P Total = P1 + P2
= P10 x1 + P20 x2
i.e total pressure over the solution is sum of partial pressure of the components of
that solution.
PT = P10 x1 + P20 x2
PT = P1(1 − x2 ) + P20x2
PT = P10 −P10 x1 + P20 x2
PT = P10 + (P20 − P10)x2
PT =(P20 − P10 )x2 + P10
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 𝑃20
PT = P1 + P2 Vapour
}Raoults Law
= P10x1 + P20 x2 pressure
𝑃2 = 𝑃20 𝑥2
𝑃10
Pi = yi PTotal }𝐃𝐚𝐥𝐭𝐨𝐧′ 𝐬 𝐥𝐚𝐰 𝑃1 = 𝑃10 𝑥1

P1 = y1 PT , P2 = y2 PT
𝑥1 =1 0.5 0
𝑥2 =0 0.5 1
P1 P2
PT = PT =
y1 y2

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 solution
Questions
Raoult’s law

1. The vapour pressure of pure liquid A and B are 450mm and 700mm Hg at 350k
respectively. Find out the composition of the liquid mixture if total vapour
pressure is 600mm Hg. Also find the composition of vapour phase.
[𝐱𝐀 =0.4, 𝐱𝐁 =0.6, 𝐲𝐀 =0.3, 𝐲𝐁 =0.7]

2. Vapour pressure of chloroform (CHCl3) and dichloromethane (CH2Cl2) at 298k

is 200mm Hg and 415mm Hg respectively:-
i. Calculate the vapour pressure of the solution prepared by mixing 25.5g of
CHCl3 and 40g of CH2Cl2 at 298k. [ 𝐏𝐓 = 𝟑𝟒𝟕. 𝟗 𝐦𝐦 𝐇𝐠 ]

ii. Mole fraction of each component in vapour phase. [𝐲𝐀 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖 , 𝐲𝐁 =0.82]

3. Benzene and C10H8 form ideal solution on over the entire range of composition.
The vapour pressure of pure benzene and naphthalene at 300k are 50.71mm Hg
and 32.06mm Hg respectively. Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in vapour
phase if 80g benzene is mixed with 100g of naphthalene. [𝐏𝐓 =42.62 mm Hg,
𝐲𝟏 =0.674, 𝐲𝟐 =0.325]

4. Heptane and octane form ideal solution. At 373k the vapour pressures of the
two liquid components are 105.2 kpa and 46.8 kpa respectively. What will be
the vapour pressure of a mixture of 25g of heptane and 35.0g of octane?
[𝐏𝐓 =73Pa, x(heptane)=0.456, x(octane )=0.544 ]

5. Two liquids A and B form ideal solutions. At 300k, the vapour pressure of a
solution containing 1 mole of A and 3 moles of B is 550mm Hg. At the same
temperature if one mole of B is added to this solution, the vapour pressure of
the solution increase by 10mm Hg. Determine the vapour pressure of A and B
in their pure states. [ 𝐏𝐀𝟎 =400 mm Hg, 𝐏𝐁𝟎 =600 mm Hg]

Solutions are of two types

1. Ideal solutions
2. Non – ideal solutions

Ideal / nearly Ideal solution

Solutions which obey Raoult’s law over all concentration values.
For such solutions AB – AB interactions are comparable to A-A & B-B interactions.
AA & BB  AB - AB
eg:- hexane – hexane  heptane – heptane hexane –heptane

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 solution
Non – Ideal solution (AA & BB ≠ AB – AB)

Positive deviations Negative deviations

From Raoult’s law From Raoult’s law
AA & BB > AB - AB AA & BB < AB - AB

Solutions Showing Positive deviation From Raoult’s Law

For such solutions ABAB interactions are weaker than AA&BB interactions and hence
following are the consequences:-
1. Escaping tendency is higher.
2. Partial vapour pressure of each
component and hence total vapour
pressure of the solution is greater than
the ideal value i.e. the value expected on 𝑃20
𝑃𝑇
Vapour
the basis of Raoult’s law. pressure
= 𝑃1
3. Boiling point is lower i.e with respect to 0 +𝑃2 𝑃2
𝑃1 = 𝑃20 𝑥2
ideal solution. 𝑃1
= 𝑃10 𝑥1
4. ΔVm = Vf – Vi> 0
Vf> Vi
ΔVm is positive 𝑥1 =1 0.5 0
5. ΔHm is positive i.e. (Endothermic in 𝑥2 =0 0.5 1
nature)

Solution Showing Negative Deviation From Raoult’s Law

For such solutions AB-AB interactions are stronger than AA & BB interactions and

hence following are the consequences:-

i. Escaping tendency is lower.
ii. Vapour pressure is lower.
iii. Boiling point is higher. 𝑃20
𝑃𝑇
Vapour
iv. ΔVm is negative:- pressure
= 𝑃1
ΔVm = Vf – Vi< 0 + 𝑃2
𝑃10 𝑃2
Vf< Vi = 𝑃20 𝑥2
v. ΔHm is negative i.e (Exothermic is 𝑃1
= 𝑃10 𝑥1
nature)
𝑥1 =1 0.5 0
𝑥2 =0 0.5
1

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 solution
Q 1. What type of deviation is shown by solutions of (a) ethanol and acetone (b)
CS2 and CH3 COCH3 (c) phenol and aniline (d) chloroform and acetone.
(a) In pure ethanol, molecules are hydrogen bonded. On adding acetone, its molecules
get in between the host molecules and break some of the hydrogen bonds between
them. Due to weakening of interaction, the solution shows positive deviation from
Raoult’s law
(b) In a solution formed by adding carbon disulphide to acetone, the dipolar interactions
between solute-solvent molecules are weaker than the respective interactions among
the solute - solute and solvent-solvent molecules. This solution also shows positive
deviation.
(c) In a mixture of phenol and aniline. The intermolecular hydrogen bonding between
phenolic proton and lone pair on nitrogen atom of aniline is stronger than the
respective intermolecular hydrogen bonding between similar molecules, hence it
shows negative deviation.
(d) Similarly, a mixture of chloroform and acetone forms a solution with negative
deviation from Raoult’s law. This is because chloroform molecule is able to form
hydrogen bond with acetone molecule .

Q. 2. Define Azeotropic mixture?

Ans. Azeotropic mixture is a binary liquid mixture having same composition in liquid
and vapour phase and boil at a constant temperature.
Azeotropes are the solutions which distills without any change in composition. In such
azeotropic mixture, it is not possible to separate the components by fractional
distillation.
There are two types of Azeotropes:
i. Minimum boiling Azerotrope:- This is formed by the solutions showing positive
deviations from Raoult’s law.
Example: C2 H5 OH+H2O (95% +5%)
ii. Maximum boiling Azeotrope:- This is formed by the solutions showing negative
deviations from Raoult’s law.
Example: HNO3 + H2 O (68% +32%)

Q. 3. Give one example of a

i. Minimum boiling Azeotrope
ii. Maximum boiling Azeotrope.
Ans:- (i) Ethanol-water system (95% + 5%)
(ii) HNO3 + H2 O (68% +32%)
Q.4. (a) When 50ml of ethyl bromide is mixed with 50ml of ethyl iodide, the
resulting solution was found to be 100ml. what do you think of the ideality of this
solution?
b) When 50ml of ethanol and 50ml of water are mixed at 25°C, the temperature of
solution dropped slightly. How do you account for its ideality?
Ans:- (a) Total volume of ethyl bromide + ethyl iodide = 50+50 = 100ml.
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 solution
Total volume of solution = 100ml.
There is no change in volume on mixing. Hence, the solution behaves ideally.

b) During the formation of ethanol-water solution ΔH is positive (because heat is

absorbed), so the solution shows a positive deviation from ideality.

Q. 5. When 50ml of sulphuric acid and 50ml of water are mixed at 25ºC, the
temperature rose by a few degrees. What do you think of the ideality of this
solution?

Solid in liquid solution

Solutions having non-volatile solute in a volatile solvent.
Psolvent = P10x1 Psolute = P20 x2

For such solutions P20 = 0, since non-volatile solute doesn’t have partial vapour
pressure.
PT = P1 + P2
= P1
= P10 x1
Psolution= P1 = P10 x1

Vapour 𝑃10
pressure 𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑙 = 𝑃10 𝑥1

𝑥1 =1 0.5 1
Mole fraction

For any solution the partial vapour pressure of each volatile component of that
solution is directly proportional to the mole fraction of such component in that solution.
Psol = P1 = P10 x1
for such solution, x1 < 1
P1 < P10

It implies that there is lowering of vapour pressure when a non- volatile solute is
added to a volatile solvent.

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 solution
Reason:-
When a non- volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent, a part of surface of
solution is occupied by non- volatile solute i.e there is decrease in number of volatile
solvent particles at surface, hence there is decrease in vapour pressure due to such
volatile solvent particles.
This decrease in vapour pressure of solvent/ solution depends upon the
quantity/number of moles/ number of molecules of non-volatile solute irrespective
of their nature.

Colligative properties

These are properties of ideal solution of non-volatile solute in a volatile solvent

which depend upon the number of particles of non-volatile solute relative to total
number of particles present in solution. These are not dependent upon nature of non-
volatile solute particles.

1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure (RLVP)

Psolution = P1 = P10 x1
Psol = P1 = P10(1 − x2 )
P1= P10 − P10x2
P10 − P10 x2 =P1
0
𝑃0 − P1 =P1 𝑃0 𝑥
1 1 2

Lowering of vapour pressure = ΔP = 𝐏𝟏𝟎 − P1

P10 − P1 P o solvent − Psolution

= = X 2 (non − volatile solute)
P10 P o solvent

i.e RLVP of a solution of non-volatile solute in a volatile solvent is equal to the mole
fraction of non-volatile solute.

P10 − P1 n2 nN.V.S
RLVP = = X 2 = ≈ (∵ n1 ≫ n2 )n1 + n2 ≈ n1
P10 n1 + n2 nsolvent

𝐏𝟏𝟎 − 𝐏𝟏 𝐧𝟐 𝐖𝟐 𝐌𝟏
𝐑𝐋𝐕𝐏 = = = ×
𝐏𝟏𝟎 𝐧𝟏 𝐌𝟐 𝐖𝟏

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 solution
2. Elevation of Boiling point

∆Tb = Tb′ - Tb
Elevation in boiling point = B. pt of [Link] of solvent
From experiments:-
∆Tb ∝ m
∆Tb =kb m
kb : Molal Elevation Constant/[Link] Elevation 1atm Or 1.013 bar
Constant/Ebullioscopic Constant
∆Tb = kb m Vapour
For 1 molal solution i.e m=1mol/kg pressure Solvent
Solution
kb = ∆Tb ∆𝑻𝒃
i.e kb is equal to elevation of boiling point
for one molal solution i.e solution having one
mole of non- volatile solute in 1kg of solvent. 𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑏′

𝐑 𝐓𝐛𝟐 (𝐌𝐌)𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭
𝐤𝐛 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × (∆𝐕𝐚𝐩)𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭
R= 8.314 J/mol.k
Tb = B. pt of solvent.

∆Tb =kb m
n2
m =
w1 (in kg)
𝐧𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞
∆𝐓𝐛 = 𝐤𝐛
𝐰𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭(𝐢𝐧 𝐤𝐠)

(kb )H2 O = 0.52 kkg/mol .

3. Depression of freeing point

Freezing point is the temperature at which liquid and solid forms of substance have
some vapour pressure value i.e. solid and liquid forms exists in equilibrium with each
other.
∆ TF = TF − TF′

Depression of freezing point = F. pt of solvent - F. pt of solution

From experiments:-
∆ TF ∝ m
∆ TF = kf m
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K f ∶molal depression constant/ freezing point depression constant/ cryoscopic constant
K f is equal to depression of freering point for one molal solution.
∆ TF = kf m
For1molal solution, m = 1 mol/kg
∆ 𝑻𝑭 = 𝒌𝒇

𝐑 𝐓𝐅 𝟐 (𝐌. 𝐌)𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭
𝐤𝐟 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × (∆𝐅𝐮𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐇)𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭

k
(kb )H2 O = 1.86 or1.86 k. kg /mol
molal

∆ TF = kf m
𝐧𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞
∆ 𝐓𝐅 = 𝐤𝐟
𝐰𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭 (𝐢𝐧 𝐤𝐠)

4. Osmotic pressure (π)

π=MRT
nsolute
M=
Vsolution (inL)
nsolute
π= RT
Vsolution (inL)
𝐧𝟐
π= RT
𝐕𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝐢𝐧 𝐋)

R = 0.082 L atm/ mol K

T = temperature in kelvin’s

Osmosis and Osmotic pressure

Semipermeable membranes:-
These are the membranes which allow only the movement of the solvent
molecules through them and not of solute molecules. These may be either naturally
occurring such as parchment, cellophane, bladder of goat or pig and some other cell
membranes.

Osmosis:-
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The spontaneous movement of the solvent molecules either from pure solvent
into the solution or from dilute solution in to the concentrated solution through a
semipermeable membrane.

Osmotic pressure:-
The external pressure that has to be applied on the solution to prevent the
osmosis of the solvent into it through a semipermeable membrane.
Osmotic pressure is normally indicated as π in order to distinguish it from atmospheric
pressure which is represented as P.

Isotonic, Hypertonic and Hypotonic solutions

1. Isotonic Solutions:- The solutions which have same osmotic pressure are called as
isotonic solutions. For example, 0.90% solution of NaCl called as Saline water is
Isotonic with Human blood corpuscles i.e. why medicines are mixed with saline
water before intravenous injections.
2. Hypertonic and Hypotonic Solution:- The solution which has more osmotic
pressure than the other solution is called as hypertonic solution and the solution
which has lesser osmotic pressure than the other is called as Hypotonic solution.
 The flow of solvent is always from lower osmotic pressure to higher osmotic
pressure i.e from hypotonic to hypertonic solution.

Types of Osmosis
a. Exo-osmosis:- The outward osmotic flow of water from a cell containing an
aqueous solution through a semi-permeable membrane is called as exo-osmosis. For
example, egg (after removing hard shell) placed in NaCl solutions, will shrink due to
exo-osmosis.
b. Endo-osmosis:- The inward flow of water into the cell containing an aqueous
solution through a semi-permeable membrane is called as endo-osmosis, e.g. an egg
placed in water swells up due to endo-osmosis.

1. Why a great care is taken during intravenous injection to have comparable

concentration of solutions to be injected to that of blood plasma?
Ans:- when isotonic solution of saline water is injected into blood, blood corpuscles
remain in their normal size. When a hypertonic solution is injected into blood plasma,
the solvent comes out of blood corpuscles and they shrink and when a hypotonic
solutions is injected, the solvent moves into blood corpuscles and they swell up and
may burst. To avoid above two conditions, a great care is taken during intravenous
injections.
2. Which colligative property is preferred for the molar mass determination of
macromolecules?
Ans:- Osmotic pressure measurement is preferred over all other colligative properties
because
i. Even in solutions the osmotic pressure value are appreciably high and can be
measured.
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ii. Osmotic pressure can be measured at room temperature. This technique of
osmotic pressure determination is particularly useful for bimolecules like proteins
are generally not stable at higher temp.

3. Outer hard shells of two eggs are removed. One of the eggs is placed in pure
water and the other is placed in saturated solution of sodium chloride. What
will be observed and why?
Ans:- The egg placed in water will swell due to osmosis of pure water into the egg. On
the other hand, the egg placed in saturated solution of NaCl will shrink due to osmosis
of water out of the egg. This is because osmosis always occurs from: hypotonic to
hypertonic solution.

Colligative properties of Ionic solutions (Abnormal Molecular Masses or vant

hoff’ s factor)
Molecular masses of non-volatile solute calculated from colligative properties
(observed molecular masses) are sometimes not accurate, i.e, these do not agree with
actual values (normal molecular masses). This is attributed to following reasons:
1. Solution may not behave as an ideal solution, (i.e it may not be a dilute solution).
2. Association of molecule of solute.
3. Dissociation of molecule of solute.

Dissociation:-
Inorganic acids and ionic solutes undergo dissociation in aqueous medium. They
form cations and anions in the solutions. For example, when KCl is dissolved in water;
it exists as K + and Cl− ions in solution. As a result, the number of effective solute
particles increases and therefore the colligative properties of such solutions are much
higher than those calculated on the basis of undissociated single molecule. As a result,
the molecular mass calculated in such cases will be lower than the actual value.

Association:-
There are certain organic molecules (like acids) which forms dimers (or trimers)
in non-aqueous solutions. In solution of such solutes, there exists single, double and
larger associated molecules. Hence the effective number of molecules decreases and as
a result of that colligative properties are less than that calculated on the basis of single
molecule. So the molecular masses calculated by using colligative properties will be
higher than actual for example, acetic acid in benzene, benzoic acid in benzene.

In 1880 vant Hoff introduced a factor i, known as the vant Hoff factor, to
account for the extent of dissociation or association. This factor i is defined as:
Normal molar mass (actual M. M)
i=
Abnormal molar mass(M. M)
Observed colligative property
=
calculated colligative property

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Total number of moles of particles after association/dissociation
i=
Number of moles of particles before association/dissociation

Here abnormal molar mass is the experimentally determined molar mass and
calculated colligative properties are obtained by assuming that the non-volatile solute is
neither associated nor dissociated. In case of association, value of i is less than unity
while for dissociation it is greater than unity. For example, the value of i for aqueous
KCl solution is close to 2, while the value for ethanoic acid in benzene is nearly 0.5.
Inclusion of vant Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative
properties as follows:

Relative lowering of vapour pressure of solvent (RLVP)

𝐏𝟏𝟎 − 𝐏𝟏 𝐧𝟐
= 𝐢
𝐏𝟏𝟎 𝐧𝟏
Elevation of Boiling point, ∆𝐓𝐛 = 𝐢 𝐊 𝐛𝐦
Depression of Freezing point, ∆𝐓𝐅 = 𝐢 𝐊𝐟 𝐦
Osmotic pressure of solution, 𝛑 = 𝐢 𝐌𝐑𝐓

Raoult Law as special case of Henry’s Law

According to Raoult’s Law, vapour pressure of volatile component in solution is:

PA = PAO xA ⟹ PA ∝ xA − − − −(i)
According to Henry’s law, when gas is dissolved in liquid solution,
p = KHx Pg ∝ xg − − − −(ii)
On examining the above two laws, it is quite clear that partial pressures of
volatile components are directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution.
Proportionality constants PAO and K H differ. Incase PAO becomes equal to K H then
Raoult’s law becomes a special case of Henry’s law.

Reverse Osmosis for water purification

In case the pressure applied to solution is large than the osmotic pressure then
direction of osmosis can be reversed called reverse osmosis. In this case pure solvent
flows out of solution through semipermeable membrane. This means by using reverse
osmosis one can remove salts from solution to obtain pure water. Hence, for
desalination of sea water, this method is used at industrial scale. Various polymeric
membranes have been employed for this purpose such as cellulose acetate placed over a
suitable support. Cellulose acetate is permeable to water but impermeable to impurities
and ions present in sea water.

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Dissociation and Association
Solved Questions

1. Ethyl alcohol and water cannot be separated into pure components by

fractional distillation?
Ans:- Ethyl alcohol and water cannot be separated into pure components by fractional
distillation because these form an azeotropic mixture which distills without change in
composition at a constant temperature.

2. Name the solid that separates first when salt water is slowly frozen.
Ans:- Ice, because [Link]. of salt solution is less so firstly solvent i.e water freezes and ice
seperates out first.

3. What is antifreeze? Which substance is used as an antifreeze?

Ans:- Antifreeze is a substance used in radiator of an internal combustion engine to
lower the freezing point of the cooling medium. Ethylene glycol is used as antifreeze.

4. In cold countries, ethylene glycol is added to water in radiators of cars during

winters why?
Ans:- This results in lowering of freezing point of water and now the water does not
freeze at 0ºC. Hence it protects the bursting of radiator.

5. If glycerin [C3 H5 (OH)3)] and methyl alcohols CH3OH are sold at the same
price per kg which would be cheaper for preparing an antifreeze solution for
the radiator of a car?
Ans:- Methyl alcohol (CH3OH) is cheaper since it has a lower molecular weight and a
given mass of CH3OH contains more moles i.e. higher molality. Its freezing point will
be less (∵ ∆Tf , more) and it is cheaper.

6. Why is sodium chloride or anhydrous CaCl2 used to clear snow on roads?

Ans:- Common salt (NaCl) or CaCl2 depresses the freezing point of snow and changes
it to liquid. This prevents the blockage of roads.

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 solution
Questions
Colligative property
1. Vapour pressure of pure water at 298k is 23.8mmHg. 50g of urea (NH 2 CO
NH2) is dissolved in 850 g of water. Calculate the vapour pressure of water for
this solution and its relative lowering. [RLVP=0.017, P(𝐇𝟐 O) =23.4mm Hg]

2. Boiling point of water at 750mm Hg is 99.63°C. How much sucrose is to be

added to 500g of water such that it boils at 100ºC. [𝐖𝟐 =121.6 g]

3. The vapour pressure of water is 12.3 kpa at 300k. Calculate the vapour
pressure of 1molal solution of a non-volatile solute in it. [P=12.08 Kpa ]

4. The vapour pressure of pure benzene at a certain temperature is 0.850 bar. A

non-volatile, non-electrolyte solid weighing 0.5 g when added to 39.0 g of
benzene (molar mass 78 g/mol). Vapour pressure of the solution, then, is 0.845
bar. What is the molar mass of the solid substance? [𝐌𝟐 = 170 g/mol]

5. 1.00 g of a non-electrolyte solute dissolved in 50 g of benzene lowered the

freezing point of benzene by 0.40 K. The freezing point depression constant of
benzene is 5.12 K kg/mol. Find the molar mass of the solute.
[𝐌𝟐 = 256 g/mol]

6. 200 cm3 of an aqueous solution of a protein contains 1.26 g of the protein. The
osmotic pressure of such a solution at 300 K is found to be 2.57 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 bar.
Calculate the molar mass of the protein. [𝐌𝟐 =61,022 g/mol]

7. Calculate the mass of Ascorbic acid (vitamin C6 H8 O6) to be dissolved in 75g of

acetic acid to lower it melting point by 1.5°C.𝐤 𝐟 =3.9k kg/mol. [𝐖𝟐 =5.072g]

8. A normal freezing point of nitrobenzene(C6 H5 NO2) is 278.82k. A 0.25molal

solution of a certain solute in nitro benzene causes a freezing point depression
of 2degree. Calculate the value of kf for nitrobenzene. [𝐊𝐟 =8.0Kkg/mol]

9. Calculate the osmotic pressure in pascals exerts by a solution prepared by

dissolving 1.0g of polymer of molar mass 185,000 in 450ml of water at 37ºC.
[π=30.96 pa]

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 solution
10. Two elements A and B form compounds having formula AB2 and AB4. When
dissolved in 20g of benzene (C6H6), 1g of AB2 lowers the freezing point by 2.3k
whereas 1g of AB4 lowers it by 1.3k. the molar depression constant for benzene
is 5.1K kg /mol. Calculate atomic masses of A and B. [A=25.59 g, B=42.64 g]

11. A solution containing 30g of non-volatile Solute exactly in 90g of water has a
vapour pressure of 2.8kPa at 298k. Further, 18g of water is then added to the
solution and the new vapor pressure becomes 2.9 k Pa at 298k. calculate:

i. Molar mass of the solute [M=23g/mol ]

ii. Vapour pressure of water at 298k. [ 𝐏𝟎 =3.53Kpa ]

12. The freezing point of pure nitrobenzene is 278.8k. when 2.5g of an unknown
substance is dissolved in 100g of nitrobenzene, the freeing point of the solution
is found to be 276.8k. If the freezing point depression constant of nitrobenzene
is 8.0K kg/mol. What is the molar mass of the unknown substance? [𝐌𝟐 =100
g/mol ]

13. Calculate the mass of a non-volatile solute exactly which should be dissolved in
114g of octane to reduce its vapour pressure to 80%. (M.M of non-volatile
solute=50g/mol) [W=10g ]

14. A solution containing 18g of non-volatile solute in 200g of water freezes at

272.07k. Calculate the molecular mass of solute. (given kf = 1.86k/m) [𝐌𝟐 =180
g/mol ]

15. A solution containing 2.56g of sulphur in 100g of carbon disulphide gave a

freezing point lowering of 0.383k. calculate the molecular formula of sulphur
(kf for CS2 is 3.83 K kg/mol). atomic mass of S=32amu [ 𝐒𝟖 ]

16. An aqueous solution freezes at 272.4K, while pure water freezes at 273.0k.
determine:
i. Molality of solution [m=0.322m ]
ii. Boiling point of solution [Boiling point =373.16 K ]

17. A 5% solution of cane sugar has freezing point of 271K. calculate the freezing
point of 5% glucose, if freezing point of pure sugar is 273.15K.
[ Freezing point= 269.06 K ]

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 solution
18. The molal freezing point depression constant of benzene (C6 H6)is 4.90K kg/mol.
Selenium exist as a polymer of the type 𝐬𝐞𝐧 . When 3.26g of selenium is
dissolved in 226g of benzene, the observed freezing point is 0.112°C lower than
for pure benzene. Deduce the molecular formula of selenium.(atomic mass of se
=78.8g/mol) [𝐒𝐞𝟖 ]

19. Vapour pressure of water at 293k is 17.523 mm Hg. Calculate the vapour
pressure of water at 293k when25g of glucose is dissolved in 450g of water.
[ P=17.44 mm Hg]

Dissociation and Association

Unsolved Questions

1. Determine the osmotic pressure of a solution prepared by dissolving 25mg of

K2SO4 in 2litre of water at 25ºC, assuming that it is completely dissociated.
[𝛑=5.27 x𝟏𝟎−𝟑mm Hg ]

2. Determine the amount of CaCl2 (i = 2.47) dissolved in 2.5 litre of water such
that its osmotic pressure is 0.75 atm at 27°C. [𝐖𝟐 =3.42 g]

3. 2g of benzoic acid (C6 H5COOH) dissolved in 25g of benzene shows a depression

in freezing point equal to 1.62K, molal depression constant for benzene is 4.9K
kg/mol. What is the percentage association of acid if it forms dimer in solution?
[% association=99.16% ]

4. Calculate the depression in the freezing point of water when 10g of CH3CH2CH
Cl COOH is added to 250g of water ka = 1.410-3, kf = 1.86 k kg/mol.
[Depression in f.p =𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟎 C ]

5. 0.6ml of acetic acid (CH3COOH), having density 1.06g/ml is dissolved in 1litre

of water. The depression in freezing point observed for this strength of acid was
0.0205°C. Calculate the unit vant Hoff’s factor and the dissociation constant of
acid. [ i=1.041 ,𝐊𝐚 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟔𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟓 ]

6. Will elevation in boiling point be same for 0.5MNaCl and 0.5M sucrose
solution?

7. What is the value of vant Hoff’s factor for a dilute solution of K2SO4 in water.
[i=3]

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8. What is expected value of vant Hoff’s factor for K3[Fe(CN)6] in dilute solution?
[i=4]

9. Calculate the freezing point of an aqueous solution containing 10.50g of MgBr2

in 200g of water (molar mass of MgBr2= 184g) [ 𝐓𝐟 =272.14 K ]

10. Calculate the boiling point of a solution prepared by adding 15g of NaCl to
250g of water. [ 𝐓𝐛 =375.05 K ]

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 solution
Miscellaneous Questions

1. Methanol is a crystalline substance with pepermint taste. A 6.2% solution of

methanol in cyclohexane freezes at –1.95°C. Determine the formula mass of
methanol. The freezing point and molal depression constant of cyclohexane are
6.5°C and 20.2k/m respectively. [ 𝐌𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟖 𝐠/𝐦𝐨𝐥 ]

2. A solution of glycerol (C3H8O3) in water was prepared by dissolving some

glycerol in 500g of water. This solution has a boiling point of 100.42°C while
pure water boils at 100°C. What mass of glycerol was dissolved to make the
solution? [ 𝐖𝟐 = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟏𝟓𝐠]

3. A solution prepared by dissolving 8.95mg of a gene fragments in 350ml of water

has an osmotic pressure of 0.335 torr at 25°C. Assuming the gene fragment is a
non-electrolyte, determine its molar-mass. [ 𝐌𝟐 =14374 g/mol ]

4. What would be the molar mass of a compound if 6.21g of it is dissolved in 24g

of chloroform to form a solution that has a boiling point of 68.04°C. The boiling
point of pure chloroform is 61.7°C and the boiling point elevation constant, kb
for chloroform is 3.63° C/m. [ 𝐌𝟐 =148 u ]

5. What mass of NaCl must be dissolved in 65g of water to lower the freezing
point of water by 7.50°C.? The freezing point depression constant of water is
1.86°C/m. assume that vant Hoff’s factor for NaCl is 1.87. [ 𝐖𝟐 =8.177 g ]

6. A solution prepared by dissolving 1.25g of oil of winter green in 99g of benzene

has a boiling point of 80.31°C. Determine the molar mass of this compound.
(B.P of pure benzene = 80.10°C and kb for benzene = 2.53C kg/mol).
[ 𝐌𝟐 =152.12 g/mol ]

7. 15g of an unknown molecular material was dissolved in 450g of water. The

resulting solution was found to freeze at – 0.34°C. What is the molar mass of
this material? [ 𝐌𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖𝟐. 𝟑𝟓𝐠/𝐦𝐨𝐥]

8. A 1 molal aqueous solution of tri chloroacetic acid is heated to its boiling point.
The solution has the boiling point of 100.18°c. Determine the van’t Hoff factor
for tri chloroacetic acid. (kb for water = 0.512Kkg/mol). [i=0.35]

9. The vapour pressure of water is 12.3kPa at 300k. Calculate the vapour pressure
of 1molal solution of a non- volatile solute in it. [P=12.08KPa]

10. An aqueous solution of 2% non-volatile solute exerts a pressure of 1.004 bar at

the normal boiling point of the solvent. What is the molar mass of the solute?
[ 𝐌𝟐 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟑𝟒𝐠/𝐦𝐨𝐥]

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11. State the formula relating pressure of a gas with its mole fraction in a liquid
solution in contact with it.

12. Calculate the mass percentage of aspirin (C9H8O4) in acetonitrile (CH3CN)

when 6.5g of C9H8O4 is dissolved in 450g of CH3CN. [mass%=1.42%]

13. Which will have higher boiling point, 0.1M NaCl or 0.1M BaCl2 solution in
water.

14. A solution A is obtained by dissolving 1g of urea in 100g of water and solution

B is obtained by dissolving, 1g of glucose in 100g of water. Which solution will
have a higher boiling point and why?

15. What are isotonic solutions?

16. What are the values of ΔH and ΔV for positive deviation from ideality?

17. What are hypertonic and hypotonic solutions?

18. State how does osmotic pressure changes with temperature?

19. Calculate molarity and molality of a 13% solution of sulphuric acid. Its density
is 1.020g/cm3.

20. What are maximum and minimum boiling azeotrope? Give example.

21. What is an Azeotropic mixture?

22. Why is an increase in temperature observed on mixing chloroform and

acetone?

23. State Henry’s law and mention some important applications?

[Link] is meant by positive and negative deviations from Raoult's law and how
is the sign of ΔmixH related to positive and negative deviations from Raoult's law?

24. Calculate the amount of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) required for preparing 250
mL of 0.15 M solution in methanol.\
25. 100 g of liquid A (molar mass 140 g/mol) was dissolved in 1000 g of liquid B
(molar mass 180 g/mol). The vapour pressure of pure liquid B was found to be
500 torr. Calculate the vapour pressure of pure liquid A and its vapour
pressure in the solution if the total vapour pressure of the solution is 475 torr.

26. Give an example of a solid solution in which the solute is a gas.

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CBSE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Non-ideal solutions exhibit either positive or negative deviations from Raoult’s

law. What are these deviations and why are they caused? Explain with one
example for each type?

2. A solution prepared by dissolving 1∙25g of oil of winter green (methyl salicylate)

in 99g of benzene has a boiling point of 80.31°C. Determine the molar mass of
this compound. (B.P of pure benzene = 80.10°C and Kb for benzene = 2.53°C kg
mol-1)

3. State the following:-

i. (a) Henry’s Law about partial pressure of a gas in a mixture.
(b) Raoult’s Law in its general form in reference to solution.
ii. A solution prepared by dissolving8.95 mg of a gene fragment in 35ml of water
has an osmotic pressure of 0.335 torr at 25°C. Assuming the gene fragment is a
non-electrolyte, determine its molar mass.

4. (i) Differentiate between molarity and molality of a solution. What is the effect
of temperature change on molarity and molality in solution?
(ii) What should be the molar mass of compound if 6.21g of it is dissolved in 24g
of chloroform form a solution that has a boiling point of 68.04°C. The boiling point
of pure chloroform is 61.7°C and the boiling point elevation constant, K b for
chloroform is 3.63°C/m.

5. (i) Difference between molarity and molality for a solution.

How does a change in temperature influence their values?
(ii) Calculate the freezing point of an aqueous solution containing 10.50g of
MgBr2 in 200g of water. (molar mass of MgBr2 = 184g) (kf for water = 1.86 k
kg/mol.

6. (i) Define the term osmosis and osmotic pressure. Is the osmotic pressure of a
solution a colligative property? Explain.
(ii) Calculate the boiling point of a solution prepared by adding 15g of NaCl
to250g of water. (kb for water = 0.512 k kg/mol, molar mass of NaCl = 58.44g)

7. a) State Raoult’s law for a solution containing volatile components .How does
Raoult’s law become a special case of Henry’s law?
b)1∙00g of a non-electrolyte solute dissolved in 50g of benzene lowered the freezing
point of benzene by 0∙[Link] the molar mass of the solute.

8. a) Define the following terms:

i. ideal solution
ii. Azeotrope
iii. osmotic pressure
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 solution
b)A solution of glucose (C6 H12O6)in water is labelled as 10% by weight. What
would be the molality of the solution?
(molar mass of glucose=180g/mol)

9. What are isotonic solutions?

10. Calculate the mass of compound (molar mass = 256 g mol – 1) to be dissolved in
75g of benzene to lower its freezing point by 0.48K (K f = 5.12K kg mol- 1).
11. Define an ideal solution and write one of its characteristics.
12. Some liquids on mixing form ‘azeotropes’. What are ‘azeotropes’?
13. State Raoult’s law for the solution containing volatile components. What is the
similarity between Raoult’s law and Henry’s law?
14. What is meant by positive deviations from Raoult’s law? Give an example.
What is the sign of ∆mix H for positive deviation?
15. 3.9g of benzoic acid dissolved in 49g of benzene shows a depression in freezing
point of 1.62K. Calculate the Vant hoff ’s factor and predict the nature of solute
(associated or dissociated).
[Given: Molar mass of benzoic acid = 122gmol – 1, Kf for benzene = 4.9 K kg mol
–1
)]
16. (a) Calculate the freezing point of solution when 1.9g of MgCl 2 (M = 95g mol- 1)
was dissolved in 50g of water, assuming MgCl2 undergoes complete ionization.
(Kf for water = 1.86 K kg mol – 1).
(b) (i) Out of 1M glucose and 2M glucose, which one has a higher boiling point
and why?
(ii) What happens when the external pressure applied becomes more than the
osmotic pressure of solution?

17. (a) When 2.56g of sulphur was dissolved in 100g of CS2, the freezing point
lowered by 0.383 K. calculate the formula of sulphur (Sx).
(Kf for CS2 = 3.83 K kg mol- 1, Atomic mass of Sulphur = 32g mol- 1)
(b) Blood cells are isotonic with 0.9% sodium chloride solution. What happens
if we place blood cells in a solution containing?
(i) 1.2% sodium chloride solution?
(ii) 0.4% sodium chloride solution?

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